Buttherealcausesofthatbreak—uplaymuchdeeperthanthat。Thesystemwasnotcapableofexpansioninproduction;itwas，infact，aslongasitsintegrityremaineduntouched，anarmyfedbyslaves，whocouldnotbeproperlyandcloselyexploited;itsfreemenpropermightdosomethingelseintheirleisure，andsoproduceartandliterature，buttheirtruebusinessasmembersofaconqueringtribe，theirconcertedbusiness，wastofight。Therewas，indeed，afringeofpeoplebetweentheserfandthefreenoblewhoproducedthemattersofhandicraftwhichwereneededforthelatter，butdeliberately，and，asweshouldnowthink，wastefully;andasthesecraftsmenandtradersbegantogrowintoimportanceandtopushthemselves，astheycouldnothelpdoing，intothefeudalhierarchy，astheyacquiredSTATUS，sothesicknessofthefeudalsystemincreasedonit，andtheshadowofthecomingcommercialismfelluponit。
　　Thatanysetofpeoplewhocouldclaimtobeotherthanthepropertyoffreemenshouldnothavedefiniterightsdifferentiatedsharplyfromthoseofothergroups，wasanideathatdidnotoccurtotheMiddleAges;therefore，assoonasmencameintoexistencethatwerenotserfsandwerenotnobles，theyhadtostruggleforstatusbyorganizingthemselvesintoassociationsthatshouldcometobeacknowledgedmembersofthegreatfeudalhierarchy;forindefiniteandnegativefreedomwasnotallowedtoanypersoninthosedays;ifyouhadnotstatusyoudidnotexistexceptasanoutlaw。
　　Thisis，brieflyspeaking，themotivepowerofnecessitythatlaybehindthestruggleofthetowncorporationsandcraft—gildstobefree，astrugglewhich，thoughitwastoresultinthebreakingupofthemediaevalhierarchy，beganbyanappearanceofstrengtheningitbyaddingtoitsmembers，increasingitspowerofproduction，andsomakingitmorestableforthetimebeing。
　　Aboutthisstruggle，andthekindoflifewhichaccompaniedit，Imayhavetowriteanothertime，andsowillnotsaymoreaboutithere。
　　Exceptthis，thatitwasmuchfurtheredbythechangethatgraduallytookplacebetweenthelandlordsandtheclassonwhomallsocietyrested，theserfs。Theseatfirstweremenwhohadnomorerightsthanchattelslaveshad，exceptthatmostly，aspartofthestockofthemanor，theycouldnotbesoldoffit;theyhadtodoalltheworkofthemanor，andtoearntheirownlivelihoodoffitastheybestcould。Butasthepowerofproductionincreased，owingtobettermethodsofworking，andasthecountrygottobemoresettled，theirtask—workbecameeasierofperformanceandtheirownlandmoreproductivetothem;andthattendencytothedefinitionanddifferentiationofrights，moreover，wasatworkfortheirbenefit，andthecustomofthemanordefinedwhattheirserviceswere，andtheybegantoacquirerights。Fromthattimetheyceasedtobepureserfs，andbegantotendtowardsbecomingtenants，atfirstpayingpurelyandsimplySERVICEfortheirholdings，butgraduallycommutingthatserviceforfinesandmoneypayment——forrent，inshort。
　　Towardsthecloseofthefourteenthcentury，afterthecountryhadbeendepopulatedbytheBlackDeath，andimpoverishedbythelongwar，thefeudallordsofthesecopyholdersandtenantsbegantoregrettheslacknesswithwhichtheirpredecessorshadexploitedtheirPROPERTY，theserfs，andtoconsiderthatunderthenewcommerciallightwhichhadbeguntodawnuponthemTHEYcoulddoitmuchbetteriftheyonlyhadtheirpropertyalittlemoreinhand;
　　butitwastoolate，fortheirpropertyhadacquiredrights，andtherewithalhadgotstrangevisionsintotheirheadsofatimemuchbetterthanthatinwhichtheylived，wheneventhoserightsshouldbesupplantedbyaconditionofthingsinwhichtheassertionofrightsforanyonesetofmenshouldnolongerbeneeded，sinceallmenshouldbefreetoenjoythefruitsoftheirownlabour。
　　OfthatcamethegreatepisodeofthePeasants’War，ledbymenlikeWatTyler，JackStraw，andJohnBall，whoindeed，withthosetheyled，sufferedfordaringtobebeforetheirtime，fortherevoltwasputdownwithcrueltyworthyofanIrishlandlordorasweatingcapitalistofthepresentday;but，nevertheless，serfdomcametoanendinEngland，ifnotbecauseoftherevolt，yetbecauseoftheeventsthatmadeit，andtherebyadeath—woundwasinflictedonthefeudalsystem。
　　Fromthattimeonwardthecountry，passingthroughthevarioustroublesofanewFrenchwarofHenryV。’stime，andtheWaroftheRoses，didnotheedthesefactionfightsmuch。
　　Theworkmengrewinprosperity，butalsotheybegantoriseintoanewclass，andaclassbeneaththemofmerelabourerswhowerenotserfsbegantoform，andtolaythefoundationsofcapitalisticproduction。
　　Englandgotcarriedintotherisingcurrentofcommercialism，andtherichmenandlandlordstoturntheirattentiontotheproductionofprofitinsteadoftheproductionoflivelihood;thegild—lessjourneymanandthelandlesslabourerslowlycameintoexistence;thelandlordgotridofhistenantsallhecould，turnedtillageintopasture，andsweatedthepasturestodeathinhiseagernessforwool，whichforhimmeantmoneyandthebreedingofmoney;tillatlasttheplaceoftheserf，whichhadstoodempty，asitwere，duringacertaintransitionperiod，duringwhichthenon—capitalisticproductionwasexpandinguptoitsutmostlimit，wasfilledbytheproletarianworkingfortheserviceofamasterinanewfashion，afashionwhichexploitedand（woeworththewhile！）exploitshimverymuchmorecompletelythanthecustomsofthemanorofthefeudalperiod。
　　Thelifeoftheworkerandtheproductionofgoodsinthistransitionperiod，whenFeudalsocietywassickeningforitsend，isadifficultandwidesubjectthatrequiresseparatetreatment;atpresentIwillleavethemediaevalworkmanatthefulldevelopmentofthatperiodwhichfoundhimaserfboundtothemanor，andwhichlefthimgenerallyayeomanoranartisansharingthecollectiveSTATUSofhisgild。
　　Theworkmanofto—day，ifhecouldrealizethepositionofhisforerunner，hassomereasontoenvyhim：thefeudalserfworkedhard，andlivedpoorly，andproducedaroughlivelihoodforhismaster;whereasthemodernworkman，workingharderstill，andlivinglittleifanybetterthantheserf，producesforhismasterastateofluxuryofwhichtheoldlordofthemanorneverdreamed。Theworkman’spowersofproductionaremultipliedathousandfold;hisownlivelihoodremainsprettymuchwhereitwas。Thebalancegoestohismasterandthecrowdofuseless，draggled—tailedknavesandfoolswhopandertohisidioticshamdesires，andwho，underthepretentioustitleoftheintellectualpartofthemiddleclasses，haveintheirturntakentheplaceofthemediaevaljester。
