Thencethenecessityofanartofgovernment，andasitisthisbeforeallelsewhichstrikesthosewhoarestudyingcollectivelife，itwasnaturalthatpoliticsshouldappearastheauthorofthesocialorderandasthesignofthecontinuityinthesuccessionofhistoricforms。Tosaypoliticsistosayactivity，which，uptoacertainpoint，isexercisedinadesireddirection，untilthemomentatleastwhencalculationsdashthemselvesagainstunknownorunexpectedobstacles。Bytakingthestateasanimperfectexperiencewouldsuggestfortheauthorofsociety，andpoliticsfortheauthorofthesocialorder，itresultedthatthenarratorsorphilosophicalhistoriansweredriventoplacetheessenceofhistoryinasuccessionofforms，institutionsandpoliticalideas。
　　Whencethestatedrewitsorigin，wherethebasisofitsperformancewasfound，thatmatterednot，asthatmattersnotincurrentreasoning。Theproblemsofthegeneticorderarose，asisknown，ratherlate。Thestateisanditfindsitsreasonforexistenceinitspresentnecessity；thatissotruethattheimaginationhasnotbeenabletoadaptitselftotheideathatithasnotalwaysexisted，andsoithasprolongeditsconjecturalexistencebacktothefirstoriginsofthehumanrace。Thegodsordemigodsandheroeswereitsfounders，inmythologyatleast，justasinmediaevaltheologythePopeisthefirstandthereforethedivineandperpetualsourceofallauthority。
　　Eveninourtime，inexperiencedtravelersandimbecilemissionariesfindthestatewherethereis，asamongsavagesandbarbarians，nothingbutthegens，orthetribeofgentes，ortheallianceofgentes。
　　Twothingswerenecessarythattheseprejudicesofthejudgmentshouldbeovercome。Inthefirstplace，itwasnecessarytorecognizethatthefunctionsofthestatearise，increase，diminish，alterandfolloweachotherwiththevariationsofcertainsocialconditions。Inthesecondplace，itwasnecessarytoarriveatacomprehensionofthefactthatthestateexistsandmaintainsitselfinthatitisorganizedforthedefenseofcertaindefiniteinterests，ofonepartofsocietyagainstalltherestofsocietyitself，whichmustbemadeinsuchaway，initsentirety，thattheresistanceofthesubjects，oftheill-treatedandtheexploited，eitherislostinmultiplefrictions，oristemperedbythepartialadvantages，wretchedthoughtheybe，totheoppressedthemselves。Politics，thatartsomiraculousandsoadmired，thusbringsusbacktoaverysimpleformula；toapplyaforceorasystemofforcestothetotalofresistances。
　　Thefirststep，andthemostdifficult，istakenwhenthestatehasbeenreducedtothesocialconditionswhenceitdrawsitsorigin。Butthesesocialconditionsthemselveshavebeensubsequentlydefinedbythetheoryofclasses，thegenesisofwhichisinthemannerofthedifferentoccupations，grantedthedistributionoflabor，thatistosay，grantedtherelationswhichco-ordinateandbindmentogetherinadefiniteformofproduction。
　　Thenceforththeconceptofthestatehasceasedtorepresentthedirectcauseofthehistoricmovementasthepresumedauthorofsociety，becauseithasbeenseenthatineachofitsformsanditsvariationsthereisnothingelsethanthepositiveandforcedorganizationofadefiniteclassrule，orofadefinitecompactbetweendifferentclasses。Andthenbyanulteriorconsequencefromthesepremises，itisfinallytoberecognizedthatpolitics，astheartofactinginadesireddirection，isacomparativelysmallpartofthegeneralmovementofhistory，andthatitisbutafeeblepartoftheformationandthedevelopmentofthestateitself，inwhichmanythings，thatistosay，manyrelations，ariseanddevelopbynecessarycompact，byatacitconsent，orbyviolenceenduredandtolerated。Thereignoftheunconscious，ifbythatwemeanwhatisnotdecreedbyfreechoiceandforethought，butwhatisdeterminedandaccomplishedbyasuccessionofhabits，customs，compacts，etc。，hasbecomeveryconsiderableinthedomainofthedatawhichformtheobjectofthehistoricsciences；andpolitics，whichhasbeentakenasanexplanation，hasitselfbecomesomethingtoexplain。
　　Weknownowinapositivewaythereasonsinconsequenceofwhichhistoryhadnecessarilytoappearunderapurelypoliticalform。
　　Butthisdoesnotmeanthatweoughttobelievethatthestateisasimpleexcrescence，amereaccessoryofthesocialbody，oroffreeassociation，assomanyUtopiansandsomanyultra-liberalthinkersofanarchisttendencieshaveimagined。Ifsocietyhasthusfarculminatedinthestate，itisbecauseithashadneedofthiscomplementofforceandauthority，becauseitisatfirstcomposedofunitswhichareunequalbyreasonofeconomicdifferentiations。
　　Thestateissomethingveryreal，asystemofforceswhichmaintainequilibriumandimposeitthroughviolenceandrepression。Andtoexistasasystemofforcesithasbeencompelledtodevelopandtoestablishaneconomicpower，whetherthislatterrestsuponrobbery，theresultofwar，orwhetheritconsistsindirectpropertyinthedomain，orwhetheritisconstitutedlittlebylittle，thankstothemodernmethodofpublictaxes，whichtakesontheconstitutionalappearanceofaself-imposedsystemoftaxation。Itisinthiseconomicpower，soconsiderableinmoderntimes，thatitscapacityforactingisfounded。Itresults，thatbyreasonofanewdivisionoflabor，thefunctionsofstategiverisetospecialordersandconditions，thatistosay，toveryparticularclasses，withoutincludingtheclassofparasites。
　　Thestate，whichisandwhichmustbeaneconomicpowerthatinitsdefenseoftherulingclassesitmaybefurnishedwithmeanstorepress，togovern，toadministerandtomakewar，createsinadirectoranindirectmanneranaggregationofnewandparticularinterests，whichnecessarilyreactuponsociety。Thusthestate，bythefactthatithasarisenandthatitmaintainsitselfasaguarantyofthesocialantitheses，whichareaconsequenceofeconomicdifferentiations，createsarounditselfacircleofpersonsinteresteddirectlyinitsexistence。
