ButistherenothinginParliament，orseekingentrancetoit，exceptthisvariouslytintedWhiggery，thisHarlequinofReaction？Well，insideParliament，settingasidetheIrishparty，whichis，wemaynowwellhope，merelytemporarilythere，thereisnotmuch。Itisnotamongpeopleof"wealthandlocalinfluence，"whoIseearesupposedtobetheonlyavailablecandidatesforParliamentofarecognizedparty，thatyouwillfindtheelementsofrevolution。WewillgrantthattherearesomefewgenuineDemocratsthere，andletthempass。ButoutsidethereareundoubtedlymanywhoaregenuineDemocrats，andwhohaveitintheirheadsthatitisbothpossibleanddesirabletocapturetheconstitutionalParliamentandturnitintoarealpopularassembly，which，withthepeoplebehindit，mightleaduspeaceablyandconstitutionallyintothegreatRevolutionwhichallTHOUGHTFULmendesiretobringabout;allthoughtfulmen，thatis，whodonotbelongtotheconsciouslycynicalTories，i。e。，mendetermined，whetheritbejustorunjust，goodforhumanityorbadforit，tokeepthepeopledownaslongastheycan，whichtheyhope，verynaturally，willbeaslongastheylive。
　　TocaptureParliamentandturnitintoapopularbutconstitutionalassemblyis，Imustconclude，theaspirationofthegenuineDemocratswherevertheymaybefound;thatistheirideaofthefirststepoftheDemocraticpolicy。Thequestionstobeaskedofthis，asofallotherpolicies，arefirst，Whatistheendproposedbyit？andsecondly，Aretheylikelytosucceed？Astotheendproposed，I
　　thinkthereismuchdifferenceofopinion。SomeDemocratswouldanswerfromthemerelypoliticalpointofview，andsay：Universalsuffrage，paymentofmembers，annualParliaments，abolitionoftheHouseofLords，abolitionofthemonarchy，andsoforth。Iwouldanswerthisbysaying：Afterall，thesearenotends，butmeanstoanend;andpassingbythefactthatthelasttwoarenotconstitutionalmeasures，andsocouldnotbebroughtaboutwithoutactualrebellion，Iwouldsayifyouhadgainedallthesethings，andmore，allyouwouldhavedonewouldhavebeentoestablishtheascendancyoftheDemocraticparty;havingsoestablishedit，youwouldthenhavetofindoutbytheusualpartymeanswhatthatDemocraticpartymeant，andyouwouldfindthatyourtriumphinmerepoliticswouldleadyoubackagainexactlytotheplaceyoustartedfrom。YouwouldbeWhigsunderadifferentname。Monarchy，HouseofLords，pensions，standingarmy，andtherestofit，areonlysupportstothepresentsocialsystem——thePRIVILEGEbasedonthewagesandcapitalsystemofproduction——andareworthnothingexceptassupportstoit。Ifyouaredeterminedtosupportthatsystem，therefore，youhadbetterleavethesethingsalone。TherealmastersofSociety，therealtyrantsofthepeople，aretheLandlordsandCapitalists，whomyourpoliticaltriumphwouldnotinterferewith。
　　Then，asnow，therewouldbeaproletariatandamoneyedclass。
　　Then，asnow，itwouldbepossiblesometimesforadiligent，energeticman，withhismindsetwhollyonsuchsuccess，toclimboutoftheproletariatintothemoneyedclass，theretosweatasheoncewassweated;which，myfriends，is，ifyouwillexcusetheword，yourridiculousideaoffreedomofcontract。
　　Thesoleandutmostsuccessofyourpolicywouldbethatitmightraiseupastrongoppositiontotheconditionofthingswhichitwouldbeyourfunctiontouphold;butmostprobablysuchoppositionwouldstillbeoutsideParliament，andnotinit;youwouldhavemadearevolution，probablynotwithoutbloodshed，onlytoshowpeoplethenecessityforanotherrevolutiontheverynextday。
　　WillyouthinktheexampleofAmericatootrite？Anyhow，considerit！Acountrywithuniversalsuffrage，noking，noHouseofLords，noprivilegeasyoufondlythink;onlyalittlestandingarmy，chieflyusedforthemurderofred—skins;ademocracyafteryourmodel;andwithallthat，asocietycorrupttothecore，andatthismomentengagedinsuppressingfreedomwithjustthesamerecklessbrutalityandblindignoranceastheCzarofalltheRussiasuses。
　　{4}
　　Butitwillbesaid，andcertainlywithmuchtruth，thatnotalltheDemocratsareformerepoliticalreform。IsaythatIbelievethatthisistrue，anditisaveryimportanttruthtoo。Iwillgofarther，andwillsaythatallthoseDemocratswhocanbedistinguishedfromWhigsdointendsocialreformswhichtheyhopewillsomewhataltertherelationsoftheclassestowardseachother;
　　andthereis，generallyspeaking，amongstDemocratsaleaningtowardsakindoflimitedState—Socialism，anditisthroughthatthattheyhopetobringaboutapeacefulrevolution，which，ifitdoesnotintroduceaconditionofequality，willatleastmaketheworkersbetteroffandcontentedwiththeirlot。
　　TheyhopetogetabodyofrepresentativeselectedtoParliament，andbythemtogetmeasureaftermeasurepassedwhichwilltendtowardsthisgoal;norwouldsomeofthem，perhapsmostofthem，bediscontentedifbythismeanswecouldglideintocompleteState—
　　Socialism。IthinkthatthepresentDemocratsarewidelytingedwiththisidea，andtomeitisamatterofhopethatitisso;whateveroferrorthereisinit，itmeansadvancebeyondthecompletebarrennessofthemerepoliticalprogramme。
　　YetImustpointouttothesesemi—SocialistDemocratsthatinthefirstplacetheywillbemadethecat’s—pawofsomeofthewilieroftheWhigs。ThereareseveralofthesemeasureswhichlooktosomeSocialistic，as，forinstance，theallotmentsscheme，andotherschemestendingtowardpeasantproprietorship，co—operation，andthelike，butwhichafterall，inspiteoftheirbenevolentappearance，arereallyweaponsinthehandsofreactionaries，havingfortheirrealobjectthecreationofanewmiddle—classmadeoutoftheworking—classandattheirexpense;theraising，inshort，ofanewarmyagainsttheattackofthedisinherited。
　　Thereisnoendtothiskindofdodge，norwillbeapparentlytillthereisanendoftheclasswhichtriesiton;andagreatmanyoftheDemocratswillbeamusedandabsorbedbyitfromtimetotime。
