Thetemporarytaxofapitcherofwineforeveryacre，[37]whichwasoneoftheexactionsofChilpericandFredegonda，relatedonlytotheRomans。AndindeeditwasnottheFranksthattoretherollsofthosetaxes，buttheclergy，whointhosedayswereallRomans。[38]Theburdenofthistaxlaychieflyontheinhabitantsofthetowns；[39]nowthesewerealmostallinhabitedbyRomans。
　　GregoryofToursrelates[40]thatacertainjudgewasobliged，afterthedeathofChilperic，totakerefugeinachurch，forhavingunderthereignofthatprinceorderedtaxestobeleviedonseveralFrankswhointhereignofChildebertwereingenui，orfree—born：MultosdeFrancis，quitemporeChildebertiregisingenuifuerant，publicotributosubegit。
　　ThereforetheFrankswhowerenotbondmenpaidnotaxes。
　　ThereisnotagrammarianbutwouldturnpaletoseehowtheAbbéduBoshasinterpretedthispassage。[41]Heobservesthatinthosedaysthefreedmenwerealsocalledingenui。UponthissuppositionherenderstheLatinwordingenui，bythewords"freedfromtaxes"；aphrasewhichweindeedmayuseinFrench，aswesay"freedfromcares，""freedfrompunishments"；butintheLatintonguesuchexpressionsasingenuiatributis，libertiniatributis，manumissitributorum，wouldbequitemonstrous。
　　Parthenius，saysGregoryofTours，[42]hadliketohavebeenputtodeathbytheFranksforsubjectingthemtotaxes。TheAbbéduBosfindinghimselfhardpressedbythispassage[43]verycoollyassumesthethinginquestion；itwas，sayshe，asurcharge。
　　WefindinthelawoftheVisigoths[44]thatwhenaBarbarianhadseizedupontheestateofaRoman，thejudgeobligedhimtosellit，totheendthatthisestatemightcontinuetobetributary；consequentlytheBarbarianspaidnolandtaxes。[45]
　　TheAbbéduBos，[46]whowouldfainhavetheVisigothssubjectedtotaxes，[47]quitstheliteralandspiritualsenseofthelaw，andpretends，uponnootherindeedthananimaginaryfoundation，thatbetweentheestablishmentoftheGothsandthislaw，therehadbeenanaugmentationoftaxeswhichrelatedonlytotheRomans。ButnonebutFatherHarduinareallowedthustoexerciseanarbitrarypoweroverfacts。
　　Thislearnedauthor[48]hasrummagedJustinian’sCode[49]insearchoflawstoprovethat，amongtheRomans，themilitarybeneficesweresubjecttotaxes。WhencehewouldinferthatthesameheldgoodwithregardtofiefsorbeneficesamongtheFranks。ButtheopinionthatourfiefsderivetheiroriginfromthatInstitutionoftheRomansisatpresentexploded；itobtainedonlyatatimewhentheRomanhistory，notours，waswellunderstood，andourancientrecordslayburiedinobscurityanddust。
　　ButtheAbbéisinthewrongtoquoteCassiodorus，andtomakeuseofwhatwastransactinginItaly，andinthepartofGaulsubjecttoTheodoric，inordertoacquaintuswiththepracticeestablishedamongtheFranks；thesearethingswhichmustnotbeconfounded。Iproposetoshow，sometimeorother，inacertainwork，thattheplanofthemonarchyoftheOstrogothswasentirelydifferentfromthatofanyothergovernmentfoundedinthosedaysbytheotherBarbariannations；andthatsofarfromourbeingentitledtoaffirmthatapracticeobtainedamongtheFranksbecauseitwasestablishedamongtheOstrogoths，wehaveonthecontraryjustreasontothinkthatacustomoftheOstrogothswasnotinforceamongtheFranks。
　　Thehardesttaskforpersonsofextensiveeruditionistoseektheirproofsinsuchpassagesasbearuponthesubject，andtofind，ifwemaybeallowedtoexpressourselvesinastronomicalterms，thepositionofthesun。
　　Thesameauthormakesawronguseofthecapitularies，aswellasofthehistoriansandlawsofthebarbarousnations。WhenhewantstheFrankstopaytaxes，heappliestofreemenwhatcanbeunderstoodonlyofbondmen；[50]whenhespeaksoftheirmilitaryservice，heappliestobondmenwhatcanneverrelatebuttofreemen。[51]
　　13。OfTaxespaidbytheRomansandGaulsintheMonarchyoftheFranks。