　　Truly，ifthePositivistmotto，"Liveforothers，"betakeninstarkliterality，themodernworkmanshouldbeagoodandwiseman，sincehehasnochanceoflivingforhimself！
　　Andyet，Iwishhewerewiserstill;wiseenoughtomakeanendofthepreachingof"Liveonothers，"whichisthemottosetforthbycommercialismtoherfavouredchildren。
　　Yetinonethingthemodernproletarianhasanadvantageoverthemediaevalserf，andthatadvantageisaworldinitself。Manyacenturylaybetweentheserfandsuccessfulrevolt，andthoughhetrieditmanyatimeandneverlostheart，yetthecomingchangewhichhismartyrdomhelpedonwasnottobeforhimyet，butforthenewmastersofhissuccessors。Withusitisdifferent。Afewyearsofwearisomestruggleagainstapathyandignorance;ayearortwoofgrowinghope——andthenwhoknows？Perhapsafewmonths，orperhapsafewdaysoftheopenstruggleagainstbruteforce，withthemaskoffitsface，andtheswordinitshand，andthenweareoverthebar。
　　Whoknows，Isay？Yetthisweknow，thataheadofus，withnothingbetwixtusexceptsuchincidentsasarenecessarytoitsdevelopment，liestheinevitablesocialrevolution，whichwillbringabouttheendofmasteryandthetriumphoffellowship。
　　THEHOPESOFCIVILIZATION
　　Everyagehashaditshopes，hopesthatlooktosomethingbeyondthelifeoftheageitself，hopesthattrytopierceintothefuture;
　　and，strangetosay，Ibelievethatthosehopeshavebeenstrongernotintheheydayoftheepochwhichhasgiventhembirth，butratherinitsdecadenceandtimesofcorruption：insobertruthitmaywellbethatthesehopesarebutareflectioninthosethatlivehappilyandcomfortablyofthevainlongingsofthoseotherswhosufferwithlittlepowerofexpressingtheirsufferingsinanaudiblevoice：
　　whenallgoeswellthehappyworldforgetsthesepeopleandtheirdesires，sureasitisthattheirwoesarenotdangeroustothemthewealthy：whereaswhenthewoesandgriefofthepoorbegintorisetoapointbeyondtheenduranceofmen，fearconsciousorunconsciousfallsupontherich，andtheybegintolookaboutthemtoseewhattheremaybeamongtheelementsoftheirsocietywhichmaybeusedaspalliativesforthemiserywhich，longexistingandevergrowinggreateramongtheslavesofthatsociety，isnowatlastforcingitselfontheattentionofthemasters。Timesofchange，disruption，andrevolutionarenaturallytimesofhopealso，andnotseldomthehopesofsomethingbettertocomearethefirsttokensthattellpeoplethatrevolutionisathand，thoughcommonlysuchtokensarenomorebelievedthanCassandra’sprophecies，orareeventakeninacontrarysensebythosewhohaveanythingtolose;sincetheylookuponthemassignsoftheprosperityofthetimes，andthelongenduranceofthatstateofthingswhichissokindtothem。Letusthenseewhatthehopesofcivilizationareliketo—day：forindeedIpurposespeakingofourowntimeschiefly，andwillleaveforthepresentallmentionofthatoldercivilizationwhichwasdestroyedbythehealthybarbarismoutofwhichourpresentsocietyhasgrown。
　　Yetafewwordsmaybenecessaryconcerningthebirthofourpresentepochandthehopesitgaveriseto，andwhathasbecomeofthem：
　　thatwillnottakeusveryfarbackinhistory;astomymindourmoderncivilizationbeginswiththestirringperiodaboutthetimeoftheReformationinEngland，thetimewhichinthethenmoreimportantcountriesoftheContinentisknownastheperiodoftheRenaissance，theso—callednew—birthofartandlearning。
　　Andfirstrememberthatthisperiodincludesthedeath—throesoffeudalism，withallthegoodandevilwhichthatsystemborewithit。
　　Forcenturiespastitsendwasgettingreadybythegradualweakeningofthebondsofthegreathierarchywhichheldmentogether：thecharacteristicsofthosebondswere，theoreticallyatleast，personalrightsandpersonaldutiesbetweensuperiorandinferioralldownthescale;eachmanwasborn，sotosay，subjecttotheseconditions，andthemereaccidentsofhislifecouldnotfreehimfromthem：
　　commerce，inoursenseoftheword，therewasnone;capitalisticmanufacture，capitalisticexchangewasunknown：tobuygoodscheapthatyoumightsellthemdearwasalegaloffence（forestalling）：tobuygoodsinthemarketinthemorningandtosellthemintheafternooninthesameplacewasnotthoughtausefuloccupationandwasforbiddenunderthenameofregrating;usury，insteadofleadingasnowdirectlytothehighestofficesoftheState，wasthoughtwrong，andtheprofitofitmostlyfelltothechosenpeopleofGod：
　　therobberyoftheworkers，thoughtnecessarythenasnowtotheveryexistenceoftheState，wascarriedoutquitecrudelywithoutanyconcealmentorexcusebyarbitrarytaxationoropenviolence：ontheotherhand，lifewaseasy，andcommonnecessariesplenteous;theholidaysoftheChurchwereholidaysinthemodernsenseoftheword，downrightplay—days，andtherewereninety—sixobligatoryones：norwerethepeopletameandsheep—like，butasrough—handedandboldasetofgoodfellowsaseverrubbedthroughlifeunderthesun。
　　Irememberthreepassages，fromcontemporaryhistoryorgossip，aboutthelifeofthosetimeswhichluckhasleftus，andwhichillustratecuriouslythechangethathastakenplaceinthehabitsofEnglishmen。AladywritingfromNorfolk400yearsagotoherhusbandinLondon，amidstvariouscommissionsfortapestries，groceries，andgowns，bidshimalsonottoforgettobringbackwithhimagoodsupplyofcross—bowsandbolts，sincethewindowsoftheirhallweretoolowtobehandyforlong—bowshooting。AGermantraveller，writingquiteattheendofthemediaevalperiod，speaksoftheEnglishasthelaziestandproudestpeopleandthebestcooksinEurope。ASpanishambassadoraboutthesameperiodsays，"TheseEnglishliveinhousesbuiltofsticksandmud，{5}butthereintheyfareasplenteouslyaslords。"
　　Indeed，IconfessthatitiswithastrangeemotionthatIrecallthesetimesandtrytorealizethelifeofourforefathers，menwhowerenamedlikeourselves，spokenearlythesametongue，livedonthesamespotsofearth，andtherewithalwereasdifferentfromusinmanners，habits，waysoflifeandthought，asthoughtheylivedinanotherplanet。Theveryfaceofthecountryhaschanged;notmerelyImeaninLondonandthegreatmanufacturingcentres，butthroughthecountrygenerally;thereisnopieceofEnglishground，exceptsuchplacesasSalisburyPlain，butbearswitnesstotheamazingchangewhich400yearshasbroughtuponus。