　　Twoconsequencesfollowtherefrom。Associetyisnotahomogeneouswhole，butabodyofspecializedarticulations，or，rather，amultiformcomplexusofobjectsandinterests，ithappensthatsometimesthedirectorsofthestateseektoisolatethemselves，andbythisisolationtheyopposethemselvestothewholeofsociety，andthen，inthesecondplace，ithappensthatorgansandfunctions，createdfirstfortheadvantageofall，endbynolongerservinganyinterestbutthoseofgroups，andpermitabusesofpoweronthepartofcoteriesandcamorras。Thencearisearistocraciesandhierarchiesbornfromtheuseofthepublicpower，thencearisedynasties；inthelightofsimplelogictheseformationsappearwhollyirrational。
　　Fromthefirstbeginningsofwrittenhistorythestatehasincreasedordiminisheditspowers，butithasneverdisappeared，becauseeversincetherehavebeen，inthesocietyofmenunequalinconsequenceofeconomicdifferentiation，reasonsformaintaining，andfordefending，throughforceorconquest，slavery，monopolies，orthepredominanceofoneformofproduction，withthedominationofmanoverman。Thestatehasbecome，asitwere，thefieldofanendlesscivilwar，whichisdevelopingalways，evenifitdoesnotalwaysshowitselfunderthestartlingformofMariusandSylla，daysofJuneandwarsofSecession。
　　Withinthestate，thecorruptionofmanbymanhasalwaysflourished，because，ifthereisnoformofdominationwhichdoesnotmeetresistance，therearenoformsofresistancewhich，inconsequenceofthepressingneedsoflife，maynotdegenerateintoapassivecompact。
　　Forthesereasons，historicevents，seenonthesurfaceoftheordinarymonotonousnarrative，appearliketherepetitionofthesametype，withfewvariations，likeaseriesofkaleidoscopicpictures。WeneednotbeastonishediftheidealisticHerbartandthecausticorpessimisticSchopenhauerarrivedatthisconclusion，thatthereisnohistory，inthesenseofanyactualprocessus，whichistosayincommonlanguagehistoryisatiresomesong。
　　Whenpoliticalhistoryisoncereducedtoitsquintessence，thestateremainsilluminatedinallitsprose。Thenceforththereisnomoretraceeitheroftheologicaldivination，norofmetaphysicaltransubstantiation，somuchinvogueamongcertainGermanphilosophers——forwhomthestateistheIdea，theStateIdeawhichisrealizedinhistory，thestateisthefullrealizationofthepersonality，andotherstupiditiesofthesamesort。
　　Thestateisarealorganizationofdefensetoguaranteeandperpetuateamodeofassociation，thefoundationofwhichisaformofeconomicproduction，oracompactandatransactionbetweenforms。Tosumup，thestateassumeseitherasystemofproperty，oracompactbetweenseveralsystemsofproperty。
　　Thereisthefoundationofallitsart，theexerciseofwhichdemandsthatthestateitselfbecameaneconomicpower，andthatitalsodisposeofmeansandprocessestomakepropertypassfromthehandsofsomeintothehandsofothers。When，bytheeffectofanacuteandviolentchangeoftheformsofproduction，itisnecessarytoresorttoanunusualandextraordinaryreadjustmentoftherelationsofproperty（forexample，theabolitionofmortmainandfiefs，theabolitionofcommercialmonopolies），thentheoldpoliticalformisinsufficientandrevolutionisnecessarytocreateaneworganwhichmayoperatetheneweconomictransformation。
　　Ifwemakeanexceptionoftheveryancienttimeswhichareunknowntous，allhistoryisdevelopedinthecontactsandtheantagonismsofthedifferenttribesandcommunities，andthereafterofthedifferentnationsanddifferentstates；thatistosay，thatthereasonsfortheinternalantithesesinthecircleofeachsocietyarealwaysmoreandmorecomplicatedwithfrictionswiththeoutsideworld。Thesetworeasonsforantagonismconditioneachotherreciprocally，butinwayswhicharealwaysvarying。Oftenitisinternaldisturbancewhichurgesacommunityoracitytoenterintoexternalcollisions；
　　atothertimesitisthesecollisionswhichaltertheinternalrelations。
　　Theprincipalmotiveforthedifferentrelationsbetweenthedifferentcommunitieshasbeenfromthebeginnings，evenasitisto-day，commerceinthebroadsenseoftheword，thatistosay，exchange，whetheritisamatterofgivingup，asinthepoortribes，merelythesurplusinexchangeforotherthings，orwhetheritisamatter，asto-day，ofproductiononalargescale，whichiscarriedonwiththeexclusiveintentionofsellingsoastodrawfromasumofmoneyalargersumofmoney。Thisenormousmassofeventsexteriorandinterior，whichaccumulateandpileuponeachotherinhistory，issuchatroubletothehistorianswhocontentthemselveswithexploringitandsummarizingit，thattheybecomelostintheinfiniteattemptsatchronologicalgroupsandbird’s-eyeviews。Whoever，onthecontrary，knowstheinternaldevelopmentofthedifferentsocialtypesintheireconomicstructure，andwhoconsiderspoliticaleventsastheparticularresultsoftheforcesactinginsociety，endsbytriumphingovertheconfusionbornoutofthemultiplicityandtheuncertaintyoffirstimpressions，andinsteadofachronologicalorsynchronousseries，oraviewofthewhole，hecanarriveattheconcreteseriesofarealprocessus。
　　Inthepresenceoftheserealisticconditionsalltheideologiesfoundedontheethicalmissionofthestateoronanysuchconception，falltotheground。Thestateis，sotospeak，fittedintoitsplace，anditremainsencased，asitwere，inthesurroundingsofthesocialdevelopment，initscapacityofaformresultingfromotherconditions，andinitsturn，byreasonofitsexistence，reactingnaturallyupontherest。
　　Herearisesanotherquestion。