　　Theycallthissortofnonsense"practical;"itSEEMSlikedoingsomething，whilethesteadypropagandaofaprinciplewhichmustprevailintheendis，accordingtothem，doingnothing，andisunpractical。Fortherest，itisnotlikelytobecomedangerous，furtherthanasitclogsthewheelsoftherealmovementsomewhat，becauseitissometimesamerepieceofreaction，aswhen，forinstance，ittakestheformofpeasantproprietorship，flyingrightinthefaceofthecommercialdevelopmentoftheday，whichtendsevermoreandmoretowardstheaggregationofcapital，therebysmoothingthewayfortheorganizedpossessionofthemeansofproductionbytheworkerswhenthetruerevolutionshallcome：
　　while，ontheotherhand，whenthisattempttomanufactureanewmiddle—classtakestheformofco—operationandthelike，itisnotdangerous，becauseitmeansnothingmorethanaslightlyalteredformofjoint—stockery，andeverybodyalmostisbeginningtoseethis。
　　Thegreedofmenstimulatedbythespectacleofprofit—makingallaroundthem，andalsobytheburdenoftheinterestonthemoneywhichtheyhavebeenobligedtoborrow，willnotallowthemeventoapproachatruesystemofco—operation。Thosebenefitedbythetransactionpresentlybecomeeagershareholdersinacommercialspeculation，andiftheyareworking—men，astheyoftenare，theyarealsocapitalists。Theenormouscommercialsuccessofthegreatco—
　　operativesocieties，andtheabsoluteno—effectofthatsuccessonthesocialconditionsoftheworkers，aresufficienttokensofwhatthisnon—politicalco—operationmustcometo："Nothing——itshallnotbeless。"
　　Butagain，itmaybesaid，someoftheDemocratsgofartherthanthis;theytakeupactualpiecesofSocialism，andaremorethaninclinedtosupportthem。Nationalizationoftheland，orofrailways，orcumulativetaxationonincomes，orlimitingtherightofinheritance，ornewfactorylaws，ortherestrictionbylawoftheday’slabour——oneofthese，ormorethanonesometimes，theDemocratswillsupport，andseeabsolutesalvationintheseoneortwoplanksoftheplatform。AllthisIadmit，andonceagainsayitisahopefulsign，andyetonceagainIsaythereisasnareinit——asnakelieslurkinginthegrass。
　　Thosewhothinkthattheycandealwithourpresentsysteminthispiecemealwayverymuchunderratethestrengthofthetremendousorganizationunderwhichwelive，andwhichappointstoeachofushisplace，andifwedonotchancetofitit，grindsusdowntillwedo。Nothingbutatremendousforcecandealwiththisforce;itwillnotsufferitselftobedismembered，nortoloseanythingwhichreallyisitsessencewithoutputtingforthallitsforceinresistance;ratherthanloseanythingwhichitconsidersofimportance，itwillpulltheroofoftheworlddownuponitshead。
　　For，indeed，Igrantthesesemi—SocialistDemocratsthatthereisonehopefortheirtamperingpiecemealwithourSociety;ifbychancetheycanexcitepeopleintoseriously，howeverblindly，claimingoneorotherofthesethingsinquestion，andcouldbesuccessfulinParliamentindrivingitthrough，theywouldcertainlydrawonagreatcivilwar，andsuchawaronceletloosewouldnotendbuteitherwiththefulltriumphofSocialismoritsextinctionforthepresent;itwouldbeimpossibletolimittheaimofthestruggle;norcanweevenguessatthecoursewhichitwouldtake，exceptthatitcouldnotbeamatterofcompromise。ButsupposetheDemocraticpartypeaceablysuccessfulonthisnewbasisofsemi—StateSocialism，whatwoulditallmean？Attemptstobalancethetwoclasseswhoseinterestsareopposedtoeachother，amereignoringofthisantagonismwhichhasledusthroughsomanycenturiestowherewearenow，andthen，afteraperiodofdisappointmentanddisaster，thenakedconflictoncemore;arevolutionmade，andanotherimmediatelynecessaryonitsmorrow！
　　Yet，indeed，itwillnotcometothat;for，whatevermaybetheaimsoftheDemocrats，theywillnotsucceedingettingthemselvesintoapositionfromwhencetheycouldmaketheattempttorealizethem。I
　　havesaidthereareToriesandyetnorealToryparty;soalsoitseemstomethatthereareDemocratsbutnoDemocraticparty;atpresenttheyareusedbytheleadersoftheparliamentaryfactions，andalsokeptatadistancebythemfromanyrealpower。IftheybyhookorcrookmanagedtogetanumberofmembersintoParliament，theywouldfindouttheirdifferencesveryspeedilyundertheinfluenceofpartyrule;inpointoffact，theDemocratsarenotaparty;becausetheyhavenoprinciplesotherthantheoldWhig—
　　Radicalones，extendedinsomecasessoastotakeinalittlesemi—
　　Socialismwhichthemarchofeventshasforcedonthem——thatis，theygravitateononesidetotheWhigsandontheothertotheSocialists。Whenever，ifever，theybegintobeapowerintheelectionsandgetmembersintheHouse，thetemptationtobemembersofareallivepartywhichmayhavethegovernmentofthecountryinitshands，thetemptationtowhatis（facetiously，Isuppose）calledpracticalpolitics，willbetoomuchformany，evenofthosewhogravitatetowardsSocialism;aquasi—Democraticparliamentaryparty，therefore，wouldprobablybemerelyarecruitingground，anurseryfortheleftwingoftheWhigs;thoughitwouldindeedleavebehindsomesmallnucleusofopposition，theprinciplesofwhich，however，wouldbevagueandfloating，sothatitwouldbebutapowerlessgroupafterall。
　　ThefutureoftheconstitutionalParliament，therefore，itseemstome，isaperpetualWhigRump，whichwillyieldtopressurewhenmerepoliticalreformsareattemptedtobegotoutofit，butwillbequiteimmovabletowardsanyrealchangeinsocialandeconomicalmatters;thatistosay，sofarasitmaybeconsciousoftheattack;
　　forIgrantthatitmaybeBETRAYEDintopassingsemi—State—
　　Socialisticmeasures，whichwilldothisamountofgood，thattheywillhelptoentanglecommerceindifficulties，andsoaddtodiscontentbycreatingsuffering;sufferingofwhichthepeoplewillnotunderstandthecausesdefinitely，butwhichtheirinstinctwilltellthemtrulyisbroughtaboutbyGOVERNMENT，andthat，too，theonlykindofgovernmentwhichtheycanhavesolongastheconstitutionalParliamentlasts。
　　Now，ifyouthinkIhaveexaggeratedthepoweroftheWhigs，thatis，ofsolid，dead，unmovingresistancetoprogress，Imustcallyourattentiontotheeventsofthelastfewweeks。Herehasbeenameasureofpacificationproposed;attheleastandworstanattempttoenteruponapacificationofawearyandmiserablequarrelmanycenturiesold。TheBritishpeople，inspiteoftheirhereditaryprejudiceagainsttheIrish，werenotaversetothemeasure;theTorieswere，asusual，powerlessagainstit;yetsostronghasbeenthevisinertiaeofWhiggerythatithaswonanotablevictoryovercommon—senseandsentimentcombined，andhasdrawnovertoitasectionofthosehithertoknownasRadicals，andprobablywouldhavedrawnallRadicalsoverbutforthepersonalascendancyofMr。