　　Imighthereexaminewhether，aftertheGaulsandRomanswereconquered，theycontinuedtopaythetaxestowhichtheyweresubjectundertheemperors。But，forthesakeofbrevity，Ishallbesatisfiedwithobservingthat，iftheypaidtheminthebeginning，theyweresoonafterexempted，andthatthosetaxeswerechangedintoamilitaryservice。
　　For，Iconfess，IcanhardlyconceivehowtheFranksshouldhavebeenatfirstsuchgreatfriends，andafterwardssuchsuddenandviolentenemies，totaxes。
　　Acapitulary[52]ofLouistheDebonnaireexplainsextremelywellthesituationofthefreemeninthemonarchyoftheFranks。SometroopsofGothsorIberians，flyingfromtheoppressionoftheMoors，werereceivedintoLouis’dominions。Theagreementmadewiththemwasthat，likeotherfreemen，theyshouldfollowtheircounttothearmy；andthatuponamarchtheyshouldmountguardandpatrolunderthecommandalsooftheircount；andthattheyshouldfurnishhorsesandcarriagesforbaggagetotheking’scommissaries，[53]andtotheambassadorsintheirwaytoorfromcourt；andthattheyshouldnotbecompelledtopayanyfurtherimpost，butshouldbetreatedastheotherfreemen。
　　Itcannotbesaidthatthesewerenewusagesintroducedatthecommencementofthesecondrace。Thismustbereferredatleasttothemiddleortotheendofthefirst。Acapitularyoftheyear864[54]
　　saysinexpresstermsthatitwastheancientcustomforfreementoperformmilitaryservice，andtofurnishlikewisethehorsesandcarriagesabove—mentioned；dutiesparticulartothemselves，andfromwhichthosewhopossessedthefiefswereexempt，asIshallprovehereafter。
　　Thisisnotall；therewasaregulationwhichhardlypermittedtheimposingoftaxesonthosefreemen。[55]Hewhohadfourmanorswasobligedtomarchagainsttheenemy：[56]hewhohadbutthreewasjoinedwithafreemanthathadonlyone；thelatterborethefourthpartoftheother’scharges，andstayedathome。Inlikemanner，theyjoinedtwofreemenwhohadeachtwomanors；hewhowenttothearmyhadhalfhischargesbornebyhimwhostayedathome。
　　Again，wehaveaninfinitenumberofcharters，inwhichtheprivilegesoffiefsaregrantedtolandsordistrictspossessedbyfreemen，andofwhichIshallmakefurthermentionhereafter。[57]Theselandsareexemptedfromallthedutiesorserviceswhichwererequiredofthembythecounts，andbytherestoftheking’sofficers；andasalltheseservicesareparticularlyenumeratedwithoutmakinganymentionoftaxes，itismanifestthatnotaxeswereimposeduponthem。
　　ItwasverynaturalthattheRomansystemoftaxationshouldofitselffalloutofuseinthemonarchyoftheFranks；itwasamostcomplicateddevice，farabovetheconception，andwidefromtheplanofthosesimplepeople。WeretheTartarstooverrunEurope，weshouldfinditverydifficulttomakethemcomprehendwhatismeantbyourfinanciers。
　　TheanonymousauthorofthelifeofLouistheDebonnaire，[58]speakingofthecountsandotherofficersofthenationoftheFranks，whomCharlemagneestablishedinAquitania，says，thatheentrustedthemwiththecareofdefendingthefrontiers，asalsowiththemilitarypowerandthedirectionofthedemesnesbelongingtothecrown。Thisshowsthestateoftheroyalrevenuesunderthesecondrace。Theprincehadkepthisdemesnesinhisownhands，andemployedhisbondmeninimprovingthem。Buttheindictions，thecapitationsandotherimpostsraisedatthetimeoftheemperorsonthepersonsorgoodsoffreemenhadbeenchangedintoanobligationofdefendingthefrontiersandmarchingagainsttheenemy。
　　Inthesamehistory，[59]wefindthatLouistheDebonnaire，havingbeentowaituponhisfatherinGermany，thisprinceaskedhim，whyhe，whowasacrownedhead，cametobesopoor：towhichLouismadeanswerthathewasonlyanominalking，andthatthegreatlordswerepossessedofalmostallhisdemesnes；thatCharlemagne，beingapprehensivelestthisyoungprinceshouldforfeittheiraffection，ifheattemptedhimselftoresumewhathehadinconsideratelygranted，appointedcommissariestorestorethingstotheirformersituation。