　　Willthisformeverbeoutgrown？——orcantherebeasocietywithoutastate？——orcantherebeasocietywithoutclasses？——andifwemustbemoreexplicit，willthereeverbeaformofcommunistproductionwithadistributionoflaborandoftaskssuchthattherewillbenoroominitforthedevelopmentofinequalities，thatsourceofdominationofmanoverman？
　　Itisintheaffirmativeanswertothisquestionthatscientificsocialismconsists，insofarasitaffirmsthecomingofcommunisticproduction，notasapostulate，norastheaimofafreevolition，butastheresultoftheprocessusimmanentinhistory。
　　Asiswellknown，thepremiseofthisprevisionisintheactualconditionsofpresentcapitalistproduction。This，socializingcontinuallythemodeofproduction，hassubjectedlivinglabormoreandmorewithitsregulationstotheobjectiveconditionsofthetechnicalprocess，ithasdayafterdayconcentratedthepropertyinthemeansofproductionmoreandevermoreintothehandsofafew，whoasstockholders，orspeculators，arealwaysfoundtobemoreandmoreremovedfromimmediatelabor，thedirectionofwhichpassesovertointelligenceandscience。Withtheincreasedconsciousnessofthissituationamongtheproletarians，whoseinstructioninsolidaritycomesfromtheactualconditionsoftheiremployment，andwiththedecreaseofthecapacityoftheholdersofcapitaltopreservetheprivatedirectionofproductivelabor，amomentwillcome，wheninonefashionoranother，withtheeliminationineveryformofprivaterent，interest，profit，theproductionwillpassovertothecollectivistassociation，thatistosay，willbecomecommunistic。Thuswilldisappearallinequalities，exceptthoseofsex，age，temperamentandcapacity，thatistosay，allthoseinequalitieswillceasewhichengendereconomicclasses，orwhichareengenderedbythem，andthedisappearanceofclasseswillputanendtothepossibilityofthestate，asdominationofmanoverman。Thetechnicalandpedagogicalgovernmentofintelligencewillformtheonlyorganizationofsociety。
　　Inthisfashion，scientificsocialism，inanidealfashionatleast，hastriumphedoverthestate；anditstriumphhasgivenitacompleteknowledgebothofitsmodeoforiginandthereasonsforitsnaturaldisappearance。
　　Ithasunderstooditpreciselybecauseitdoesnotriseupagainstitinaone-sidedandsubjectivefashion，asdidmorethanonce，atdifferentepochs，thecynics，thestoics，theepicureansofallsorts，thereligioussectaries，thevisionarymonks，theutopiansandfinally，inourdays，theanarchistsofeverystripe。Stillmore，insteadofrisingupagainstit，scientificsocialismisproposingtoshowhowthestatecontinuallyrisesupofitselfagainstitself，bycreatinginthemeanswithwhichitcannotdispense，as，forexample，acolossalsystemoftaxation，militarism，universalsuffrage，thedevelopmentofeducation，etc。，theconditionsofitsownruin。Thesocietywhichhasproduceditwillreabsorbit；thatistosay，thatjustassocietyinorganizinganewformofproductionwilleliminatetheantagonismsbetweencapitalandlabor，so，withthedisappearanceofproletariansandtheconditionswhichrenderproletarianspossible，willdisappearalldependenceofmenuponhisfellowmaninanyformofhierarchy，whateveritmaybe。
　　Thetermsinwhichthegenesisandthedevelopmentofthestateevolve，fromitsinitialpointofappearanceinaparticularcommunity，whereeconomicdifferentiationisbeginning，uptothemomentwherethisdisappearancebeginstoforeshadowitself，makeithenceforthintelligibletous。
　　TheStatehasbeenreducedtillitisbutanecessarycomplementofcertaindefiniteeconomicforms，andthusthetheorywhichwouldhaveseeninitanindependentfactorinhistoryisthenceforthforevereliminated。
　　Itishenceforthrelativelyeasytotakeaccountofthefashioninwhichlawhasbeenraiseduptotherankofadecisivefactorofsociety，andthusofhistory，directlyorindirectly。
　　Beforeallelse，wemustrememberinwhatfashionarosethisphilosophicconceptionofjusticegeneralized，whichistheprincipalfoundationofthetheorywhichmaintainsthathistoryisdominatedbytheprogressofindependentlegislation。
　　WiththeprecociousdissolutionofthefeudalsocietyincertainpartsofCentralandNorthernItaly，andwiththebirthoftheCommunes，whichwererepublicsofproductiongroupedintradeguildsandmerchantguilds，theRomanlawwasforcedintoaplaceofhonor。ThislawfloweredanewintheUniversities。Itenteredintoastrugglewiththebarbariclawsandalsoinpartwiththecanonlaw；itwasthenevidentlyaformofthoughtwhichansweredbettertotheneedsofthebourgeoisie，whichwasbeginningtodevelop。
　　Infact，consideringthepeculiaritiesofrivallaws，whichwereeithercustomsofbarbarousnations，orcorporationprivileges，orpapalorimperialconcessions，thislawappearedastheuniversalityofwrittenreason。Haditnotarrivedatthepointofregardinghumanpersonalityinitsmostabstractandhumanrelations，sinceacertainTitiusiscapableofbecomingdebtorandcreditor，ofsellingandbuying，ofmakingacession，adonation，etc。？
　　Romanlaw，althoughelaboratedinitslasteditingatthecommandofemperorsbyservileparasites，appearedthen，amidthedeclineofmediaevalinstitutions，asarevolutionaryforce，andassuchitconstitutedagreatstepofprogress。
　　Thislaw，souniversalthatitgavethemeansofoverthrowingbarbariclaws，wascertainlyalawwhichcorrespondedtohumannatureconsideredunderitsgenericrelations；andbyitsoppositiontoprivatelawsandprivilegesitappearedasanaturallaw。