　　NotseldomIpleasemyselfwithtryingtorealizethefaceofmediaevalEngland;themanychasesandgreatwoods，thestretchesofcommontillageandcommonpasturequiteunenclosed;theroughhusbandryofthetilledparts，theunimprovedbreedsofcattle，sheep，andswine;especiallythelatter，solankandlongandlathy，lookingsostrangetous;thestringsofpackhorsesalongthebridle—
　　roads，thescantinessofthewheel—roads，scarceanyexceptthoseleftbytheRomans，andthosemadefrommonasterytomonastery：thescarcityofbridges，andpeopleusingferriesinstead，orfordswheretheycould;thelittletowns，wellbechurched，oftenwalled;thevillagesjustwheretheyarenow（exceptforthosethathavenothingbutthechurchlefttotellofthem），butbetterandmorepopulous;
　　theirchurches，somebigandhandsome，somesmallandcurious，butallcrowdedwithaltarsandfurniture，andgaywithpicturesandornament;themanyreligioushouses，withtheirgloriousarchitecture;thebeautifulmanor—houses，someofthemcastlesonce，andsurvivalsfromanearlierperiod;somenewandelegant;someoutofallproportionsmallfortheimportanceoftheirlords。HowstrangeitwouldbetousifwecouldbelandedinfourteenthcenturyEngland;unlesswesawthecrestofsomefamiliarhill，likethatwhichyetbearsuponitasymbolofanEnglishtribe，andfromwhich，lookingdownontheplainwhereAlfredwasborn，Ioncehadmanysuchponderings，weshouldnotknowintowhatcountryoftheworldwewerecome：thenameisleft，scarceathingelse。
　　AndwhenIthinkofthisitquickensmyhopeofwhatmaybe：evensoitwillbewithusintimetocome;allwillhavechanged，andanotherpeoplewillbedwellinghereinEngland，who，althoughtheymaybeofourbloodandbearourname，willwonderhowwelivedinthenineteenthcentury。
　　Well，underallthatrigidlyorderedcastesocietyofthefourteenthcentury，withitsroughplenty，itssaunteringlife，itscoolacceptanceofrudenessandviolence，therewasgoingonakeenstruggleofclasseswhichcarriedwithitthehopeofprogressofthosedays：theserfsgraduallygettingfreed，andbecomingsomeofthemthetownpopulation，thefirstjourneymen，or"free—labourers，"
　　socalled，someofthemthecopyholdersofagriculturalland：thecorporationsofthetownsgatheredpower，thecraft—gildsgrewintoperfectionandcorruption，thepoweroftheCrownincreased，attendedwithnascentbureaucracy;inshort，themiddleclasswasformingunderneaththeoutwardshowoffeudalismstillintact：andallwasgettingreadyforthebeginningofthegreatcommercialepochinwhoseLATTERdaysIwouldfainhopeweareliving。Thatepochbeganwiththeportentouschangeofagriculturewhichmeantcultivatingforprofitinsteadofforlivelihood，andwhichcarriedwithittheexpropriationofthePEOPLEfromtheland，theextinctionoftheyeoman，andtheriseofthecapitalistfarmer;andthegrowthofthetownpopulation，which，swelledbythedriftofthelandlessvagabondsandmasterlessmen，grewintoadefiniteproletariatorclassoffree—workmen;andtheirexistencemadethatoftheembryocapitalist—manufactureralsopossible;andthereignofcommercialcontractandcashpaymentbegantotaketheplaceoftheoldfeudalhierarchy，withitsmany—linkedchainofpersonalresponsibilities。
　　Thelatterhalfoftheseventeenthcentury，thereignofCharlesII。，sawthelastblowstruckatthisfeudalsystem，whenthelandowners’
　　militaryservicewasabolished，andtheybecamesimpleownersofpropertythathadnodutiesattachedtoitsavethepaymentofaland—tax。
　　Thehopesoftheearlypartofthecommercialperiodmaybereadinalmosteverybookofthetime，expressedinvariousdegreesofdulloramusingpedantry，andshowanaifarroganceandcontemptofthetimesjustpastthroughwhichnothingbuttheutmostsimplicityofignorancecouldhaveattainedto。Butthetimeswerestirring，andgavebirthtothemostpowerfulindividualitiesinmanybranchesofliterature，andMoreandCampanella，atleastfromthemidstoftheexuberanttriumphofyoungcommercialism，gavetotheworldprophetichopesoftimesyettocomewhenthatcommercialismitselfshouldhavegivenplacetothesocietywhichwehopewillbethenexttransformofcivilizationintosomethingelse;intoanewsociallife。
　　Thisperiodofearlyandexuberanthopespassedintothenextstageofsoberrealizationofmanyofthem，forcommercegrewandgrew，andmouldedallsocietytoitsneeds：theworkmanofthesixteenthcenturyworkedstillasanindividualwithlittleco—operation，andscarceanydivisionoflabour：bytheendoftheseventeenthhehadbecomeonlyapartofagroupwhichbythattimewasinthehandicraftstherealunitofproduction;divisionoflabourevenatthatperiodhadquitedestroyedhisindividuality，andtheworkerwasbutpartofamachine：allthroughtheeighteenthcenturythissystemwentonprogressingtowardsperfection，tilltomostmenofthatperiod，tomostofthosewhowereinanywaycapableofexpressingtheirthoughts，civilizationhadalreadyreachedahighstageofperfection，andwascertaintogoonfrombettertobetter。
　　Thesehopeswerenotonthesurfaceofaveryrevolutionarykind，butneverthelesstheclassstrugglestillwenton，andquiteopenlytoo;
　　fortheremainsoffeudality，aidedbythemeremaskandgrimaceofthereligion，whichwasoncearealpartofthefeudalsystem，hamperedtheprogressofcommercesorely，andseemedathousandfoldmorepowerfulthanitreallywas;becauseinspiteoftheclassstruggletherewasreallyacovertalliancebetweenthepowerfulmiddleclasseswhowerethechildrenofcommerceandtheiroldmastersthearistocracy;anunconsciousunderstandingbetweenthemrather，inthemidstoftheircontest，thatcertainmattersweretoberespectedevenbytheadvancedparty：thecontestandcivilwarbetweenthekingandthecommonsinEnglandintheseventeenthcenturyillustratesthiswell：thecautionwithwhichprivilegewasattackedinthebeginningofthestruggle，theunwillingnessofalltheleaderssaveafewenthusiaststocarrymatterstotheirlogicalconsequences，evenwhenthemarchofeventshaddevelopedtheantagonismbetweenaristocraticprivilegeandmiddle—classfreedomofcontract（socalled）;finally，thecrystallizationoftheneworderconqueredbytheswordofNasebyintoamongrelconditionofthingsbetweenprivilegeandbourgeoisfreedom，thedefeatandgriefofthepuristRepublicans，andthehorroratandswiftextinctionoftheLevellers，thepioneersofSocialisminthatday，allpointtothefactthatthe"partyofprogress，"asweshouldcallitnow，wasdeterminedafterallthatprivilegeshouldnotbeabolishedfurtherthanitsownstandpoint。