　　Thebishops，writing[60]toLouis，brotherofCharlestheBald，usedthesewords："Takecareofyourlands，thatyoumaynotbeobligedtotravelcontinuallybythehousesoftheclergy，andtotiretheirbondmenwithcarriages。Manageyouraffairs，"continuethey，"insuchamannerthatyoumayhaveenoughtoliveupon，andtoreceiveembassies。"
　　Itisevidentthattheking’srevenuesinthosedaysconsistedoftheirdemesnes。[61]
　　14。OfwhattheycalledCensus。AftertheBarbarianshadquittedtheirowncountry，theyweredesirousofreducingtheirusagesintowriting；
　　butastheyfounddifficultyinwritingGermanwordswithRomanletters，theypublishedtheselawsinLatin。
　　Intheconfusionandrapidityoftheconquest，mostthingschangedtheirnature；inorder，however，toexpressthem，theywereobligedtomakeuseofsucholdLatinwordsasweremostanalogoustothenewusages。
　　Thus，whateverwaslikelytorevivetheideaoftheancientcensusoftheRomanstheycalledbythenameofcensustributum，[62]andwhenthingshadnorelationatalltotheRomancensus，theyexpressed，aswellastheycould，theGermanwordsbyRomanletters；thustheyformedthewordfredum，onwhichIshallhaveoccasiontodescantinthefollowingchapters。
　　Thewordscensusandtributumhavingbeenemployedinanarbitrarymanner，thishasthrownsomeobscurityonthesignificationinwhichthesewordswereusedunderourprincesofthefirstandsecondrace。
　　Andmodernauthors[63]whohaveadoptedparticularsystems，havingfoundthesewordsinthewritingsofthosedays，imaginedthatwhatwasthencalledcensuswasexactlythecensusoftheRomans；andthencetheyinferredthisconsequence，thatourkingsofthefirsttworaceshadputthemselvesintheplaceoftheRomanemperors，andmadenochangeintheiradministration。[64]Besides，asparticulardutiesraisedunderthesecondracewerebychangeandbycertainrestrictionsconvertedintoothers，[65]theyinferredthencethatthesedutieswerethecensusoftheRomans；andas，sincethemodernregulations，theyfoundthatthecrowndemesneswereabsolutelyunalienable，theypretendedthatthosedutieswhichrepresentedtheRomancensus，anddidnotformapartofthedemesnes，weremereusurpation。Iomittheotherconsequences。
　　Toapplytheideasofthepresenttimetodistantagesisthemostfruitfulsourceoferror。Tothosepeoplewhowanttomodernizealltheancientages，IshallsaywhattheEgyptianpriestssaidtoSolon，"O
　　Athenians，youaremerechildren！"[66]
　　15。ThatwhattheycalledCensuswasraisedonlyontheBondmenandnotontheFreemen。Theking，theclergy，andthelordsraisedregulartaxes，eachonthebondmenoftheirrespectivedemesnes。Iproveitwithrespecttotheking，bythecapitularydeVillis；withregardtotheclergy，bythecodesofthelawsoftheBarbarians[67]andinrelationtothelords，bytheregulationswhichCharlemagnemadeconcerningthissubject。[68]
　　Thesetaxeswerecalledcensus；theywereeconomicalandnotfiscalclaims，entirelyprivateduesandnotpublictaxes。
　　Iaffirmthatwhattheycalledcensusatthattimewasataxraiseduponthebondmen。ThisIprovebyaformularyofMarculfuscontainingapermissionfromthekingtoenterintoholyorders，providedthepersonsbefreeborn，[69]andnotenrolledintheregisterofthecensus。IproveitalsobyacommissionfromCharlemagnetoacount[70]whomhehadsentintoSaxony，whichcontainstheenfranchisementoftheSaxonsforhavingembracedChristianity，andisproperlyacharteroffreedom。[71]Thisprincerestoresthemtotheirformercivilliberty，[72]andexemptsthemfrompayingthecensus，Itwas，therefore，thesamethingtobeabondmanastopaythecensus，tobefreeasnottopayit。
　　ByakindofletterspatentofthesameprinceinfavouroftheSpaniards，[73]whohadbeenreceivedintothemonarchy，thecountsareforbiddentodemandanycensusofthem，ortodeprivethemoftheirlands。ThatstrangersupontheircomingtoFranceweretreatedasbondmenisathingwellknown；andCharlemagnebeingdesiroustheyshouldbeconsideredasfreemen，sincehewouldhavethembeproprietorsoftheirlands，forbadthedemandinganycensusofthem。