　　Weknow，moreover，howthisideologyofnaturallawarose。Itacquireditsgreatestdistinctionintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies；butithadlongbeenpreparedforbythejurisprudencewhichtookforitsbasetheRomanlaw，whetheritadoptedit，revisedit，orcorrectedit。Totheformationoftheideologyofnaturallawanotherelementcontributed，theGreekphilosophyoflaterepochs。TheGreeks，whoweretheinventorsofthosedefiniteartsofthemindwhicharesciences，never，asisknown，drewfromtheirmultiplelocallawsadisciplinecorrespondingtothatwhichwecallthescienceoflaw。Onthecontrary，bytherapidprogressofabstractresearchinthecircleoftheirdemocracies，theyarrivedverysoonatalogical，rhetoricalandpedagogicaldiscussiononthenatureofjustice，thestate，thelaw，penalty；andintheirphilosophywemaytracetherudimentaryformsofalllaterdiscussions。Butitisnotuntillater，thatistosay，intheHellenisticepoch，whenthelimitsofGreeklifeweresufficientlyenlargedtobemingledwiththoseofthecivilizedworld，that，inthecosmopolitanenvironmentwhichcarriedwithittheneedofsearchingineachmanforthegenericman，therationalismofjusticearose——ofjusticeorofnaturalrightintheformgivenitbythestoicphilosophy。TheGreekrationalismwhichhadalreadyfurnishedacertainformalelementtothelogicalcodificationofRomanlawreappearedintheeighteenthcenturyinthedoctrineofnaturalright。
　　Thatideology，whosecriticismhasservedasanarmandaninstrumentforgivingajuridicalformtotheeconomicorganizationofmodernsociety，hashad，consequently，varioussources。Yet，infact，thisjuridicalideologyreflects，inthestruggleforlawandagainstlaw，therevolutionaryperiodofthebourgeoisspirit。And，althoughittakesitsdoctrinalpointofdepartureinareturntothetraditionsoftheancientphilosophy，inthegeneralizationofRomanjurisprudence，ineverythingelse，andinallitsdevelopment，itiscompletelynewandmodern。Romanlaw，althoughitwasgeneralizedbyscholasticismandbymodernelaboration，stillremainswithinitselfacollectionofspecialcaseswhichhavenotbeendeducedaccordingtoapreconceivedsystem，norpreordainedbythesystematicmindofthelegislator。Ontheotherhand，therationalismofthestoics，theircontemporariesandtheirdisciples，wasaworkofpurecontemplation，anditproducednorevolutionarymovementaroundit。Theideologyofnaturallaw，whichfinallytookthenameofphilosophyoflaw，was，onthecontrary，systematic，itstartedalwaysfromgeneralformulae，itwasaggressiveandpolemic，andstillmore，itwasatwarwithorthodoxy，withintolerance，withprivilege，withconstitutedbodies；infine，itfoughtforthelibertieswhichto-dayconstitutetheformalconditionsofmodernsociety。Itiswiththisideology，whichwasamethodofstruggle，thataroseforthefirsttime，inatypicalanddecisiveform，thatideathatthereisalawwhichisoneandthesamewithreason。Thelawsagainstwhichthestrugglewascarriedonappearasdeviations，backwardsteps，errors。
　　Fromthisfaithinrationallawarosetheblindbeliefinthepowerofthelegislator，whichgrewintofanaticismatthecriticalmomentsoftheFrenchRevolution。
　　Thencethebeliefthatsocietyasawholeistobesubmittedtoonesinglelaw，equalforall，systematic，logical，consistent。Thencetheconvictionthatalawguaranteeingtoallalegalequality，thatistosay，theprivilegeofcontracting，guaranteedalsolibertytoall。
　　Thetriumphoftruelawassuresthetriumphofreason，andthesocietywhichisregulatedbyalawequalforallisaperfectsociety！
　　Itisuselesstosaythattherewereillusionsatthebottomofthesetendencies。Weallknowtowhatthisuniversalliberationofmenwastolead。
　　Butwhatismostimportanthereisthefactthatthesepersuasionsarosefromaconceptionoflaw，whichconsidereditasdetachedfromthesocialcauseswhichproducedit。Likewisethatreason，towhichtheseideologiesappealed，reduceditselftorelievinglabor，association，traffic，commerce，politicalformsandconsciencefromalllimitsandallobstacleswhichpreventedfreecompetition。IhavealreadyshowninanotherchapterhowthegreatRevolutionoftheeighteenthcenturymayserveusforexperience。Andifthereisstillsomeoneto-daywhoinsistsonspeakingofarationallawwhichdominateshistory，ofalaw，inshort，whichwouldbeafactor，insteadofbeingasimplefactinhistoricrevolution，thatmeansthatheislivingoutofourtimeandthathehasnotunderstoodthatourliberalandequalitariancodificationhasalready，infact，markedtheendandthetermofthatwholeschoolofnaturallaw。
　　Bydifferentwayswehavearrivedinthiscenturyatreducinglaw，consideredpreviouslyasarationalthing，intoamaterialthing，andthusintoathingcorrespondingtodefinitesocialconditions。
　　Inthefirstplace，theinterestinhistorygainedinextentandindepth，anditledstudentstorecognizethattounderstandtheoriginsoflaw，itwasnotsufficienttostopatthedataofpurereason，noratthestudyofRomanlawalone。Barbariclaws，theusagesandcustomsofnationsandsocieties，sodespisedbytherationalists，havebeentheoreticallyrestoredtohonor。
　　Thatwastheonlywaytoarrive，throughthestudyofthemostancientforms，atanunderstandingofhowthemostrecentformscouldhavebeensuccessivelyproduced。
　　CodifiedRomanlawisaverymodernform；thatpersonality，whichitassumesasauniversalsubject，isanelaborationofaveryadvancedepoch，inwhichthecosmopolitanismofsocialrelationswasdominatedbyamilitary-bureaucraticconstitution。Inthisenvironment，inwhichawrittencodeofreasonhadbeenbuiltup，therewasnolongeranytraceofspontaneityorpopularlife，therewasnomoredemocracy。Thissamelaw，beforearrivingatthiscrystallization，hadarisenandhaddeveloped；andifwestudyitinitsoriginsandinitsdevelopments，andespeciallyif，inthisstudy，weemploythecomparativemethod，werecognizethat，uponmanypoints，itisanalogoustotheinstitutionsofinferiorsocietiesandnations。Itthereforebecomesevidentthatthetruescienceoflawcanbenothinglessthanthegenetichistoryofthelawitself。