　　Gladstone。TheWhigs，seeing，ifbutdimly，thatthisIrishIndependencemeantanattackonproperty，havebeensuccessfulinsnatchingthepromisedpeaceoutofthepeople’shands，andinpreparingallkindsofentanglementandconfusionforusforalongwhileintheirsteadyresistancetoeventhebeginningsofrevolution。
　　This，therefore，iswhatParliamentlookstome：asolidcentralparty，withmerenebulousoppositionontherighthandandontheleft。Thepeoplegoverned;thatistosay，fairplayamongstthemselvesforthemoney—privilegedclassestomakethemostoftheirprivilege，andtofightsturdilywitheachotherindoingso;butthegovernmentconcealedasmuchaspossible，andalsoaslongaspossible;thatistosay，thegovernmentrestingonanassumednecessaryeternityofprivilegetomonopolizethemeansofthefructificationoflabour。
　　Forsolongasthatassumptionisacceptedbytheignoranceofthepeople，theGreatWhigRumpwillremaininexpugnable，butassoonasthepeople’seyesareopened，evenpartially——andtheybegintounderstandthemeaningofthewords，theEmancipationofLabour——weshallbegintohaveanassuredhopeofthrowingoffthebasestandmostsordidtyrannywhichtheworldhasyetseen，thetyrannyofso—
　　calledConstitutionalism。
　　How，then，arethepeople’seyestobeopened？BytheforceevolvedfromthefinaltriumphandconsequentcorruptionofCommercialWhiggery，whichforcewillincludeinitarecognitionofitsconstructiveactivitybyintelligentpeopleontheonehand，andontheotherhalf—blindinstinctivestrugglestouseitsdestructiveactivityonthepartofthosewhosufferandhavenotbeenallowedtothink;and，toboot，agreatdealthatgoesbetweenthosetwoextremes。
　　Inthisturmoil，allthosewhocanbetrulycalledSocialistswillbeinvolved。Themoderndevelopmentofthegreatclass—strugglehasforcedustothink，ourthoughtsforceustospeak，andourhopesforceustotrytogetahearingfromthepeople。Norcanonetellhowfarourwordswillcarry，sotosay。Themostmoderateexpositionofourprincipleswillbearwithittheseedsofdisruption;norcanwetellwhatformthatdisruptionwilltake。
　　Oneandall，then，weareresponsiblefortheenunciationofSocialistprinciplesandoftheconsequenceswhichmayflowfromtheirgeneralacceptance，whateverthatmaybe。ThisresponsibilitynoSocialistcanshakeoffbydeclarationsagainstphysicalforceandinfavourofconstitutionalmethodsofagitation;weareattackingtheConstitutionwiththeverybeginnings，themerelispings，ofSocialism。
　　Whiggery，therefore，initsvariousforms，istherepresentativeofConstitutionalism——istheoutwardexpressionofmonopolyandconsequentartificialrestraintsonlabourandlife;andthereisonlyoneexpressionoftheforcewhichwilldestroyWhiggery，andthatisSocialism;andontherighthandandontheleftToryismandRadicalismwillmeltintoWhiggery——aredoingsonow——andSocialismhasgottoabsorballthatisnotWhiginRadicalism。
　　Thencomesthequestion，WhatisthepolicyofSocialism？IfToryismandDemocracyareonlynebulousmassesofoppositiontothesolidcentreofWhiggery，whatcanwecallSocialism？
　　Well，atpresent，inEnglandatleast，Socialismisnotaparty，butasect。Thatissometimesbroughtagainstitasataunt;butIamnotdismayedbyit;forIcanconceiveofasect——nay，Ihaveheardofone——becomingaveryformidablepower，andbecomingsobydintofitslongremainingasect。SoIthinkitisquitepossiblethatSocialismwillremainasecttilltheveryeveofthelaststrokethatcompletestherevolution，afterwhichitwillmeltintothenewSociety。Andisitnotsects，bodiesofdefinite，uncompromisingprinciples，thatleadusintorevolutions？WasitnotsointheCromwelliantimes？Nay，havenottheFeniansect，eveninourowndays，madeHomeRulepossible？Theymaygivebirthtoparties，thoughnotpartiesthemselves。Andwhatshouldasectlikewearehavetodointheparliamentarystruggle——wewhohaveanidealtokeepalwaysbeforeourselvesandothers，andwhocannotacceptcompromise;whocanseenothingthatcangiveusrestforaminutesavetheemancipationoflabour，whichwillbebroughtaboutbytheworkersgainingpossessionofallthemeansofthefructificationoflabour;andwho，evenwhenthatisgained，shallhavepureCommunismaheadtostrivefor？
　　Whatarewetodo，then？Standbyandlookon？Notexactly。Yetwemaylookonotherpeopledoingtheirworkwhilewedoours。Theyarealreadybeginning，asIhavesaid，tostumbleaboutwithattemptsatStateSocialism。Letthemmaketheirexperimentsandblunders，andpreparethewayforusbysodoing。Andourownbusiness？Well，we—
　　—sectorparty，orgroupofself—seekers，madmen，andpoets，whichyouwill——areatleasttheonlysetofpeoplewhohavebeenabletoseethatthereisandhasbeenagreatclass—strugglegoingon。
　　Further，wecanseethatthisclass—strugglecannotcometoanendtilltheclassesthemselvesdo：oneclassmustabsorbtheother。
　　Which，then？Surelytheusefulone，theonethattheworldlivesby，andon。Thebusinessofthepeopleatpresentistomakeitimpossiblefortheuseless，non—producingclasstolive;whilethebusinessofConstitutionalismis，onthecontrary，tomakeitpossibleforthemtolive。AndourbusinessistohelptomakethepeopleCONSCIOUSofthisgreatantagonismbetweenthepeopleandConstitutionalism;andmeantimetoletConstitutionalismgoonwithitsgovernmentunhelpedbyusatleast，untilitatlastbecomesCONSCIOUSofitsburdenofthepeople’shate，ofthepeople’sknowledgethatitisdisinherited，whichweshallhavedoneourbesttofurtherbyanymeansthatwecould。