　　TheseventeenthcenturyendedinthegreatWhigrevolutioninEngland，and，asIsaid，commercethroveandgrewenormously，andthepowerofthemiddleclassesincreasedproportionatelyandallthingsseemedgoingsmoothlywiththem，tillatlastinFrancetheculminatingcorruptionofasociety，stillnominallyexistingforthebenefitoftheprivilegedaristocracy，forcedtheirhand：theoldorderofthings，backedasitwasbythepoweroftheexecutive，bythatsemblanceofoverwhelmingphysicalforcewhichistherealandonlycementofasocietyfoundedontheslaveryofthemany——thearistocraticpower，seemedstrongandalmostinexpugnable：andsinceanystickwilldotobeatadogwith，themiddleclassesinFrancewereforcedtotakeupthefirststickthatlayreadytohandiftheywerenottogivewaytothearistocrats，whichindeedthewholeevolutionofhistoryforbadethemtodo。Therefore，asinEnglandintheseventeenthcentury，themiddleclassesalliedthemselvestoreligiousandrepublican，andevencommunisticenthusiasts，withtheintention，firmthoughunexpressed，tokeepthemdownwhentheyhadmountedtopowerbytheirmeans，soinFrancetheyhadtoallythemselveswiththeproletariat;which，shamefullyoppressedanddegradedasithadbeen，nowforthefirsttimeinhistorybegantofeelitspower，thepowerofnumbers：bymeansofthishelptheytriumphedoveraristocraticprivilege，but，ontheotherhand，althoughtheproletariatwasspeedilyreducedagaintoapositionnotmuchbetterthanthatithadheldbeforetherevolution，thepartitplayedthereingaveanewandterriblecharactertothatrevolution，andfromthattimeforwardtheclassstruggleenteredontoanewphase;themiddleclasseshadgainedacompletevictory，whichinFrancecarriedwithitalltheoutwardsignsofvictory，thoughinEnglandtheychosetoconsideracertainpartofthemselvesanaristocracy，whohadindeedlittlesignsofaristocracyaboutthemeitherforgoodorforevil，beinginveryfewcasesoflongdescent，andbeingintheirmannersandideasunmistakablybourgeois。
　　Sowasaccomplishedthesecondactofthegreatclassstrugglewithwhosefirstactbegantheageofcommerce;astothehopesofthisperiodoftherevolutionweallknowhowextravaganttheywere;whatacompleteregenerationoftheworldwasexpectedtoresultfromtheabolitionofthegrossestformofprivilege;andImustsaythat，beforewemockattheextravaganceofthosehopes，weshouldtrytoputourselvesintheplaceofthosethatheldthem，andtrytoconceivehowtheprivilegeoftheoldnoblessemusthavegalledtherespectablewell—to—dopeopleofthattime。Well，thereasonablepartofthosehopeswererealizedbytherevolution;inotherwords，itaccomplishedwhatitreallyaimedat，thefreeingofcommercefromthefettersofshamfeudality;or，inotherwords，thedestructionofaristocraticprivilege。Themoreextravagantpartofthehopesexpressedbytheeighteenthcenturyrevolutionwerevagueenough，andtendedinthedirectionofsupposingthattheworkingclasseswouldbebenefitedbywhatwastotheinterestofthemiddleclassinsomewayquiteunexplained——byakindofmagic，onemaysay——whichwelfareoftheworkers，asitwasneverdirectlyaimedat，butonlyhopedforbytheway，soalsodidnotcomeaboutbyanysuchmagicalmeans，andthetriumphantmiddleclassesbegangraduallytofindthemselveslookeduponnolongerasrebelliousservants，butasoppressivemasters。
　　Themiddleclasshadfreedcommercefromherfettersofprivilege，andhadfreedthoughtfromherfettersoftheology，atleastpartially;butithadnotfreed，norattemptedtofree，labourfromitsfetters。TheleadersoftheFrenchRevolution，evenamidstthefears，suspicionsandslaughteroftheTerror，upheldtherightsof"property"socalled，thoughanewpioneerorprophetappearedinFrance，analogousinsomerespectstotheLevellersofCromwell’stime，but，asmightbeexpected，farmoreadvancedandreasonablethantheywere。GracchusBabeufandhisfellowsweretreatedascriminals，anddiedorsufferedthetortureofprisonforattemptingtoputintopracticethosewordswhichtheRepublicstillcarriedonitsbanners，andLiberty，Fraternity，andEqualitywereinterpretedinamiddle—class，orifyoupleaseaJesuitical，sense，astherewardsofsuccessforthosewhocouldstruggleintoanexclusiveclass;andatlastpropertyhadtobedefendedbyamilitaryadventurer，andtheRevolutionseemedtohaveendedwithNapoleonism。
　　Nevertheless，theRevolutionwasnotdead，norwasitpossibletosaythusfarandnofurthertotherisingtide。Commerce，whichhadcreatedthepropertylessproletariatthroughoutcivilizationhadstillanotherparttoplay，whichisnotyetplayedout;shehadandhastoteachtheworkerstoknowwhattheyare;toeducatethem，toconsolidatethem，andnotonlytogivethemaspirationsfortheiradvancementasaclass，buttomakemeansforthemtorealizethoseaspirations。Allthisshedid，norloiteredinherworkeither;fromthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturythehistoryofcivilizationisreallythehistoryofthelastoftheclass—struggleswhichwasinauguratedbytheFrenchRevolution;andEngland，whoallthroughthetimesoftheRevolutionandtheCaesarismwhichfolloweditappearedtobethesteadyfoeofRevolution，wasreallyassteadilyfurtheringit;hernaturalconditions，herstoreofcoalandminerals，hertemperateclimate，extensivesea—boardandmanyharbours，andlastlyherpositionastheoutpostofEuropelookingintoAmericaacrosstheocean，doomedhertobeforatimeatleastthemistressofthecommerceofthecivilizedworld，anditsagentwithbarbarousandsemi—barbarouscountries。ThenecessitiesofthisdestinydroveherintotheimplacablewarwithFrance，awarwhich，nominallywagedonbehalfofmonarchicalprinciples，wasreally，thoughdoubtlessunconsciously，carriedonforthepossessionoftheforeignandcolonialmarkets。Shecameoutvictoriousfromthatwar，andfullypreparedtotakeadvantageoftheindustrialrevolutionwhichhadbeengoingonthewhile，andwhichInowaskyoutonote。
　　Ihavesaidthattheeighteenthcenturyperfectedthesystemoflabourwhichtooktheplaceofthemediaevalsystem，underwhichaworkmanindividuallycarriedhispieceofworkallthroughitsvariousstagesfromthefirsttothelast。