　　But，whiletheEuropeancontinenthadcreatedinthecodificationofcivillawthetypeandthetextbookofpracticalbourgeoisjudgment，wastherenotinEnglandanotherself-originatingformoflaw，whicharoseanddevelopedinapurelypracticalmanner，fromtheveryconditionsofthesocietywhichproduceditwithoutsystem，andwithouttheactionofmethodicalrationalismhavinganypartinit。Thelaw，whichactuallyexistsandisapplied，isthereforeamuchsimplerandmuchmoremodestthingthanwasimaginedbytheenthusiastswhosingthepraisesofwrittenjudgment，oftheempireofreason。Fortheirdefense，itmustnotbeforgottenthattheyweretheidealprecursorsofthegreatRevolution。Forideologyitwasnecessarytosubstitutethehistoryoflegalinstitutions。ThephilosophyoflawendedwithHegel；
　　andifobjectorsmentionthebookspublishedsince，Ireplythattheworkspublishedbyprofessorsarenotalwaystheindexoftheprogressofthought。
　　Thephilosophyoflawthusbecamethephilosophicalstudyofthehistoryoflaw。AnditisnotnecessarytorepeathereagainhowhistoricphilosophyendedineconomicmaterialismandinwhatsensecriticalcommunismisthereversalofHegel。
　　Thisrevolution，apparentlyarevolutioninideasalone，ismerelyanintellectualreflectionoftherevolutionswhichhavebeenproducedinpracticallife。
　　Inourcentury，legislatinghasbecomeanepidemic；andreasonenthronedinlegalideologyhasbeendethronedbyparliaments。Inthesetheantithesesofclassinterestshavetakenontheformofparties；andthepartiesstrugglefororagainstdefinitelaws；andalllawappearsasasimplefact，orasathingwhichitisusefulornotusefultodo。
　　Theproletariathasarisen；andwhereverthestruggleofthelaborershastakendefiniteform，thebourgeoiscodeshavebeenconvictedoffalsehood。
　　Writtenjudgmenthasshownitselfpowerlesstosavethewage-workersfromtheoscillationsofthemarket，toguaranteewomenandchildrenagainsttheoppressivehoursofthefactories，ortofindanexpedienttosolvetheproblemofforcedidleness。Thepartiallimitationofthehoursoflaborhas，itselfalone，beenthesubjectandtheoccasionofagiganticstruggle。Thesmallandthelargebourgeoisie，agrariansandmanufacturers，advocatesofthepooranddefendersofaccumulatedwealth，monarchistsanddemocrats，socialistsandreactionaries，havebitterlycontendedoverextractingprofitfromtheactionofthepublicauthoritiesandoverexploitingthecontingenciesofpoliticsandparliamentaryintrigue，tofindtheguarantyandthedefenseofcertaindefiniteinterestsintheinterpretationofexistinglaw，orinthecreationofanewlaw。Thisnewlegislationhasmorethanoncebeenrevised，andthestrangestoscillationsmaybeobservedinit；extendingfromthehumanitarianismwhichdefendsthepoorandevenanimals，tothepromulgationofmartiallaw。Justicehasbeenstrippedofitsmaskandhasbecomemerelyaprofanething。
　　Theconsciousnessofexperiencehascometousandhasgivenusaformulaaspreciseasitismodest；everyruleoflawhasbeenandisthecustomary，authoritative，orjudicialdefenseofadefiniteinterest；thereductionoflawtoeconomicsisthenalmostimmediatelyaccomplished。
　　Ifthematerialisticconceptionfinallycametofurnishtothesetendenciesanexplicitandsystematicview，itisbecauseitsorientationhasbeendeterminedbythevisualangleoftheproletariat。Thislastisthenecessaryproductandtheindispensableconditionofasocietyinwhichallthepersonsare，fromanabstractpointofview，equalbeforethelaw，butwherethematerialconditionsofdevelopmentandthelibertiesofeachareunequal。Theproletariansaretheforcesthroughwhichtheaccumulatedmeansofproductionreproducethemselvesandreconstitutethemselvesintonewwealth；buttheythemselvesliveonlybyenrollingthemselvesundertheauthorityofcapital；andfromonedaytothenexttheyfindthemselvesoutofwork，impoverishedandexiles。
　　Theyarethearmyofsociallabor，buttheirchiefsaretheirmasters。Theyarethenegationofjusticeintheempireoflaw，thatistosay，thattheyaretheirrationalelementinthepretendeddomainofreason。
　　Historythenhasnotbeenaprocessusforarrivingattheempireofreasoninlaw；ithasthusfarbeennothingelsethanaseriesofchangesintheformofsubjectionandservitude。Historythenconsistsentirelyinthestruggleofinterests，andlawisbuttheauthoritativeexpressionoftheinterestswhichhavetriumphed。
　　Theseformulaeindeeddonotpermitustoexplain，bytheimmediateexaminationofthevariousinterestswhichareatitsbase，everyparticularlawwhichhasappearedinhistory。Thefactsofhistoryareverycomplicated；butthesegeneralformulasufficetoindicatethestyleandthemethodofresearchwhichhasbeensubstitutedforlegalideology。
　　IX
　　HereImustgivecertainformulae。
　　Grantedtheconditionsofthedevelopmentoflaborandtheinstrumentsappropriatedtoit，theeconomicstructureofsociety，thatistosay，theformofproductionoftheimmediatemeansoflife，determines，onanartificialfield，inthefirstplaceanddirectly，alltherestofthepracticalactivityofthoseassociated，andthevariationofthisactivityintheprocessuswhichwecallhistory，thatistosay——theformation，thefrictions，thestrugglesandtheerosionsoftheclasses；thecorrespondingregulationsrelativetolawandmorality；andthereasonsandmodesofsubordinationandsubjectionofmentowardmenandthecorrespondingexerciseofdominionandauthority，infine，thatwhichgivesbirthtotheStateandthatwhichconstitutesit。Itdetermines，inthesecondplace，thetendencyandingreatpart，inanindirectfashion，theobjectsofimaginationandofthoughtintheproductionofart，religionandscience。