　　AstoSocialistsinParliament，therearetwowordsaboutthat。IftheygotheretotakeapartincarryingonConstitutionalismbypalliatingtheevilsofthesystem，andsohelpingourrulerstobeartheirburdenofgovernment，Iforone，andsofarastheiractionthereingoes，cannotcallthemSocialistsatall。ButiftheygotherewiththeintentionofdoingwhattheycantowardsthedisruptionofParliament，thatisamatteroftacticsforthetimebeing;butevenhereIcannothelpseeingthedangeroftheirbeingseducedfromtheirtrueerrand，andIfearthattheymightbecome，onthetermsabovementioned，simplysupportersoftheverythingtheysetouttoundo。
　　IsaythatourworkliesquiteoutsideParliament，anditistohelptoeducatethepeoplebyeveryandanymeansthatmaybeeffective;
　　andtheknowledgewehavetohelpthemtoisthreefold——toknowtheirown，toknowhowtotaketheirown，andtoknowhowtousetheirown。
　　FEUDALENGLAND
　　ItistruethattheNormanConquestfoundacertainkindoffeudalityinexistenceinEngland——afeudalitywhichwasdevelopedfromthecustomsoftheTeutonictribeswithnoadmixtureofRomanlaw;andalsothatevenbeforetheConquestthiscountrywasslowlybeginningtobemixedupwiththeaffairsoftheContinentofEurope，andthatnotonlywiththekindrednationsofScandinavia，butwiththeRomanizedcountriesalso。ButtheConquestofDukeWilliamdidintroducethecompleteFeudalsystemintothecountry;anditalsoconnecteditbystrongbondstotheRomanizedcountries，andyetbysodoinglaidthefirstfoundationsofnationalfeelinginEngland。
　　TheEnglishfelttheirkinshipwiththeNorsemenortheDanes，anddidnotsufferfromtheirconquestswhentheyhadbecomecomplete，andwhen，consequently，mereimmediateviolencehaddisappearedfromthem;theirfeelingwastribalratherthannational;buttheycouldhavenosenseoftribalunitywiththevariedpopulationsoftheprovinceswhichmeredynasticaleventshadstrungtogetherintothedominion，themanor，onemaysay，oftheforeignprincesofNormandyandAnjou;and，asthekingswhoruledthemgraduallygotpushedoutoftheirFrenchpossessions，Englandbegantostruggleagainstthedominationofmenfelttobeforeigners，andsograduallybecameconsciousofherseparatenationality，thoughstillonlyinafashion，asthemanorofanENGLISHlord。
　　Itisbeyondthescopeofthispiecetogiveanythinglikeaconnectedstory，evenoftheslightest，ofthecourseofeventsbetweentheconquestofDukeWilliamandthefullydevelopedmediaevalperiodofthefourteenthcentury，whichistheEnglandthatIhavebeforemyeyesasMediaevalorFeudal。ThatperiodofthefourteenthcenturyunitedthedevelopmentsoftheelementswhichhadbeenstirringinEuropesincethefinalfalloftheRomanEmpire，andEnglandsharedinthegeneralfeelingandspiritoftheage，although，fromitsposition，thecourseofitshistory，andtoacertainextentthelivesofitspeople，weredifferent。Itistothisperiod，therefore，thatIwishinthelongruntocallyourattention，andIwillonlysaysomuchabouttheearlierperiodasmaybenecessarytoexplainhowthepeopleofEnglandgotintothepositioninwhichtheywerefoundbytheStatuteofLabourersenactedbyEdwardIII。，andthePeasants’Rebellioninthetimeofhisgrandsonandsuccessor，RichardII。
　　Undoubtedly，then，theNormanConquestmadeacompletebreakinthecontinuityofthehistoryofEngland。WhentheLondonersaftertheBattleofHastingsacceptedDukeWilliamfortheirking，nodoubttheythoughtofhimasoccupyingmuchthesamepositionasthatofthenewlyslainHarold;oratanyratetheylookedonhimasbeingsuchakingofEnglandasKnuttheDane，whohadalsoconqueredthecountry;andprobablyWilliamhimselfthoughtnootherwise;buttheeventwasquitedifferent;forontheonehand，notonlywasheamanofstrongcharacter，able，masterful，andagreatsoldierinthemodernsenseoftheword，buthehadathisbackhiswealthydukedomofNormandy，whichhehadhimselfreducedtoobedienceandorganized;
　　and，ontheotherhand，Englandlaybeforehim，unorganized，yetstubbornlyrebellioustohim;itsverydisorganizationandwantofacentremakingitmoredifficulttodealwithbymerelyoverrunningitwithanarmyleviedforthatpurpose，andbackedbyabodyofhouse—
　　carlesorguards，whichwouldhavebeenthemethodofaScandinavianornativekingindealingwithhisrebellioussubjects。DukeWilliam’snecessitiesandinstinctscombinedledhimintoaverydifferentcourseofaction，whichdeterminedthefuturedestinyofthecountry。WhathedidwastoquarteruponEnglandanarmyoffeudalvassalsdrawnfromhisobedientdukedom，andtohandovertothemthelordshipofthelandofEnglandinreturnfortheirmilitaryservicetohim，thesuzerainofthemall。Thenceforward，itwasundertheruleoftheseforeignlandlordsthatthepeopleofEnglandhadtodevelop。
　　ThedevelopmentofthecountryasaTeutonicpeoplewascheckedandturnedasidebythisevent。DukeWilliambrought，infact，hisNormandyintoEngland，whichwastherebychangedfromaTeutonicpeople（Old—Norsetheod），withthetribalcustomarylawstillinuseamongthem，intoaprovinceofRomanizedFeudalEurope，apieceofFrance，inshort;andthoughintimeshedidgrowintoanotherEnglandagain，shemissedforeverinherlaws，andstillmoreinherlanguageandherliterature，thechanceofdevelopingintoagreathomogeneousTeutonicpeopleinfusedusefullywithamixtureofCelticblood。
　　However，thisstepwhichDukeWilliamwasforcedtotakefurtherinfluencedthefutureofthecountrybycreatingthegreatorderoftheBaronage，andthehistoryoftheearlyperiodofEnglandisprettymuchthatofthestruggleofthekingwiththeBaronageandtheChurch。ForWilliamfixedthetypeofthesuccessfulEnglishmediaevalking，ofwhomHenryII。andEdwardI。werethemostnotableexamplesafterwards。Itwas，infact，withhimthatthestruggletowardsmonarchicalbureaucracybegan，whichwascheckedbythebarons，whoextortedMagnaChartafromKingJohn，andafterwardsbytherevoltheadedbySimondeMontfortinHenryIII。’sreign;wascarriedonvigorouslybyEdwardI。，andfinallysuccessfullyfinishedbyHenryVII。afterthelongfaction—fightoftheWarsoftheRoseshadweakenedthefeudallordssomuchthattheycouldnolongerassertthemselvesagainstthemonarchy。