　　Thisnewsystem，thefirstchangeinindustrialproductionsincetheMiddleAges，isknownasthesystemofdivisionoflabour，wherein，asIsaid，theunitoflabourisagroup，notaman;theindividualworkmaninthissystemiskeptlife—longattheperformanceofsometaskquitepettyinitself，andwhichhesoonmasters，andhavingmasteredithasnothingmoretodobuttogoonincreasinghisspeedofhandunderthespurofcompetitionwithhisfellows，untilhehasbecometheperfectmachinewhichitishisultimatedutytobecome，sincewithoutattainingtothatendhemustdieorbecomeapauper。
　　Youcanwellimaginehowthisgloriousinventionofdivisionoflabour，thiscompletedestructionofindividualityintheworkman，andhisapparenthopelessenslavementtohisprofit—grindingmaster，stimulatedthehopesofcivilization;probablymorehymnshavebeensunginpraiseofdivisionoflabour，moresermonspreachedaboutit，thanhavedonehomagetotheprecept，"dountoothersasyewouldtheyshoulddountoyou。"
　　Todropallirony，surelythiswasoneofthosestagesofcivilizationatwhichonemightwellsaythat，ifitwastostopthere，itwasapitythatithadevergotsofar。Ihavehadtostudybooksandmethodsofworkoftheeighteenthcenturyagooddeal，Frenchchiefly;andImustsaythattheimpressionmadeonmebythatstudyisthattheeighteenthcenturyartisanmusthavebeenaterribleproductofcivilization，andquiteinaconditiontogiverisetoHOPES——ofthetorch，thepike，andtheguillotine。
　　However，civilizationwasnotgoingtostopthere;havingturnedthemanintoamachine，thenextstageforcommercetoaimatwastocontrivemachineswhichwouldwidelydispensewithhumanlabour;norwasthisaimaltogetherdisappointed。
　　Now，atfirstsightitwouldseemthathavinggottheworkmanintosuchaplightashewas，astheslaveofdivisionoflabour，thisnewinventionofmachineswhichshouldfreehimfromapartofhislabouratleast，couldbenothingtohimbutanunmixedblessing。Doubtlessitwillprovetohavebeensointheend，whencertaininstitutionshavebeensweptawaywhichmostpeoplenowlookonaseternal;butalongishtimehaspassedduringwhichtheworkman’shopesofcivilizationhavebeendisappointed，forthosewhoinventedthemachines，orratherwhoprofitedbytheirinvention，didnotaimatthesavingoflabourinthesenseofreducingthelabourwhicheachmanhadtodo，but，firsttakingitforgrantedthateveryworkmanwouldhavetoworkaslongashecouldstanduptoit，aimed，underthoseconditionsoflabour，atproducingtheutmostpossibleamountofgoodswhichtheycouldsellataprofit。
　　NeedIdwellonthefactthat，underthesecircumstances，theinventionofthemachineshasbenefitedtheworkmanbutlittleeventothisday？
　　Nay，atfirsttheymadehispositionworsethanithadbeen：for，beingthrustontheworldverysuddenly，theydistinctlybroughtaboutanindustrialrevolution，changingeverythingsuddenlyandcompletely;industrialproductivenesswasincreasedprodigiously，butsofarfromtheworkersreapingthebenefitofthis，theywerethrownoutofworkinenormousnumbers，whilethosewhowerestillemployedwerereducedfromthepositionofskilledartisanstothatofunskilledlabourers：theaimsoftheirmastersbeing，asIsaid，tomakeaprofit，theydidnottroublethemselvesaboutthisasaclass，buttookitforgrantedthatitwassomethingthatcouldn’tbehelpedanddidn’thurtTHEM;nordidtheythinkofofferingtotheworkersthatcompensationforharassedinterestswhichtheyhavesincemadeapointofclaimingsoloudlyforthemselves。
　　ThiswasthestateofthingswhichfollowedontheconclusionofEuropeanpeace，andeventhatpeaceitselfrathermademattersworsethanbetter，bythesuddencessationofallwarindustries，andthethrowingontothemarketmanythousandsofsoldiersandsailors：inshort，atnoperiodofEnglishhistorywastheconditionoftheworkersworsethanintheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcentury。
　　Thereseemduringthisperiodtohavebeentwocurrentsofhopethathadreferencetotheworkingclasses：thefirstaffectedthemasters，thesecondthemen。
　　InEngland，and，inwhatIamsayingofthisperiod，IamchieflythinkingofEngland，thehopesofthericherclassesranhigh;andnowonder;forEnglandhadbythistimebecomethemistressofthemarketsoftheworld，andalso，asthepeopleofthatperiodwereneverwearyofboasting，theworkshopoftheworld：theincreaseintherichesofthecountrywasenormous，evenattheearlyperiodIamthinkingofnow——priorto’48，Imean——thoughitincreasedmuchmorespeedilyintimesthatwehaveallseen：butpartofthejubilanthopesofthisnewlyrichmanconcernedhisservants，theinstrumentsofhisfortune：itwashopedthatthepopulationingeneralwouldgrowwiser，bettereducated，thriftier，moreindustrious，morecomfortable;forwhichhopetherewassurelysomefoundation，sinceman’smasteryovertheforcesofNaturewasgrowingyearlytowardscompletion;butyouseethesebenevolentgentlemensupposedthatthesehopeswouldberealizedperhapsbysomeunexplainedmagicasaforesaid，orperhapsbytheworking—classes，ATTHEIROWNEXPENSE，bytheexerciseofvirtuessupposedtobespeciallysuitedtotheircondition，andcalled，bytheirmasters，"thrift"and"industry。"
　　Forthislattersuppositiontherewasnofoundation：indeed，thepoorwretcheswhowerethrownoutofworkbythetriumphantmarchofcommercehadperforcewornthriftthreadbare，andcouldhardlybettertheirexploitsinTHATdirection;whileastothosewhoworkedinthefactories，orwhoformedthefringeoflabourelsewhere，industrywasnonewgospeltothem，sincetheyalreadyworkedaslongastheycouldworkwithoutdyingattheloom，thespindle，orthestithy。
　　Theyfortheirparthadtheirhopes，vagueenoughastotheirultimateaim，butexpressedinthepassingdaybyaveryobvioustendencytorevolt：thistendencytookvariousforms，whichIcannotdwellonhere，butsettleddownatlastintoChartism：aboutwhichI
　　mustspeakafewwords：butfirstImustmention，Icanscarcedomore，thehonourednameofRobertOwen，asrepresentativeofthenoblerhopesofhisday，justasMorewasofhis，andthelifterofthetorchofSocialismamidstthedarkdaysoftheconfusionconsequentontherecklessgreedoftheearlyperiodofthegreatfactoryindustries。
　　Thattheconditionsunderwhichmanlivedcouldaffecthislifeandhisdeedsinfinitely，thatnotselfishgreedandceaselesscontention，butbrotherhoodandco—operationwerethebasesoftruesociety，wasthegospelwhichhepreachedandalsopractisedwithasingle—heartedness，devotion，andfervourofhopewhichhaveneverbeensurpassed：hewastheembodiedhopeofthedayswhentheadvanceofknowledgeandthesufferingsofthepeoplethrustrevolutionaryhopeuponthosethinkerswhowerenotinsomeformorotherinthepayofthesordidmastersofsociety。