　　Theproductsofthefirstandofthesecondstage，inconsequenceoftheinterestswhichtheycreate，thehabitswhichtheyengender，thepersonswhomtheygroupandwhosespiritandinclinationstheyspecify，tendtofixthemselvesandisolatethemselvesasindependententities；andthencecomesthatempiricalview，accordingtowhichdifferentindependentfactors，havinganefficacyandarhythmicmovementoftheirown，contributetoformthehistoricprocessusandthesocialconfigurationswhichsuccessivelyresultfromit。Itisthesocialclasses，insofarastheyconsistindifferentiationsofinterests，whichunfoldindefinitewaysandinformsofopposition（whencecomethefriction，themovement，theprocessandtheprogress），whichhavebeenthefactors——ifitwasevernecessarytoemploythisexpression——
　　thereal，properandpositivefactorsofhistory，fromthedisappearanceofprimitivecommunismuntilto-day。
　　Thevariationsoftheunderlying（economic）structureofsocietywhich，atfirstsight，showthemselvesintuitivelyintheagitationofthepassions，developconsciouslyinthestrugglesagainstlawandforlaw，andbecomerealizedintheshakingandintheruinofadefinitepoliticalorganization，haveinrealitytheiradequateexpressiononlyinthechangeintherelationswhichexistbetweenthedifferentsocialclasses。Andtheserelationschangewiththechangeoftherelationswhichpreviouslyexistedbetweentheproductivityoflaborandthe（legal-political）conditionsofco-ordinationofthosewhoco-operateinproduction。
　　Andfinally，theseconnectionsbetweentheproductivityoflaborandtheco-ordinationofthosewhoco-operateinitarechangedwiththechangingoftheinstruments——inthebroadsenseoftheword——necessarytoproduction。
　　Theprocessusandtheprogressoftechnique，astheyaretheindex，arealsotheconditionofalltheotherprocessusandofallprogress。
　　Societyisforusafact，whichwecannotsolve，unlessitbebythatanalysiswhichreducesthecomplexformstothesimplerforms，themodernformstotheolderforms：butthatistoremainalways，nevertheless，inasocietywhichexists。Historyisbutthehistoryofsociety——thatistosay，thehistoryofthevariationsofhumanco-operation，fromtheprimitivehordedowntothemodernState，fromtheimmediatestruggleagainstnature，bythemeansofafewverysimpletools，downtothepresenteconomicstructure，whichreducesitselftothesetwopoles；accumulatedlabor（capital）andlivinglabor（proletarians）。Toresolvethesocialcomplexusintosimpleindividuals，andtoreconstructitafterwardsbytheactsoffreeandvoluntarythought；toconstruct，infine，societywithitsreasons，istomisunderstandtheobjectivenatureandtheimmanenceofthehistoricprocessus。
　　Revolutions，inthebroadestsenseoftheword，andinthespecificsenseofthedestructionofapoliticalorganization，marktherealandproperdatesofhistoricepochs。Seenfromafar，intheirelements，intheirpreparationandtheireffects，atlongrange，theymayappeartousasmomentsofaconstantevolution，withminutevariations；butconsideredinthemselves，theyaredefiniteandprecisecatastrophes，anditisonlyascatastrophesthattheyarehistoricevents。
　　X
　　Affirmationsofthissort，announcedwiththisnudityandcrudity，havealreadyforsometimepassedfrommouthtomouth，andtheyareaconvenientassistancetotheadversariesofmaterialism，whousethemasabugbear。
　　Theslothful，whosenumberisgreatevenamongtheintellectuals，willinglyfitthemselvestothisclumsyacceptanceofsuchdeclarations。Whatadelightforallcarelesspersonstopossess，onceforall，summedupinafewpropositions，thewholeofknowledge，andtobeablewithonesinglekeytopenetrateallthesecretsoflife！Alltheproblemsofethics，esthetics，philology，criticalhistoryandphilosophyreducedtoonesingleproblemandfreedthusfromalldifficulties！
　　Inthiswaythesimpletonsmightreducethewholeofhistorytocommercialarithmetic；andfinallyanewandauthenticinterpretationofDantemightgiveustheDivineComedyillustratedwiththeprocessofmanufacturingpiecesofclothwhichthewilyFlorentinemerchantssoldfortheirgreaterprofit！
　　Thetruthisthatthedeclarationswhichinvolveproblemsareconvertedveryeasilyintovulgarparadoxesintheheadsofthosewhoarenotaccustomedtotriumphoverthedifficultiesofthoughtbythemethodicaluseofappropriatemeans。Ishallspeakhere，ingeneralterms，oftheseproblems，but，asitwere，byaphorisms；andcertainlyIdonotproposetowriteanencyclopediainthisshortessay。
　　Andfirstofall，ethics。
　　Idonotmeansystemsandcatechisms，religiousorphilosophic。Bothofthesehavebeenandareabovetheordinaryandprofanecourseofhumaneventsinmostcases，asUtopiasareabovethings。NeitherdoIspeakofthoseformalanalysesofethicalrelations，whichhavebeenelaboratedfromtheSophistsdowntoHerbart。Thisisscienceandnotlife。Anditisformalscience，likelogic，geometryandgrammar。Theonewholatestandwithsomuchprofunditydefinedtheseethicalrelations（Herbart），knewwellthatideas，thatistosay，theformalpointsofviewofthemoraljudgment，areinthemselvespowerless。Thereforeheputintothecircumstancesoflifeandintothepedagogicformationofcharactertherealityofethics。HemighthavebeentakenforOwenifhehadnotbeenaretrograde。
　　Iamspeakingofthatethicswhichexistsprosaicallyandinanempiricalandcurrentfashion，intheinclinations，thehabits，thecustoms，thecounsels，thejudgmentsandtheappreciationsofordinarymortals。Iamspeakingofthatethicswhichassuggestion，asimpulseandasbridle，appearsindifferentdegreesofdevelopment，andmoreorlessunmistakably，althoughinafragmentaryfashion，amongallmen；buttheveryfactofassociationbecauseeachoccupiesadefinitepositionintheassociation，theynaturallyandnecessarilyreflectupontheirownworksandtheworksofothers，andtheyconceiveobligationsandappreciationsandallthefirstelementsofgeneralprecepts。