　　AstotheotherpoliticalstruggleoftheMiddleAges，thecontestbetweentheCrownandtheChurch，twothingsaretobenoted;first，thatatleastintheearlierperiodtheChurchwasonthepopularside。ThomasBeckettwascanonized，itistrue，formallyandbyregulardecree;buthismemorywasheldsodearbythepeoplethathewouldprobablyhavebeencanonizedinformallybythemiftheholyseatatRomehadrefusedtodoso。Thesecondthingtobenotedaboutthedisputeisthis，thatitwasnocontestofprinciple。
　　Accordingtothemediaevaltheoryoflifeandreligion，theChurchandtheStatewereoneinessence，andbutseparatemanifestationsoftheKingdomofGoduponearth，whichwaspartoftheKingdomofGodinheaven。ThekingwasanofficerofthatrealmandaliegemanofGod。Thedoctoroflawsandthedoctorofphysicpartookinadegreeofthepriestlycharacter。Ontheotherhand，theChurchwasnotwithdrawnfromtheevery—daylifeofmen;thedivisionintoaworldlyandspirituallife，neitherofwhichhadmuchtodowiththeother，wasacreationoftheprotestantismoftheReformation，andhadnoplaceinthepracticeatleastofthemediaevalChurch，whichwecannottoocarefullyrememberislittlemorerepresentedbymodernCatholicismthanbymodernProtestantism。Thecontest，therefore，betweentheCrownandtheChurchwasamerebickeringbetweentwobodies，withoutanyessentialantagonismbetweenthem，astohowfartheadministrationofeitherreached;neitherdreamedofsubordinatingonetotheother，farlessofextinguishingonebytheother。
　　ThehistoryoftheCrusades，by—the—way，illustratesveryemphaticallythispositionoftheChurchintheMiddleAges。ThefoundationofthatstrangefeudalkingdomofJerusalem，whoseverycoatofarmswasasolecisminheraldry，whosekinghadprecedence，invirtueofhisplaceaslordofthecentreofChristianity，overallotherkingsandprinces;theordersofmen—at—armsvowedtopovertyandchastity，liketheTemplarsandKnightsofSt。John;andabovealltheunquestioningsenseofdutythaturgedmenofallclassesandkindsintotheholywar，showhowstronglytheideaofGod’sKingdomontheearthhadtakenholdofallmen’smindsintheearlyMiddleAges。AstotheresultoftheCrusades，theycertainlyhadtheirinfluenceonthesolidificationofEuropeandthegreatfeudalsystem，attheheadofwhich，intheoryatleast，werethePopeandtheKaiser。Fortherest，theintercoursewiththeEastgaveEuropeanopportunityofsharinginthemechanicalcivilizationofthepeoplesoriginallydominatedbytheArabs，andinfusedbytheartofByzantiumandPersia，notwithoutsometinctureofthecultivationofthelatterclassicalperiod。
　　ThestirandmovementalsooftheCrusades，andthenecessitiesinwhichtheyinvolvedtheprincesandtheirbarons，furtheredtheupwardmovementoftheclassesthatlaybelowthefeudalvassals，greatandlittle;theprincipalopportunityforwhichmovement，however，inEngland，wasgivenbythecontinuousstrugglebetweentheCrownandtheChurchandBaronage。
　　TheearlyNormankings，evenimmediatelyafterthedeathoftheConqueror，foundthemselvesinvolvedinthisstruggle，andwereforcedtoavailthemselvesofthehelpofwhathadnowbecometheinferiortribe——thenativeEnglish，towit。HenryI。，anableandambitiousman，understoodthissoclearlythathemadeadistinctbidforthefavouroftheinferiortribebymarryinganEnglishprincess;
　　anditwasbymeansofthehelpofhisEnglishsubjectsthatheconqueredhisNormansubjects，andthefieldofTenchebray，whichputthecoping—stoneonhissuccess，wasfeltbytheEnglishpeopleasanEnglishvictoryovertheoppressingtribewithwhichDukeWilliamhadoverwhelmedtheEnglishpeople。Itwasduringthisking’sreignandundertheseinfluencesthatthetradingandindustrialclassesbegantorisesomewhat。Themerchantgildswerenowintheirperiodofgreatestpower，andhadbutjustbegun，inEnglandatleast，todevelopintothecorporationsofthetowns;butthetownsthemselveswerebeginningtogaintheirfreedomandtobecomeanimportantelementinthesocietyofthetime，aslittlebylittletheyassertedthemselvesagainstthearbitraryruleofthefeudallords，layorecclesiastical：forastothelatter，itmustberememberedthattheChurchincludedinherselftheordersorclassesintowhichlaysocietywasdivided，andwhilebyitslowerclergyoftheparishesandbythefriarsittouchedthepeople，itsupperclergyweresimplyfeudallords;andasthereligiousfervourofthehigherclergy，whichwasmarkedenoughintheearlierperiodoftheMiddleAges（inAnselm，forexample），fadedout，theybecamemoreandmoremerelandlords，althoughfromtheconditionsoftheirlandlordism，livingastheydidontheirlandandamidstoftheirtenants，theywerelessoppressivethanthelaylandlords。
　　TheorderandprogressofHenryI。’sreign，whichmarksthetransitionfromthemeremilitarycampoftheConquerortothemediaevalEnglandIhavetodwellupon，wasfollowedbytheperiodofmereconfusionandmiserywhichaccompaniedtheaccessionoftheprincesofAnjoutothethroneofEngland。Inthisperiodthebaronswidelybecamemereviolentandillegalrobbers;andthecastleswithwhichthelandwasdotted，andwhichwerebegunundertheauspicesoftheConquerorasmilitaryposts，becamemeredensofstrong—thieves。
　　Nodoubtthismadethebusinessofthenextableking，HenryII。，theeasier。Hewasastaunchmanofbusiness，andturnedhimselfwithhiswholesoultowardstheestablishmentoforderandtheconsolidationofthemonarchy，whichaccordinglytookagreatstrideunderhimtowardsitsultimategoalofbureaucracy。Hewouldprobablyhavecarriedthebusinessstillfarther，sinceinhiscontestwiththeChurch，inspiteofthecanonizationofBeckettandtheking’sformalpenanceathistomb，hehadinfactgainedavictoryfortheCrownwhichitneverreallylostagain;butinhisdaysEnglandwasonlyapartofthevastdominionofhisHouse，whichincludedmorethanhalfofFrance，andhisstrugglewithhisfeudatoriesandtheFrenchking，whichsowedtheseedofthelossofthatdominiontotheEnglishCrown，tookupmuchofhislife，andfinallybeathim。
　　Histwoimmediatesuccessors，RichardI。andJohn，weregoodspecimensofthechiefsoftheirline，almostallofwhomwereveryablemen，havingevenatouchofgeniusinthem，buttherewithalweresuchwantonblackguardsandscoundrelsthatoneisalmostforcedtoapplythetheologicalword"wickedness"tothem。Suchcharactersbelongspeciallytotheirtimes，fertileastheywerebothofgreatqualitiesandofscoundrelism，andinwhichourownspecialviceofhypocrisywasentirelylacking。John，thesecondofthesetwopests，putthecoping—stoneonthevillanyofhisfamily，andlosthisFrenchdominioninthelump。