　　AcapitularyofCharlestheBald，[74]giveninfavourofthoseverySpaniards，ordersthemtobetreatedliketheotherFranks，andforbidstherequiringanycensusofthem；consequentlythiscensuswasnotpaidbyfreemen。
　　ThethirtietharticleoftheedictofPistesreformstheabusebywhichseveralofthehusbandmenbelongingtothekingortothechurchsoldthelandsdependentontheirmanorstoecclesiasticsortopeopleoftheircondition，reservingonlyasmallcottagetothemselves；bywhichmeanstheyavoidedpayingthecensus；anditordainsthatthingsshouldberestoredtotheirprimitivesituation：thecensuswas，therefore，ataxpeculiartobondmen。
　　Thencealsoitfollowsthattherewasnogeneralcensusinthemonarchy；
　　andthisisclearfromagreatnumberofpassages。Forwhatcouldbethemeaningofthiscapitulary？[75]"Weordainthattheroyalcensusshouldbeleviedinallplaceswhereformerlyitwaslawfullylevied。"[76]WhatcouldbethemeaningofthatinwhichCharlemagne[77]ordershiscommissariesintheprovincestomakeanexactinquiryintoallthecensusthatbelongedinformertimestotheking’sdemesne？[78]Andofthat[79]inwhichhedisposesofthecensuspaidbythose[80]ofwhomtheyaredemanded？Whatcanthatothercapitularymean[81]inwhichweread，"Ifanypersonhasacquiredatributaryland[82]onwhichwewereaccustomedtolevythecensus？"Andthatother，infine，[83]inwhichCharlestheBald[84]makesmentionoffeudallandswhosecensushadfromtimeimmemorialbelongedtotheking。
　　Observe。thattherearesomepassageswhichseematfirstsighttobecontrarytowhatIhavesaid，andyetconfirmit。Wehavealreadyseenthatthefreemeninthemonarchywereobligedonlytofurnishparticularcarriages；thecapitularyjustnowcitedgivestothisthenameofcensus，andopposesittothecensuspaidbythebondmen。
　　Besides，theedictofPistes[85]noticesthosefreemenwhoareobligedtopaytheroyalcensusfortheirheadandfortheircottages，[86]andwhohadsoldthemselvesduringthefamine。Thekingordersthemtoberansomed。Thisisbecausethosewhoweremanumittedbytheking’sletters[87]didnot，generallyspeaking，acquireafullandperfectliberty。[88]buttheypaidcensumincapite；andthesearethepeopleheremeant。
　　Wemust，therefore，waivetheideaofageneralanduniversalcensus，derivedfromthatoftheRomans，fromwhichtherightsofthelordsarealsosupposedtohavebeenderivedbyusurpation。WhatwascalledcensusintheFrenchmonarchy，independentlyoftheabusemadeofthatword，wasaparticulartaximposedonthebondmenbytheirmasters。
　　IbegthereadertoexcusethetroubleImustgivehimwithsuchanumberofcitations。IshouldbemoreconcisedidInotmeetwiththeAbbéduBos’bookontheestablishmentoftheFrenchmonarchyinGaul，continuallyinmyway。Nothingisagreaterobstacletoourprogressinknowledgethanabadperformanceofacelebratedauthor；because，beforeweinstruct，wemustbeginwithundeceiving。
　　16。OfthefeudalLordsorVassals。IhavenoticedthosevolunteersamongtheGermans，whohavefollowedtheirprincesintheirseveralexpeditions。Thesameusagecontinuedaftertheconquest。Tacitusmentionsthembythenameofcompanions；[89]theSaliclawbythatofmenwhohavevowedfealtytotheking；[90]theformulariesofMarculfus[91]bythatoftheking’sAntrustios；[92]theearliestFrenchhistoriansbythatofLeudes，[93]faithfulandloyal；andthoseoflaterdatebythatofvassalsandlords。[94]
　　IntheSalicandRipuarianlawswemeetwithaninfinitenumberofregulationsinregardtotheFranks，andonlywithafewfortheAntrustios。TheregulationsconcerningtheAntrustiosaredifferentfromthosewhichweremadefortheotherFranks；theyarefullofwhatrelatestothesettlingofthepropertyoftheFranks，butmentionnotawordconcerningthatoftheAntrustios。Thisisbecausethepropertyofthelatterwasregulatedratherbythepoliticalthanbythecivillaw，andwasthesharethatfelltoanarmy，andnotthepatrimonyofafamily。