　　Thereisthefactum；andwhatismostimportantisthatthisfactumappearstousvariedandmultipleinthedifferentconditionsoflife，andvariablethroughhistory。Thisfactumisthedatumofresearch。Factsareneithertruenorfalse，asAristotlealreadyknew。Systems，onthecontrary，theologicorrational，maybetrueorfalsebecausetheyaimtocomprehend，explainandcompletethefact，bybringingthatfacttoanotherfact，orintegratingitwithanother。
　　Somepointsofpreliminarytheoryarehenceforthsettled，inallthatconcernstheinterpretationofthisfactum。
　　Thewilldoesnotchooseofitself，aswassupposedbytheinventorsoffreewill，thatproductoftheimpotencyofthepsychologicalanalysisnotyetarrivedatmaturity。Volitions，insofarastheyarefactsofconsciousness，areparticularexpressionsofthepsychicmechanism。Theyarearesult，firstofnecessities，andthen，ofallthatprecedesthemuptotheveryelementaryorganicimpulse。
　　Ethicsdoesnotplaceitselfnordoesitengenderitself。Thereisnosuchuniversalfoundationoftheethicalrelationsvariedandvariable，asthatspiritualentitywhichhasbeencalledthemoralconscience，oneanduniqueforallmen。Thisabstractentityhasbeeneliminatedbycriticismlikeallothersuchentities，thatistosay，likeallthefacultiesofthesoul。Whatabeautifulexplanationofthefact，intruth，toassumethegeneralizationofthefactitselfasameansofexplanation。Peoplereasonedthus：thesensations，theperceptions，theintuitionsatacertainmomentarefoundimagined，thatistosay，changedintheirform，thereforetheimaginationhastransformedthem。Tothisclassofinventionsbelongsthemoralconscience，whichwasacceptedasapostulateoftheethicalestimates，whicharealwaysconditioned。
　　Themoralconsciencewhichreallyexistsisanempiricalfact；itisanindexorasummaryoftherelativeethicalformationofeachindividual。Iftherecanbeinitmaterialforscience，thiscannotexplaintheethicalrelationsbymeansoftheconscience，buttheverythingitneedsistounderstandhowthatconscienceisformed。
　　Ifvolitionsarederived，andifmoralityresultsfromtheconditionsoflife，ethics，initscompleteness，isbutaformation；itsproblemisaltogetherpedagogic。
　　ThereisapedagogywhichIwillcallindividualisticandsubjective，which，grantedthegenericconditionsofhumanperfectibility，constructsabstractrulesbywhichmen，whoarestillinaperiodofformation，maybeledtobestrong，courageous，truthful，just，benevolent，andsoonthroughtheentireextentofthecardinalorsecondaryvirtues。Butagain，cansubjectivepedagogyconstructofitselfasocialbackgrounduponwhichallthesebeautifulthingsoughttoberealized？Ifitconstructsit，itsimplyelaboratesaUtopia。
　　And，intruth，thehumanrace，intherigidcourseofitsdevelopment，neverhadtimenoroccasiontogototheschoolofPlatoorofOwen，ofPestalozziorHerbart。Ithasdoneasithasbeenforcedtodo。Consideredinanabstractmanner，allmencanbeeducatedandallareperfectible；asamatteroffact，theyhavealwaysbeenperfectedandinstructedasmuchasandinthemeasurethattheycould，grantedtheconditionsoflifeinwhichtheywereobligedtodevelop。Itisherepreciselythatthewordenvironmentisnotametaphor，andthattheuseofthewordcompactisnotmetaphorical。Realmoralityalwayspresentsitselfassomethingconditionedandlimited，whichtheimaginationhassoughttooutgrow，byconstructingUtopias，andbycreatingasupernaturalpedagogue，oramiraculousredemption。
　　Whyshouldtheslavehavehadthewaysofseeingandthepassionsandthesentimentsofthemasterwhomhefeared？Howcouldthepeasantrelievehimselfofhisinvinciblesuperstitions，towhichhewascondemnedbyhisimmediatedependenceuponnatureandhismediatedependenceuponasocialmechanismunknowntohim，andbyhisblindfaithinthepriest，whostandstohimasamagicianandsorcerer。Inwhatfashioncouldthemodernproletarianofthegreatindustrialcities，exposedcontinuouslytothealternativesofmiseryorsubjection，howcouldherealizethatwayofliving，regulatedandmonotonous，whichwastheonesuitedtothemembersofthetradeguilds，whoseexistenceseemedimbeddedinaprovidentialplan？FromwhatintuitiveelementsofexperiencecouldthehogmerchantofChicago，whofurnishesEuropewithsomanyproductsatacheaprate，extracttheconditionsofserenityandintellectualelevationwhichgavetotheAthenianthequalitiesofthenobleandgoodman，andtotheRomancitizen，thedignityofheroism？WhatpowerofdocileChristianpersuasionwillextractfromthesoulsofthemodernproletarianstheirnaturalreasonsofhateagainsttheirdeterminedorundeterminedoppressors？Iftheywishthatjusticebedone，theymustappealtoviolence；
　　andbeforetheloveofone’sneighborasauniversallawcanappearpossibletothem，theymustimaginealifeverydifferentfromthepresentlifewhichmakesanecessityofhatred。Inthissocietyofdifferentiations，hatred，pride，hypocrisy，falsehood，baseness，injusticeandallthecatechismofthecardinalvicesandtheiraccessoriesmakeasadappendagetothemorality，equalforall，uponwhichtheyconstitutethesatire。