　　UndersuchrascalsasthesecametheturnoftheBaronage;andthey，ledbyStephenLangton，thearchbishopwhohadbeenthrustontheunwillingkingbythePope，unitedtogetherandforcedfromhimhisassenttoMagnaCharta，thegreat，thoroughlywell—considereddeed，whichisconventionallycalledthefoundationofEnglishLiberty，butwhichcanonlyclaimtobesoonthegroundthatitwastheconfirmationandsealofthecompletefeudalsysteminEngland，andputtherelationsbetweenthevassals，thegreatfeudatories，andthekingonastablebasis;sinceitcreated，oratleastconfirmed，orderamongtheseprivilegedclasses，amongwhom，indeed，itrecognizedthetownstoacertainextentaspartofthegreatfeudalhierarchy：sothatevenbythistimetheyhadbeguntoacquirestatusinthathierarchy。
　　SoJohnpassedaway，andbecamenotlongafteranalmostmythicalpersonage，thetypeofthebadking。Therearestillballads，andprosestoriesdeducedfromtheseballads，inexistence，whichtellthetaleofthisstrangemonsterastheEnglishpeopleimaginedit。
　　Astheybelongtotheliteratureofthefourteenthcentury，theperiodIhaveundertakentotellyouaboutspecially，IwillgiveyouoneofthelatteroftheseconcerningthedeathofKingJohn，forwhomthepeopleimaginedamoredramaticcauseofdeaththanmereindigestion，ofwhichinallprobabilityhereallydied;andyoumaytakeitforaspecimenofpopularliteratureofthefourteenthcentury。
　　Icanheremakeboldtoquotefrommemory，withoutdepartingverywidelyfromtheoldtext，sincethequaintwordingoftheoriginal，andthespiritofboldandbluntheroismwhichitbreathes，havefixeditinmymindforever。
　　Theking，youmustremember，hadhaltedatSwinesteadAbbey，inLincolnshire，inhisretreatfromthehostilebaronsandtheirFrenchallies，andhadlostallhisbaggagebythesurpriseoftheadvancingtideintheWash;sothathemightwellbeinasomewhatsourmood。
　　Saysthetale：Sothekingwenttomeatinthehall，andbeforehimwasaloaf;andhelookedgrimlyonitandsaid，’Forhowmuchissuchaloafsoldinthisrealm？’
　　’Sir，foronepenny，’saidthey。
　　Thenthekingsmotetheboardwithhisfistandsaid，’ByGod，ifI
　　liveforoneyearsuchaloafshallbesoldfortwelvepence！’
　　Thatheardoneofthemonkswhostoodthereby，andhethoughtandconsideredthathishourandtimetodiewascome，andthatitwouldbeagooddeedtoslaysocruelakingandsoevilalord。
　　Sohewentintothegardenandpluckedplumsandtookoutofthemthesteles[stalks]，anddidvenominthemeachone;andhecamebeforethekingandsatonhisknee，andsaid：
　　’Sir，bySt。Austin，thisisfruitofourgarden。’
　　Thenthekinglookedevillyonhimandsaid，’Assaythem，monk！’
　　Sothemonktookandatethereof，norchangedcountenanceanywhit：
　　andthekingatethereafter。
　　Butpresentlyafterwardsthemonkswelledandturnedblue，andfelldownanddiedbeforetheking：thenwaxedthekingsickatheart，andhealsoswelledanddied，andsoheendedhisdays。
　　ForawhileafterthedeathofJohnandtheaccessionofHenryIII。
　　theBaronage，strengthenedbythegreatCharterandwithaweakandwaywardkingonthethrone，madetheirstepforwardinpowerandpopularity，andthefirstseriouschecktothetendencytomonarchicalbureaucracy，akindofelementaryaristocraticconstitution，wasimposedupontheweaknessofHenryIII。Underthismovementofthebarons，whointheirturnhadtoseekforthesupportofthepeople，thetownsmadeafreshstepinadvance，andSimondeMontfort，theleaderofwhatforwantofabetterwordmustbecalledthepopularparty，wasforcedbyhiscircumstancestosummontohisParliamentcitizensfromtheboroughs。EarlSimonwasoneofthosementhatcometothefrontinviolenttimes，andheaddedrealnobilityofcharactertostrengthofwillandpersistence。Hebecametheheroofthepeople，whowentneartocanonizinghimafterhisdeath。Butthemonarchywastoostrongforhimandhisreallyadvancedprojects，whichbynomeanssquaredwiththehopesoftheBaronageingeneral：andwhenPrinceEdward，afterwardsEdwardI。，growntohisfullmentalstature，cametothehelpoftheCrownwithhisunscrupulousbusinessability，thestrugglewassoonover;andwithEveshamfieldthemonarchybegantotakeanewstride，andthelongestyettaken，towardsbureaucracy。
　　EdwardI。isrememberedbyuschieflyforthestrugglehecarriedonwiththeScotchBaronageforthefeudalsuzeraintyofthatkingdom，andthecenturiesofanimositybetweenthetwocountrieswhichthatstruggledrewon。Buthehasotherclaimstoourattentionbesidesthis。
　　Atfirst，andrememberingtheruthlessnessofmanyofhisacts，especiallyintheScotchwar，oneisapttolookuponhimasasomewhatpedantictyrantandagoodsoldier，withsomethinglikeadashofhypocrisybeyondhistimeadded。But，liketheAngevinekingsIwasspeakingofjustnow，hewasacompletelycharacteristicproductofhistime。Hewasnotahypocriteprobably，afterall，inspiteofhistearsshedafterhehadirretrievablylostagame，orafterhehadwononebysterncruelty。Therewasadashofrealromanceinhim，whichmingledcuriouslywithhislawyer—likequalities。Hewas，perhaps，themanofallmenwhorepresentedmostcompletelythefinishedfeudalsystem，andwhotookitmosttoheart。
　　Hislaw，hisromance，andhisreligion，hisself—command，andhisterriblefurywereallapartofthisinnatefeudalism，andexercisedwithinitslimits;andwemustsupposethathethoroughlyfelthisresponsibilityasthechiefofhisfeudatories，whileatthesametimehehadnoideaofhishavinganyresponsibilitiestowardsthelowerpartofhissubjects。Suchamanwasspeciallysuitedtocarryingonthetendencytobureaucraticcentralization，whichculminatedintheTudormonarchy。HehadhisstrugglewiththeBaronage，buthardasitwas，hewassurenottocarryitbeyondtheduelimitsoffeudalism;tothathewasalwaysloyal。HehadslainEarlSimonbeforehewasking，whilehewasbuthisfather’sgeneral;