　　Thegoodsreservedforthefeudallordswerecalledfiscalgoods，benefices，honours，andfiefs，bydifferentauthors，andindifferenttimes。[95]
　　Thereisnodoubtbutthefiefsatfirstwereatwill。[96]WefindinGregoryofTours[97]thatSunegisilusandGallomanusweredeprivedofalltheyheldoftheexchequer，andnomorewasleftthemthantheirrealproperty。WhenGontramraisedhisnephewChildeberttothethrone，hehadaprivateconferencewithhim，inwhichhenamedthepersonswhooughttobehonouredwith，andthosewhooughttobedeprivedof，thefiefs。[98]InaformularyofMarculfus，[99]thekinggivesinexchange，notonlythebeneficesheldbyhisexchequer，butlikewisethosewhichhadbeenheldbyanother。ThelawoftheLombardsopposesthebeneficestoproperty。[100]Inthis，ourhistorians，theformularies，thecodesofthedifferentbarbarousnationsandallthemonumentsofthosedaysareunanimous。Infine，thewritersofthebookoffiefsinformus[101]thatatfirstthelordscouldtakethembackwhentheypleased，thatafterwardstheygrantedthemforthespaceofayear，[102]andthatatlengththeygavethemforlife。
　　17。OfthemilitaryServiceofFreemen。Twosortsofpeoplewereboundtomilitaryservice；thegreatandlesservassals，whowereobligedinconsequenceoftheirfief；andthefreemen，whetherFranks，Romans，orGauls，whoservedunderthecountandwerecommandedbyhimandhisofficers。
　　Thenameoffreemenwasgiventothose，whoontheonehandhadnobenefitsorfiefs，andontheotherwerenotsubjecttothebaseservicesofvillainage；thelandstheypossessedwerewhattheycalledallodialestates。
　　Thecountsassembledthefreemen，[103]andledthemagainsttheenemy；
　　theyhadofficersunderthemwhowerecalledvicars；[104]andasallthefreemenweredividedintohundreds，whichconstitutedwhattheycalledaborough，thecountshadalsoofficersunderthem，whoweredenominatedcentenarii，andledthefreemenoftheborough，ortheirhundreds，tothefield。[105]
　　ThisdivisionintohundredsisposteriortotheestablishmentoftheFranksinGaul。ItwasmadebyClothariusandChildebert，withaviewofobligingeachdistricttoanswerfortherobberiescommittedintheirdivision；thiswefindinthedecreesofthoseprinces。[106]A
　　regulationofthiskindistothisverydayobservedinEngland。
　　Asthecountsledthefreemenagainsttheenemy，thefeudallordscommandedalsotheirvassalsorrear—vassals；andthebishops，abbots，ortheiradvocates[107]likewisecommandedtheirs。[108]
　　Thebishopsweregreatlyembarrassedandinconsistentwiththemselves；[109]theyrequestedCharlemagnenottoobligethemanylongertomilitaryservice；andwhenhegrantedtheirrequest，theycomplainedthathehaddeprivedthemofthepublicesteem；sothatthisprincewasobligedtojustifyhisintentionsuponthishead。Bethatasitmay，whentheywereexemptedfrommarchingagainsttheenemy，Idonotfindthattheirvassalswereledbythecounts；onthecontrary，weseethatthekingsorthebishopschoseoneoftheirfeudatoriestoconductthem。[110]
　　InaCapitularyofLouistheDebonnaire，[111]thisprincedistinguishesthreesortsofvassals，thosebelongingtotheking，thosetothebishops，andthosetothecounts。Thevassalsofafeudallordwerenotledagainsttheenemybythecount，exceptsomeemploymentintheking’shouseholdhinderedthelordhimselffromcommandingthem。[112]
　　Butwhoisitthatledthefeudallordsintothefield？Nodoubtthekinghimself，whowas？alwaysattheheadofhisfaithfulvassals。Henceweconstantlyfindinthecapitulariesadistinctionmadebetweentheking’svassalsandthoseofthebishops，[113]Suchbraveandmagnanimousprincesasourkingsdidnottakethefieldtoputthemselvesattheheadofanecclesiasticmilitia；thesewerenotthementheychosetoconquerortodiewith。