　　AstotheChartistagitation，thereisthistobesaidofit，thatitwasthoroughlyaworking—classmovement，anditwascausedbythesimplestandmostpowerfulofallcauses——hunger。Itisnoteworthythatitwasstrongest，especiallyinitsearlierdays，intheNorthernandMidlandmanufacturingdistricts——thatis，intheplaceswhichfeltthedistresscausedbytheindustrialrevolutionmostsorelyanddirectly;itsprangupwithparticularvigourintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingthegreatReformBill;andithasbeenremarkedthatdisappointmentofthehopeswhichthatmeasurehadcherishedhadsomethingtodowithitsbitterness。Asitwenton，obviouscausesforfailureweredevelopedinit;self—seekingleadership;futilediscussionofthemeansofmakingthechange，beforeorganizationofthepartywasperfected;blindfearofultimateconsequencesonthepartofsome，blinddisregardtoimmediateconsequencesonthepartofothers;thesewerethesurfacereasonsforitsfailure：butitwouldhavetriumphedoveralltheseandaccomplishedrevolutioninEngland，ifithadnotbeenforcausesdeeperandmorevitalthanthese。ChartismdifferedfrommereRadicalisminbeingaclassmovement;butitsaimwasafterallpoliticalratherthansocial。
　　TheSocialismofRobertOwenfellshortofitsobjectbecauseitdidnotunderstandthat，aslongasthereisaprivilegedclassinpossessionoftheexecutivepower，theywilltakegoodcarethattheireconomicalposition，whichenablesthemtoliveontheunpaidlabourofthepeople，isnottamperedwith：thehopesoftheChartistsweredisappointedbecausetheydidnotunderstandthattruepoliticalfreedomisimpossibletopeoplewhoareeconomicallyenslaved：thereisnofirstandsecondinthesematters，thetwomustgohandinhandtogether：wecannotliveaswewill，andasweshould，aslongasweallowpeopletoGOVERNuswhoseinterestitisthatweshouldliveasTHEYwill，andbynomeansasweshould;
　　neitherisitanyuseclaimingtherighttomanageourownbusinessunlesswearepreparedtohavesomebusinessofourown：thesetwoaimsunitedmeanthefurtheringoftheclassstruggletillallclassesareabolished——thedivorceofonefromtheotherisfataltoanyhopeofsocialadvancement。
　　Chartismtherefore，thoughagenuinepopularmovement，wasincompleteinitsaimsandknowledge;thetimewasnotyetcomeanditcouldnottriumphopenly;butitwouldbeamistaketosaythatitfailedutterly：atleastitkeptalivetheholyflameofdiscontent;itmadeitpossibleforustoattaintothepoliticalgoalofdemocracy，andtherebytoadvancethecauseofthepeoplebythegainofastagefromwhencecouldbeseenthefreshgaintobeaimedat。
　　Ihavesaidthatthetimeforrevolutionhadnotthencome：thegreatwaveofcommercialsuccesswentonswelling，andthoughthecapitalistswouldiftheyhaddaredhaveengrossedthewholeoftheadvantagestherebygainedattheexpenseoftheirwageslaves，theChartistrevoltwarnedthemthatitwasnotsafetoattemptit。TheywereFORCEDtotrytoallaydiscontentbypalliativemeasures。TheyhadtoallowFactoryActstobepassedregulatingthehoursandconditionsoflabourofwomenandchildren，andconsequentlyofmenalsoinsomeofthemoreimportantandconsolidatedindustries;theywereFORCEDtorepealtheferociouslawsagainstcombinationamongtheworkmen;sothattheTradesUnionswonforthemselvesalegalpositionandbecameapowerinthelabourquestion，andwereablebymeansofstrikesandthreatsofstrikestoregulatethewagesgrantedtotheworkers，andtoraisethestandardoflivelihoodforacertainpartoftheskilledworkmenandthelabourersassociatedwiththem：
　　thoughthemainpartoftheunskilled，includingtheagriculturalworkmen，werenobetteroffthanbefore。
　　Thuswasdampeddowntheflameofadiscontentvagueinitsaims，andpassionatelycryingoutforwhat，ifgranted，itcouldnothaveused：
　　twentyyearsagoanyonehintingatthepossibilityofseriousclassdiscontentinthiscountrywouldhavebeenlookeduponasamadman;
　　infact，thewell—to—doandcultivatedwerequiteunconscious（asmanystillare）thattherewasanyclassdistinctioninthiscountryotherthanwhatwasmadebytheragsandcastclothesoffeudalism，whichinaperfunctorymannertheystillattacked。
　　TherewasnosignofrevolutionaryfeelinginEnglandtwentyyearsago：themiddleclassweresorichthattheyhadnoneedtohopeforanything——butaheavenwhichtheydidnotbelievein：thewell—to—doworkingmendidnothope，sincetheywerenotpinchedandhadnomeansoflearningtheirdegradedposition：andlastly，thedrudgesoftheproletariathadsuchhopeascharity，thehospital，theworkhouse，andkinddeathatlastcouldofferthem。
　　Inthisstock—jobbers’heavenletusleaveourdearcountrymenforalittle，whileIsayafewwordsabouttheaffairsofthepeopleonthecontinentofEurope。Thingswerenotquitesosmoothforthefleecerthere：SocialistthinkersandwritershadarisenaboutthesametimeasRobertOwen;St。Simon，Proudhon，Fourierandhisfollowerskeptupthetraditionsofhopeinthemidstofabourgeoisworld。AmongsttheseFourieristheonethatcallsformostattention：sincehisdoctrineofthenecessityandpossibilityofmakinglabourattractiveisonewhichSocialismcanbynomeansdowithout。Francealsokeptuptherevolutionaryandinsurrectionarytradition，theresultofsomethinglikehopestillfermentingamongsttheproletariat：shefellatlastintotheclutchesofasecondCaesarismdevelopedbythebasestsetofsharpers，swindlers，andharlotsthateverinsultedacountry，andofwhomourownhappybourgeoisathomemadeheroesandheroines：thehideousopencorruptionofParisiansociety，towhich，Irepeat，ourrespectableclassesaccordedheartfeltsympathy，wasfinallysweptawaybythehorrorsofaracewar：thedefeatsanddisgracesofthiswardeveloped，ontheonehand，anincreaseinthewoodenimplacabilityandbasenessoftheFrenchbourgeois，butontheothermadewayforrevolutionaryhopetospringagain，fromwhichresultedtheattempttoestablishsocietyonthebasisofthefreedomoflabour，whichwecalltheCommuneofParisof1871。Whatevermistakesorimprudencesweremadeinthisattempt，andallwarsblossomthickwithsuchmistakes，Iwillleavethereactionaryenemiesofthepeople’scausetoputforward：theimmediateandobviousresultwastheslaughterofthousandsofbraveandhonestrevolutionistsatthehandsoftherespectableclasses，thelossinfactofanarmyforthepopularcause：butwemaybesurethattheresultsoftheCommunewillnotstopthere：toallSocialiststhatheroicattemptwillgivehopeandardourinthecauseaslongasitistobewon;wefeelasthoughtheParisworkmanhadstriventobringtheday—dawnforus，andhadliftedusthesun’srimoverthehorizon，nevertosetinutterdarknessagain：ofsuchattemptsonemustsay，thatthoughthosewhoperishedinthemmighthavebeenputinabetterplaceinthebattle，yetafterallbravemenneverdiefornothing，whentheydieforprinciple。