　　butEarlSimon’sworkdidnotdiewithhim，andhenceforward，whiletheMiddleAgesandtheirfeudalhierarchylasted，itwasimpossibleforeitherkingorbaronstodoanythingwhichwouldseriouslyinjureeachother’sposition;thestruggleendedinhisreigninabalanceofpowerinEnglandwhich，ontheonehand，preventedanygreatfeudatorybecomingarivaloftheking，ashappenedinseveralinstancesinFrance，andontheotherhandpreventedthekinglapsingintoameredespoticmonarch。
　　IhavesaidthatbureaucracytookagreatstrideinEdward’sreign，butitreacheditslimitsunderfeudalismasfarasthenobleswereconcerned。Peaceandorderwasestablishedbetweenthedifferentpowersofthegoverningclasses;henceforward，thestruggleisbetweenthemandthegoverned;thatstrugglewasnowtobecomeobvious;thelowertribewasrisinginimportance;itwasbecomingricherforfleecing，butalsoitwasbeginningtohavesomepower;
　　thisledthekingfirst，andafterwardsthebarons，toattackitdefinitely;itwasrichenoughtopayforthetroubleofbeingrobbed，andnotyetstrongenoughtodefenditselfwithopensuccess，althoughtheslowerandlessshowysuccessofgrowthdidnotfailit。
　　Theinstrumentofattackinthehandsofthebaronswastheordinaryfeudalprivilege，thelogicalcarryingoutofserfdom;butthisattacktookplacetworeignslater。Weshallcometothatfurtheron。Theattackonthelowertribewhichwasnowgrowingintoimportancewasinthisreignmadebytheking;andhisinstrumentwas——Parliament。
　　IhavetoldyouthatSimondeMontfortmadesomeattempttogettheburgessestositinhisParliament，butitwaslefttoEdwardI。tolaythefoundationsfirmlyofparliamentaryrepresentation，whichheusedforthepurposeofaugmentingthepoweroftheCrownandcrushingtherisinglibertyofthetowns，thoughofcoursehisdirectaimwassimplyat——money。
　　TheGreatCounciloftheRealmwaspurelyfeudal;itwascomposedofthefeudatoriesoftheking，theoreticallyofallofthem，practicallyofthegreatonesonly。Itwas，infact，thecounciloftheconqueringtribewiththeirchiefatitshead;themattersoftheduefeudaltribute，aids，reliefs，fines，scutage，andthelike——inshort，theking’srevenueduefromhismen——weresettledinthiscouncilatonceandinthelump。Buttheinferiortribe，thoughnotrepresentedthere，existed，and，asaforesaid，wasgrowingrich，andthekinghadtogettheirmoneyoutoftheirpursesdirectly;which，astheywerenotrepresentedatthecouncil，hehadtodobymeansofhisofficers（thesheriffs）dealingwiththemoneafteranother，whichwasatroublesomejob;forthemenwerestiff—neckedandquitedisinclinedtopartwiththeirmoney;andtherobberyhavingtobedoneonthespot，sotosay，encounteredallsortsofopposition：
　　and，infact，itwasthemoneyneedsbothofbaron，bishop，andkingwhichhadbeenthechiefinstrumentinfurtheringtheprogressofthetowns。Thetownswouldbepressedbytheirlords，king，orbaron，orbishop，asitmightbe，andtheywouldseetheiradvantageandstrikeabargain。Foryouarenottoimaginethatbecausetherewasadealofviolencegoingoninthosetimestherewasnorespectforlaw;onthecontrary，therewasaquiteexaggeratedrespectforitifitcamewithinthefourcornersofthefeudalfeeling，andtheresultofthisfeelingofrespectwastheconstantstruggleforSTATUSonthepartofthetownshipsandotherassociationsthroughouttheMiddleAges。
　　Well，theburgherswouldsay，"’Tishardtopaythismoney，butwewillputourselvesouttopayitifyouwilldosomethingforusinreturn;let，forexample，ourmenbetriedinourowncourt，andtheverdictbeofoneofcompurgationinsteadofwagerofbattle，"andsoforth，andsoforth。
　　Allthissortofdetailedbargainingwas，infact，asafeguardforthelocalliberties，sofarastheywent，ofthetownsandshires，anddidnotsuittheking’sviewsoflawandorderatall;andsobeganthecustomofthesheriff（theking’sofficer，whohadtakentheplaceoftheearloftheAnglo—Saxonperiod）summoningtheburgessestothecouncil，whichburgessesyoumustunderstandwerenotelectedatthefolkmotesofthetown，orhundred，butinasortofhole—and—cornerwaybyafewofthebiggermenoftheplace。Whatthekingpracticallysaidwasthis："Iwantyourmoney，andIcannotbeforeverwranglingwithyoustubbornchurlesathomethere，andlisteningtoallyourstoriesofhowpooryouare，andwhatyouwant;
　　no，IwantyoutobeREPRESENTED。SendmeupfromeachoneofyourcommunesamanortwowhomIcanbullyorcajoleorbribetosignawayyoursubstanceforyou。"
　　UnderthesecircumstancesitisnowonderthatthetownswerenotveryeagerinthecauseofREPRESENTATION。ItwasnoeasyjobtogetthemtocomeuptoLondonmerelytoconsultastothekindofsaucewithwhichtheyweretobeeaten。However，theydidcomeinsomenumbers，andbytheyear1295somethinglikeashadowofourpresentParliamentwasonfoot。Norneedtherebemuchmoresaidaboutthisinstitution;astimewentonitsfunctionsgotgraduallyextendedbythepetitionfortheredressofgrievancesaccompanyingthegrantingofmoney，butitwasgenerallytobereckonedonassubservienttothewilloftheking，whodowntothelaterTudorperiodplayedsomeveryqueertunesonthisconstitutionalinstrument。
　　EdwardI。gaveplacetohisson，whoagainwasofthetypeofkingwhohadhithertogiventheopportunitytothebaronsfortheirturnofadvancementintheconstitutionalstruggle;andinearliertimesnodoubttheywouldhavetakenfulladvantageofthecircumstances;
　　asitwastheyhadlittletogain。Thekingdidhisbesttothrowofftherestraintofthefeudalconstitution，andtogovernsimplyasanabsolutemonarch。Afteratimeofapparentsuccesshefailed，ofcourse，andonlysucceededinconfirmingthelegalrightsoffeudalismbybringingabouthisownformaldepositionatthehandsoftheBaronage，asachiefwho，havingbrokenthecompactwithhisfeudatories，hadnecessarilyforfeitedhisright。IfwecomparehiscasewiththatofCharlesI。weshallfindthisdifferenceinit，besidestheobviousonethatEdwardwasheldresponsibletohisfeudatoriesandCharlestowardstheuppermiddleclasses，thesquirearchy，asrepresentedbyParliament;thatCharleswascondemnedbyalawcreatedforthepurpose，sotosay，andevolvedfromtheprincipleoftherepresentationofthepropertiedclasses，whileEdward’sdepositionwasthereallogicaloutcomeoftheconfirmedfeudalsystem，andwaspracticallylegalandregular。