　　Buttheselordslikewisecarriedtheirvassalsandrear—vassalswiththem，aswecanprovebythecapitularyinwhichCharlemagneordainsthateveryfreemanwhohasfourmanors，eitherinhisownpropertyorasabeneficefromsomebodyelse，shouldmarchagainsttheenemyorfollowhislord。[114]ItisevidentthatCharlemagnemeansthatthepersonwhohadamanorofhisownshouldmarchunderthecountandhewhoheldabeneficeofalordshouldsetoutalongwithhim。
　　AndyettheAbbéduBospretends[115]that，whenmentionismadeinthecapitulariesoftenantswhodependedonaparticularlord，noothersaremeantthanbondmen；andhegroundshisopiniononthelawoftheVisigothsandthepracticeofthatnation。Itismuchbettertorelyonthecapitulariesthemselves；thatwhichIhavejustquotedsaysexpresslythecontrary。ThetreatybetweenCharlestheBaldandhisbrothersnoticesalsothosefreemenwhomightchoosetofolloweitheralordortheking；andthisregulationisconformabletoagreatmanyothers。
　　Wemay，therefore，concludethattherewerethreesortsofmilitaryservices；thatoftheking’svassals，whohadothervassalsunderthem；
　　thatofthebishopsoroftheotherclergyandtheirvassals，and，infine，thatofthecount，whocommandedthefreemen。
　　Notbutthevassalsmightbealsosubjecttothecount；asthosewhohaveaparticularcommandaresubordinatetohimwhoisinvestedwithamoregeneralauthority。
　　Weevenfindthatthecountandtheking’scommissariesmightobligethemtopaythefinewhentheyhadnotfulfilledtheengagementsoftheirfief。Inlikemanner，iftheking’svassalscommittedanyoutrage[116]theyweresubjecttothecorrectionofthecount，unlesstheychoosetosubmitrathertothatoftheking。
　　18。OfthedoubleService。Itwasafundamentalprincipleofthemonarchythatwhosoeverwassubjecttothemilitarypowerofanotherpersonwassubjectalsotohisciviljurisdiction。ThustheCapitularyofLouistheDebonnaire，[117]intheyear815，makesthemilitarypowerofthecountandhisciviljurisdictionoverthefreemenkeepalwaysanequalpace。Thustheplacita[118]ofthecountwhocarriedthefreemenagainsttheenemywerecalledtheplacitaofthefreemen；[119]whenceundoubtedlycamethismaxim，thatthequestionsrelatingtolibertycouldbedecidedonlyinthecount’splacita，andnotinthoseofhisofficers。Thusthecountneverledthevassals[120]belongingtothebishops，ortotheabbots，againsttheenemy，becausetheywerenotsubjecttohisciviljurisdiction。Thushenevercommandedtherear—vassalsbelongingtotheking’svassals。ThustheglossaryoftheEnglishlawsinformsus[121]thatthosetowhomtheSaxonsgavethenameofCoples[122]werebytheNormanscalledcounts，orcompanions，becausetheysharedthejusticiaryfineswiththeking。Thusweseethatatalltimesthedutyofavassaltowardshislord[123]wastobeararms[124]
　　andtotryhispeersinhiscourt。
　　Oneofthereasonswhichproducedthisconnectionbetweenthejudiciaryrightandthatofleadingtheforcesagainsttheenemywasbecausethepersonwholedthemexactedatthesametimethepaymentofthefiscalduties，whichconsistedinsomecarriageservicesduebythefreemen，andingeneral，incertainjudiciaryprofits，ofwhichweshalltreathereafter。
　　Thelordshadtherightofadministeringjusticeintheirfief，bythesameprincipleasthecountshaditintheircounties。And，indeed，thecountiesintheseveralvariationsthathappenedatdifferenttimesalwaysfollowedthevariationsofthefiefs；bothweregovernedbythesameplan，andbythesameprinciples。Inaword，thecountsintheircountieswerelords，andthelordsintheirseigniorieswerecounts。
　　Ithasbeenamistaketoconsiderthecountsascivilofficers，andthedukesasmilitarycommanders。Bothwereequallycivilandmilitaryofficers：[125]thewholedifferenceconsistedintheduke’shavingseveralcountsunderhim，thoughtherewerecountswhohadnodukeoverthem，aswelearnfromFredegarius。[126]