　　LetusshiftfromFrancetoGermanybeforewegetbacktoEnglandagain，andconcludewithafewwordsaboutourhopesatthepresentday。ToGermanyweowetheschoolofeconomists，atwhoseheadstandsthenameofKarlMarx，whohavemademodernSocialismwhatitis：theearlierSocialistwritersandpreachersbasedtheirhopesonmanbeingtaughttoseethedesirablenessofco—operationtakingtheplaceofcompetition，andadoptingthechangevoluntarilyandconsciously，andtheytrustedtoschemesmoreorlessartificialbeingtriedandaccepted，althoughsuchschemeswerenecessarilyconstructedoutofthematerialswhichcapitalisticsocietyoffered：
　　butthenewschool，startingwithanhistoricalviewofwhathadbeen，andseeingthatalawofevolutionswayedalleventsinit，wasabletopointouttousthattheevolutionwasstillgoingon，andthat，whetherSocialismbedesirableornot，itisatleastinevitable。Herethenwasatlastahopeofadifferentkindtoanythathadgonebeforeit;andtheGermanandAustrianworkmenwerenotslowtolearnthelessonfoundedonthistheory;frombeingoneofthemostbackwardcountriesinEuropeinthemovement，beforeLassallestartedhisGermanworkman’spartyin1863，Germanysoonbecametheleaderinit：Bismarck’srepressivelawhasonlyactedonopinionthere，astherollerdoestothegrowinggrass——madeitfirmerandstronger;andwhatevervicissitudesmaybethefateofthepartyasaparty，therecanbenodoubtthatSocialisticopinionisfirmlyestablishedthere，andthatwhenthetimeisripeforitthatopinionwillexpressitselfinaction。
　　Now，inallIhavebeensaying，Ihavebeenwantingyoutotracethefactthat，eversincetheestablishmentofcommercialismontheruinsoffeudality，therehasbeengrowingasteadyfeelingonthepartoftheworkersthattheyareaclassdealtwithasaclass，andinlikemannertodealwithothers;andthatasthisclassfeelinghasgrown，soalsohasgrownwithitaconsciousnessoftheantagonismbetweentheirclassandtheclasswhichemploysit，asthephrasegoes;thatistosay，whichlivesbymeansofitslabour。
　　Nowitisjustthisgrowingconsciousnessofthefactthataslongasthereexistsinsocietyapropertiedclasslivingonthelabourofapropertylessone，thereMUSTbeastrugglealwaysgoingonbetweenthosetwoclasses——itisjustthedawningknowledgeofthisfactwhichshouldshowuswhatcivilizationcanhopefor——namely，transformationintotruesociety，inwhichtherewillnolongerbeclasseswiththeirnecessarystruggleforexistenceandsuperiority：
　　fortheantagonismofclasseswhichbeganinallsimplicitybetweenthemasterandthechattelslaveofancientsociety，andwascontinuedbetweenthefeudallordandtheserfofmediaevalsociety，hasgraduallybecomethecontentionbetweenthecapitalistdevelopedfromtheworkmanofthelast—namedperiod，andthewage—earner：intheformerstruggletheriseoftheartisanandvillenagetenantcreatedanewclass，themiddleclass，whiletheplaceoftheoldserfwasfilledbythepropertylesslabourer，withwhomthemiddleclass，whichhasabsorbedthearistocracy，isnowfacetoface：thestrugglebetweentheclassesthereforeisonceagainasimpleone，asinthedaysoftheclassicalpeoples;butsincethereisnolongeranystrongraceleftoutofcivilization，asinthetimeofthedisruptionofRome，thewholestruggleinallitssimplicitybetweenthosewhohaveandthosewholackisWITHINcivilization。
　　Moreover，thecapitalistormodernslave—ownerhasbeenforcedbyhisverysuccess，aswehaveseen，toorganizehisslaves，thewage—
　　earners，intoaco—operationforproductionsowellarrangedthatitrequireslittlebuthisowneliminationtomakeitafoundationforcommunallife：intheteethalsooftheexperienceofpastages，hehasbeencompelledtoallowamodicumofeducationtothepropertyless，andhasnotevenbeenabletodeprivethemwhollyofpoliticalrights;hisownadvanceinwealthandpowerhasbredforhimtheveryenemywhoisdoomedtomakeanendofhim。
　　Butwilltherebeanynewclasstotaketheplaceofthepresentproletariatwhenthathastriumphed，asitmustdo，overthepresentprivilegedclass？Wecannotforeseethefuture，butwemayfairlyhopenot：atleastwecannotseeanysignsofsuchanewclassforming。Itisimpossibletoseehowdestructionofprivilegecanstopshortofabsoluteequalityofcondition;pureCommunismisthelogicaldeductionfromtheimperfectformofthenewsociety，whichisgenerallydifferentiatedfromitasSocialism。
　　Meantime，itisthissimplicityanddirectnessofthegrowingcontestwhichaboveallthingspresentsitselfasaterrortotheconservativeinstinctofthepresentday。Manyamongthemiddleclasswhoaresincerelygrievedandshockedattheconditionoftheproletariatwhichcivilizationhascreated，andevenalarmedbythefrightfulinequalitieswhichitfosters，doneverthelessshudderbackfromtheideaoftheclassstruggle，andstrivetoshuttheireyestothefactthatitisgoingon。Theytrytothinkthatpeaceisnotonlypossible，butnatural，betweenthetwoclasses，theveryessenceofwhoseexistenceisthateachcanonlythrivebywhatitmanagestoforcetheothertoyieldtoit。Theyproposetothemselvestheimpossibleproblemofraisingtheinferiororexploitedclassesintoapositioninwhichtheywillceasetostruggleagainstthesuperiorclasses，whilethelatterwillnotceasetoexploitthem。Thisabsurdpositiondrivesthemintotheconcoctionofschemesforbetteringtheconditionoftheworkingclassesattheirownexpense，someofthemfutile，somemerelyfantastic;ortheymaybedividedagainintothosewhichpointouttheadvantagesandpleasuresofinvoluntaryasceticism，andreactionaryplansforimportingtheconditionsoftheproductionandlifeoftheMiddleAges（whollymisunderstoodbythem，bytheway）intothepresentsystemofthecapitalistfarmer，thegreatindustries，andtheuniversalworld—
　　market。Someseeasolutionofthesocialprobleminshamco—