　　Thesuccessorofthedeposedking，thethirdEdward，ushersinthecompleteandcentralperiodoftheMiddleAgesinEngland。Thefeudalsystemiscomplete：thelifeandspiritofthecountryhasdevelopedintoaconditionifnotquiteindependent，yetquiteforgetful，ontheonehandoftheideasandcustomsoftheCelticandTeutonictribes，andontheotheroftheauthorityoftheRomanEmpire。TheMiddleAgeshavegrownintomanhood;thatmanhoodhasanartofitsown，which，thoughdevelopedstepbystepfromthatofOldRomeandNewRome，andembracingthestrangemysticismanddreamybeautyoftheEast，hasforgottenbothitsfatheranditsmother，andstandsalonetriumphant，theloveliest，brightest，andgayestofallthecreationsofthehumanmindandhand。
　　Ithasaliteratureofitsowntoo，somewhatakintoitsart，yetinferiortoit，andlackingitsunity，sincethereisadoublestreaminit。Ontheonehandisthecourtpoet，thegentleman，Chaucer，withhisItalianizingmetres，andhisformalrecognitionoftheclassicalstories;onwhich，indeed，hebuildsasuperstructureofthequaintestandmostunadulteratedmediaevalism，asgayandbrightasthearchitecturewhichhiseyesbeheldandhispenpicturedforus，soclear，defined，andelegantitis;asunnyworldevenamidstitsviolenceandpassingtroubles，likethoseofahappychild，theworstofthemanamusementratherthanagrieftotheonlookers;aworldthatscarcelyneededhopeinitseagerlifeofadventureandlove，amidstthesunlitblossomingmeadows，andgreenwoods，andwhitebegildedmanor—houses。AkindlyandhumanmuseisChaucer’s，nevertheless，interestedinandamusedbyalllife，butofherverynaturedevoidofstrongaspirationsforthefuture;andthatallthemore，since，thoughthestrongdevotionandfiercepietyoftheruderMiddleAgeshadbythistimewaned，andtheChurchwasmoreoftenlightlymockedatthaneitherfearedorloved，stilltheHABIToflookingonthislifeaspartofanotheryetremained：theworldisfairandfullofadventure;kindmenandtrueandnobleareinittomakeonehappy;foolsalsotolaughat，andrascalstoberesisted，yetnotwhollycondemned;andwhenthisworldisoverweshallstillgoonlivinginanotherwhichisapartofthis。Lookatallthepicture，noteallandliveinall，andbeasmerryasyoumay，neverforgettingthatyouarealiveandthatitisgoodtolive。
　　ThatisthespiritofChaucer’spoetry;butalongsideofitexistedyettheballadpoetryofthepeople，whollyuntouchedbycourtlyeleganceandclassicalpedantry;rudeinartbutnevercoarse，truetothebackbone;instinctwithindignationagainstwrong，andtherebyexpressingthehopethatwasinit;aprotestofthepooragainsttherich，especiallyinthosesongsoftheForesters，whichhavebeencalledthemediaevalepicofrevolt;nomoregloomythanthegentleman’spoetry，yetcheerfulfromcourage，andnotcontent。Halfadozenstanzasofitareworthacartloadofthewhiningintrospectivelyricsofto—day;andhewho，whenhehasmasteredtheslightdifferencesoflanguagefromourowndailyspeech，isnotmovedbyit，doesnotunderstandwhattruepoetrymeansnorwhatitsaimis。
　　ThereisathirdelementintheliteratureofthistimewhichyoumaycallLollardpoetry，thegreatexampleofwhichisWilliamLangland’s"PiersPlowman。"ItisnobadcorrectivetoChaucer，andinFORMatleastbelongswhollytothepopularside;butitseemstometoshowsymptomsofthespiritoftherisingmiddleclass，andcastsbeforeittheshadowofthenewmasterthatwascomingforwardfortheworkman’soppression。ButImustleavewhatmoreIhavetosayonthissubjectoftheartandliteratureofthefourteenthcenturyforanotheroccasion。InwhatIhavejustsaid，IonlywantedtopointouttoyouthattheMiddleAgeshadbythistimecometothefullestgrowth;andthattheycouldexpressinaformwhichwasalltheirown，theideasandlifeofthetime。
　　Thattimewasinasensebrilliantandprogressive，andthelifeoftheworkerinitwasbetterthaniteverhadbeen，andmightcomparewithadvantagewithwhatitbecameinafterperiodsandwithwhatitisnow;andindeed，lookingbackuponit，therearesomemindsandsomemoodsthatcannothelpregrettingit，andarenotparticularlyscaredbytheideaofitsviolenceanditslackofaccurateknowledgeofscientificdetail。
　　However，onethingiscleartousnow，thekindofthingwhichneveriscleartomostpeoplelivinginsuchperiods——namely，thatwhateveritwas，itcouldnotlast，butmustchangeintosomethingelse。
　　Thecompletefeudalismofthefourteenthcenturyfell，assystemsalwaysfall，byitsowncorruption，andbydevelopmentoftheinnateseedsofchange，someofwhichindeedhadlainasleepduringcenturies，towakeupintoactivitylongaftertheeventswhichhadcreatedthemwereforgotten。
　　Thefeudalsystemwasnaturallyoneofopenwar;andthealliances，marriages，andotherdealings，familywithfamily，madebythekingandpotentates，werealwaysleadingthemintowarbygivingthemlegalclaims，oratleastclaimsthatcouldbelegallypleaded，tothedomainsofotherlords，whotookadvantageoftheirbeingonthespot，oftheirstrengthinmenormoney，ortheirpopularitywiththeBaronage，togiveimmediateeffecttoTHEIRclaims。SuchawarwasthatbywhichEdwardI。drewonEnglandtheenmityoftheScotch;andsuchagainwasthegreatwarwhichEdwardIII。enteredintowithFrance。Youmustnotsupposethattherewasanythinginthiswarofanational，farlessofarace，character。ThelastseriesofwarsbeforethistimeIamnowspeakingof，inwhichracefeelingscountedformuch，wastheCrusades。ThisFrenchwar，Isay，wasneithernational，racial，ortribal;itwastheprivatebusinessofalordofthemanor，claimingwhatheconsideredhislegalrightsofanotherlord，whohad，ashethought，usurpedthem;andthisclaimhisloyalfeudatorieswereboundtotakeupforhim;loyaltytoafeudalsuperior，notpatriotismtoacountry，wasthevirtuewhichEdwardIII。’ssoldiershadtooffer，iftheyhadanycalltobevirtuousinthatrespect。
　　Thiswaroncestartedwashardtodrop，partlybecauseofthesuccessthatEdwardhadinit，fallingashedidonFrancewiththeforceofacountrysomuchmorehomogeneousthanit;andnodoubtitwasawarverydisastroustobothcountries，andsomaybereckonedasamongstthecauseswhichbrokeupthefeudalsystem。