　　Ethicsthenreducesitselfforustothehistoricalstudyofthesubjectiveandobjectiveconditionsofhowmoralitydevelopsormeetsobstaclestoitsdevelopment。Inthisonly，thatistosay，withintheselimits，wecanrecognizesomevalueintheaffirmationthatmoralitycorrespondstothesocialsituations，and，inthelastanalysis，totheeconomicconditions。Onlyanidiotcouldbelievethattheindividualmoralityofeachoneisproportionatetohisindividualeconomicsituation。Thatisnotonlyempiricallyfalse，butintrinsicallyirrational。Grantedthenaturalelasticityofthepsychicmechanism，andalsothefactthatnoonelivessoshutupinhisownclassthathedoesnotundergotheinfluenceofotherclasses，ofthecommonenvironmentandoftheinterlacingtraditions，itisneverpossibletoreducethedevelopmentofeachindividualtotheabstractandgenerictypeofhisclassandhissocialstatus。Wearedealingtherewiththephenomenaofthemass，ofthosephenomenawhichform，orshouldform，theobjectsofmoralstatistics：thedisciplinewhichhasthusfarremainedincomplete，becauseithastakenfortheobjectsofitscombinationsgroupswhichitcreatesofitselfbytheadditionofnumbersofcases（forexample，adulteries，thefts，homicides）
　　andnotthegroupswhich，asclasses，conditions，orsituationsexistreally，thatistosay，socially。
　　Torecommendmoralitytomenwhileassumingorignoringtheirconditions，thiswashithertotheobjectandtheclassofargumentofallthecatechists。
　　Torecognizethatthesearegivenbythesocialenvironment，thatiswhatthecommunistsopposetotheutopiaandthehypocrisyofthepreachersofmorality。Andastheyseeinmoralitynotaprivilegeoftheelect，noragiftofnature，butaresultofexperienceandeducation，theyadmithumanperfectibilitythroughreasonsandargumentswhichare，inmyopinion，moremoralandmoreidealthanthosewhichhavebeengivenbytheideologists。
　　Inotherwords，mandevelops，orproduceshimself，notasanentitygenericallyprovidedwithcertainattributes，whichrepeatthemselves，ordevelopthemselves，accordingtoarationalrhythm，butheproducesanddevelopshimselfasatoncecauseandeffect，asauthorandconsequence，ofcertaindefiniteconditions，inwhichareengenderedalsodefinitecurrentsofideas，ofopinions，ofbeliefs，ofimaginations，ofexpectations，ofmaxims。Thenceariseideologiesofeverysort，asalsothegeneralizationofmoralityincatechisms，incanonsandinsystems。Wemustnotbesurprisediftheseideologies，oncearisen，areafterwardscultivatedalonebythemselves，iftheyfinallyappear，asitwere，detachedfromthelivingfieldwhencetheytooktheirbirth，noriftheyholdthemselvesabovemanasimperativerulesandmodels。
　　Thepriestsandthedoctrinairesofeverysorthavegiventhemselvesforcenturiestothislaborofabstraction，andhaveforcedthemselvestomaintaintheresultingillusions。Nowthatthepositivesourcesofallideologieshavebeenfoundinthemechanismoflifeitself，wemustexplainrealisticallytheirmodeofgeneration。Andasthatistrueofallideologies，itistruealsoand，inparticularofthosewhichconsistinprojectingethicalestimatesbeyondtheirnaturalanddirectlimits，makingofthemanticipationsofdivineannouncementsorpresuppositionsofuniversalsuggestionsofconscience。
　　Thereinliestheobjectofthespecialhistoricproblems。Wecannotalwaysfindthetiewhichunitescertainethicalideastopracticaldefiniteconditions。
　　Theconcretesocialpsychologyofpasttimesoftenremainsimpenetrabletous。Oftenthecommonestthingsremainforusunintelligible，forexample，theanimalsconsideredasunclean，ortheoriginfortherepugnanceatmarriagebetweenpersonsofremotedegreesofrelationship。Aprudentcourseofstudyleadsustoconcludethatthemotivesofmanydetailswillremainalwaysconcealed。Ignorance，superstition，singularillusions，symbolisms，thesewithmanyothersarecausesofthatunconsciouselement，oftenfoundincustoms，whichnowconstitutesforustheunknownandtheunknowable。
　　Theprincipalcauseofalldifficultyispreciselyinthetardyappearanceofwhatwecallreason，sothatthetracesoftheproximatemotivesofideashavebeenlostorhaveremainedenvelopedintheideasthemselves。
　　Onthesubjectofsciencewecanbemuchmorebrief。
　　Foralongtimehistoryhasbeenmadeinanartlessfashion。Grantedandadmittedthatthedifferentscienceshavetheirstatementsinmanualsandencyclopedias，itseemedsufficienttoworkoutchronologicallytheappearanceofthedifferentformulas，resolvingthetotalofthesystematicsummaryintotheelementswhichhavesuccessivelyservedtocomposeit。Thegeneralpresuppositionwassimpleenough；underneaththischronologyistherationalconceptionwhichdevelopsandprogresses。
　　Thismethod，ifsoitcouldbecalled，hadwithinitselfacertaindisadvantage；
　　itpermittedusatbesttounderstandhow，onestageofsciencebeinggranted，anotherstageofsciencemaybederivedfromitbyreason，butitdidnotpermitustodiscernbywhatconditionoffactsmenweredriventodiscoverscienceforthefirsttime，thatistosay，toreduceconsideredexperienceintoanewanddefiniteform。Thequestionwas，then，tofindwhythereisanactualhistoryofscience，tofindtheoriginofthescientificnecessity，andwhatunitesinageneticfashionthatnecessitytoournecessitiesinthecontinuityofthesocialprocessus。
　　Thegreatprogressofmoderntechnique，whichreallyconstitutestheintellectualsubstanceofthebourgeoisepoch，hasworked，amongothermiracles，thisonealso，ofrevealingtousforthefirsttimethepracticaloriginofthescientificattitude。（WecanneverforgettheFlorentineAcademy，whichproducedthisphrase，whenItalywasinthetwilightofitspastgrandeurandwhenmodernsocietywasinthedawnofthegreatindustry。）Henceforthweareinapositiontotakeuptheguidingthreadofwhat，byabstraction，iscalledthescientificspirit；andnooneisanylongerastonishedatfindingthateverythinginscientificdiscoverieshascomeabout，aswasthecaseinotherprimitivetimes，whentheclumsyelementarygeometryoftheEgyptiansarosefromthenecessityofmeasuringthefieldsexposedtotheannualinundationsoftheNile，andwhentheperiodicityoftheseinundationssuggested，inEgyptandinBabylon，thediscoveryoftherudimentsoftheastronomicalmovements。