　　operation，whichismerelyanimprovedformofjoint—stockery：
　　otherspreachthriftto（precarious）incomesofeighteenshillingsaweek，andindustrytomenkillingthemselvesbyinchesinworkingovertime，ortomenwhomthelabour—markethasrejectedasnotwanted：othersbegtheproletariansnottobreedsofast;aninjunctionthecompliancewithwhichmightbeatfirstofadvantagetotheproletariansthemselvesintheirpresentcondition，butwouldcertainlyundothecapitalists，ifitwerecarriedtoanylengths，andwouldleadthroughruinandmiserytotheviolentoutbreakoftheveryrevolutionwhichthesetimidpeoplearesoanxioustoforego。
　　Thenthereareotherswho，lookingbackonthepast，andperceivingthattheworkmenoftheMiddleAgeslivedinmorecomfortandself—
　　respectthanoursdo，eventhoughtheyweresubjectedtotheclassruleofmenwhowerelookedonasanotherorderofbeingsthanthey，thinkthatifthoseconditionsoflifecouldbereproducedunderourbetterpoliticalconditionsthequestionwouldbesolvedforatimeatleast。Theirschemesmaybesummedupinattempts，moreorlesspreposterouslyfutile，tograftaclassofindependentpeasantsonoursystemofwagesandcapital。Theydonotunderstandthatthissystemofindependentworkmen，producingalmostentirelyfortheconsumptionofthemselvesandtheirneighbours，andexploitedbytheupperclassesbyobvioustaxesontheirlabour，whichwasnototherwiseorganizedorinterferedwithbytheexploiters，waswhatinpasttimestooktheplaceofoursystem，inwhichtheworkersselltheirlabourinthecompetitivemarkettomasterswhohaveintheirhandsthewholeorganizationofthemarkets，andthatthesetwosystemsaremutuallydestructive。
　　Othersagainbelieveinthepossibilityofstartingfromourpresentworkhousesystem，fortheraisingofthelowestpartoftheworkingpopulationintoabettercondition，butdonottroublethemselvesastothepositionoftheworkerswhoarefairlyabovetheconditionofpauperism，orconsiderwhatparttheywillplayinthecontestforabetterlivelihood。And，lastly，quitealargenumberofwell—
　　intentionedpersonsbelongingtothericherclassesbelieve，thatinasocietythatcompelscompetitionforlivelihood，andholdsouttotheworkersasastimulustoexertionthehopeoftheirrisingintoamonopolistclassofnon—producers，itisyetpossibleto"moralize"
　　capital（touseaslangphraseofthePositivists）：thatistosay，thatasentimentimportedfromareligionwhichlooksuponanotherworldasthetruesphereofactionformankind，willoverridethenecessitiesofourdailylifeinthisworld。Thiscurioushopeisfoundedonthefeelingthatasentimentantagonistictothefulldevelopmentofcommercialismexistsandisgainingground，andthatthissentimentisanindependentgrowthoftheethicsofthepresentepoch。Asamatteroffact，admittingitsexistence，asIthinkwemustdo，itisthebirthofthesenseofinsecuritywhichistheshadowcastbeforebytheapproachingdissolutionofmodernsocietyfoundedonwage—slavery。
　　Thegreaterpartoftheseschemesaim，thoughseldomwiththeconsciousnessoftheirpromoters，atthecreationofanewmiddle—
　　classoutofthewage—earningclass，andattheirexpense，justasthepresentmiddle—classwasdevelopedoutoftheserf—populationoftheearlyMiddleAges。ItmaybepossiblethatsuchaFURTHER
　　developmentofthemiddle—classliesbeforeus，butitwillnotbebroughtaboutbyanysuchartificialmeansastheabovementionedschemes。Ifitcomesatall，itmustbeproducedbyevents，whichatpresentwecannotforesee，actingonourcommercialsystem，andrevivifyingforalittletime，maybe，thatCapitalistSocietywhichnowseemssickeningtowardsitsend。
　　Forwhatisvisiblebeforeusinthesedaysisthecompetitivecommercialsystemkillingitselfbyitsownforce：profitslessening，businessesgrowingbiggerandbigger，thesmallemployeroflabourthrustoutofhisfunction，andtheaggregationofcapitalincreasingthenumbersofthelowermiddle—classfromaboveratherthanfrombelow，bydrivingthesmallermanufacturerintothepositionofamereservanttothebigger。Theproductivityoflabouralsoincreasingoutofallproportiontothecapacityofthecapitaliststomanagethemarketordealwiththelaboursupply：
　　lackofemploymentthereforebecomingchronic，anddiscontenttherewithal。
　　Allthisontheonehand。Ontheother，theworkmenclaimingeverywherepoliticalequality，whichcannotlongbedenied;andeducationspreading，sothatwhatbetweentheimprovementintheeducationoftheworking—classandthecontinuedamazingfatuityofthatoftheupperclasses，thereisadistincttendencytoequalizationhere;and，asIhavehintedabove，allhistoryshowsuswhatadangertosocietymaybeaclassatonceeducatedandsociallydegraded：though，indeed，nohistoryhasyetshownus——whatisswiftlyadvancinguponus——aclasswhich，thoughitshallhaveattainedknowledge，shalllackutterlytherefinementandself—
　　respectwhichcomefromtheunionofknowledgewithleisureandeaseoflife。Thegrowthofsuchaclassmaywellmakethe"cultured"
　　peopleofto—daytremble。
　　Whatever，therefore，ofunforeseenandunconceived—ofmaylieinthewombofthefuture，thereisnothingvisiblebeforeusbutadecayingsystem，withnooutlookbutever—increasingentanglementandblindness，andanewsystem，Socialism，thehopeofwhichisevergrowingclearerinmen’sminds——asystemwhichnotonlyseeshowlabourcanbefreedfromitspresentfetters，andorganizedunwastefully，soastoproducethegreatestpossibleamountofwealthforthecommunityandforeverymemberofit，butwhichbearswithititsownethicsandreligionandaesthetics：thatisthehopeandpromiseofanewandhigherlifeinallways。Sothatevenifthoseunforeseeneconomicaleventsabovespokenofweretohappen，andputoffforawhiletheendofourCapitalistsystem，thelatterwoulddragitselfalongasananomalycursedbyall，amereclogontheaspirationsofhumanity。
　　Itisnotlikelythatitwillcometothat：inallprobabilitythelogicaloutcomeofthelatterdaysofCapitalismwillgostepbystepwithitsactualhistory：whileallmen，evenitsdeclaredenemies，willbeworkingtobringSocialismabout，theaimsofthosewhohavelearnedtobelieveinthecertaintyandbeneficenceofitsadventwillbecomeclearer，theirmethodsforrealizingitcleareralso，andatlastreadytohand。Thenwillcomethatopenacknowledgmentforthenecessityofthechange（anacknowledgmentcomingfromtheintelligenceofcivilization）whichiscommonlycalledRevolution。