Itiscertainlytruethatwhenscienceisoncecreatedandpartiallyripened，ashadalreadyhappenedintheHellenicperiod，theworkofabstraction，ofdeductionandofcombinationcontinuesamongscientistsinsuchawaythatitpossiblyobliteratestheconsciousnessofthesocialcausesofthefirstproductionofscienceitself。Butifweexamineintheirmainfeaturestheepochsofthedevelopmentofscience，andifweconfronttheperiodswhichtheideologistswouldcharacterizeasperiodsofprogressandofretrogressionofintelligence，weperceiveclearlythesocialreasonfortheimpulses，sometimesincreasing，sometimesdecreasing，towardscientificactivity。WhatneedhadthefeudalsocietyofWesternEuropeforthisancientscience，whichtheByzantinespreserved，atleastmaterially，whiletheArabs，freeagriculturists，industriousartisans，orskillfulmerchants，hadsucceededinincreasingitalittle？WhatistheRenaissance，ifnotthejoiningoftheinitiatorymovementofthebourgeoisietothetraditionsofancientlearning，whichhadbecomeusable？Whatisalltheacceleratedmovementofscientificknowledge，sincetheseventeenthcentury，buttheseriesofactsaccomplishedbyintelligence，refilledbyexperience，toassurehumanlabor，intheformsofanimprovedtechnique，thedominionovernaturalforcesandconditions？Thencearisesthewaragainstdarkness，superstition，theChurch，religion；thencearisenaturalism，atheism，materialism；thencetheinstallationofthedomainofreason。Thebourgeoisepochistheepochofmindsinfullplay。（Vico）ItisworthrememberingthatthisgovernmentoftheDirectory，whichwastheprototypeandthecompendiumofallliberalcorruption，wasthefirsttointroduceintheUniversityandattheAcademyinaformalandsolemnfashionthescienceoffreeinquirywithLamark！Thisscience，whichthebourgeoisepochhas，throughitsinherentconditions，stimulatedandmadetogrowlikeagiant，istheonlyheritageofpastcenturieswhichcommunismacceptsandadoptswithoutreserve。
　　Itwouldnotbeusefultostophereforthediscussionoftheso-calledantithesisbetweenscienceandphilosophy。Ifweacceptthosefashionsofphilosophizingwhichareconfoundedwithmysticismandtheology，philosophynevermeansascienceordoctrineseparatefromitsappropriateandparticularthings，butitissimplyadegree，aform，astageofthoughtwithrelationtothethingswhichenterintothedomainofexperience。Philosophyis，then，eitheragenericanticipationoftheproblemswhichsciencehasstilltoelaboratespecifically，orasummaryandaconceptualelaborationoftheresultsatwhichthescienceshavealreadyarrived。Asforthosewho，thattheymaynotappearbehindthetimes，talknowofscientificphilosophy，ifwedonotwishtostopoverthehumorouselementthatthereisinthatexpression，itwillsufficetosaythattheyaresimplyfools。
　　Isaidsomepagesback，inmystatementofformulas，thattheeconomicstructuredeterminesinthesecondplacethedirection，andingreatpartandindirectly，theobjectsofimaginationandofthoughtintheproductionofart，ofreligionandofscience。Toexpressthisotherwise，ortogofurther，wouldbetoputone’sselfvoluntarilyontheroadtowardtheabsurd。
　　Beforeallelse，inthisformula，weareopposingthefantasticopinion，thatart，religionandsciencearesubjectivedevelopmentsandhistoricaldevelopmentsofapretendedartistic，religiousorscientificspirit，whichwouldgoonmanifestingitselfsuccessivelythroughitsownrhythmofevolution，favoredorretardedonthissideorthatbymaterialconditions。Bythisformula，itisdesiredtoassert，moreover，thenecessaryconnection，throughwhicheveryfactofartandofreligionistheexponent，sentimental，fantasticandthusderived，ofdefinitesocialconditions。IfIsayinthesecondplace，itistodistinguishtheseproductsfromthefactsoflegal-politicalorderwhichareatrueandproperprojectionofeconomicconditions。AndifIsayingreatpartandindirectlytheobjectsoftheseactivities，itistoindicatetwothings：thatinartisticorreligiousproductionthemediationfromtheconditionstotheproductsisverycomplicated，andagainthatmen，whilelivinginsociety，donottherebyceasetolivealonebythemselvesinnature，andtoreceivefromitoccasionandmaterialforcuriosityandforimagination。
　　Afterall，thisisallreducedtoamoregeneralformula；mandoesnotmakeseveralhistoriesatthesametime，butalltheseallegeddifferenthistories（art，religion，etc。）makeuponealone。Anditisnotpossibletotakeaccountofthatclearlyexceptatthecharacteristicandsignificantmomentoftheproductionofnewthings，thatistosayintheperiodswhichIwillcallrevolutionary。Later，theacceptanceofthethingsthathavebeenproduced，andthetraditionalrepetitionofadefinitetype，obliteratedthesenseoftheoriginsofthings。
　　Try，ifyouwill，todetachtheideologyofthefables，whichareatthefoundationoftheHomericpoems，fromthatmomentofhistoricevolutionwherewefindthedawnofAryancivilizationinthebasinoftheMediterranean，thatistosay，fromthatphaseofthehigherbarbarisminwhicharises，inGreeceandelsewhere，theepic。OrtrytoimaginethebirthandthedevelopmentofChristianityelsewherethaninRomancosmopolitanism，andotherwisethanbytheworkofthoseproletarians，thoseslaves，thoseunfortunatesthosedesperateones，whohadneedoftheredemptionoftheApocalypseandofthepromiseoftheKingdomofGod。Find，ifyouwill，thegroundforsupposingthatinthebeautifulenvironmentoftheRenaissancetheromanticismshouldbegintoappear，whichscarcelyappearedinthedecadentTorquatoTasso；
　　orthatonemightattributetoRichardsonortoDiderotthenovelsofBalzac，inwhomappears，asacontemporaryofthefirstgenerationofsocialismandsociology，thepsychologyofclasses。Farback，farther，farther，atthefirstoriginsofthemythicalconceptions，itisevidentthatZeusdidnotassumethecharactersoffatherofgodsandmenuntilthepowerofthepatriapotestaswasalreadyestablished，andthatseriesofprocessusbeganwhichculminatedintheState。Zeusthusceasestobewhatwasatfirstthesimpledivus（brilliant）ortheThunderer。Anditistobeobservedthatatanoppositepointofhistoricevolution，agreatnumberofthinkersofthepastcenturyreducedtoasingleabstractGod，whoisasimpleregentoftheworld，allthatvariegatedimageoftheunknownandtranscendentaltype，developedinsogreatawealthofmythological，Christianorpagancreations。Manfelthimselfmoreathomeinnature，thankstoexperience，butfelthimselfbetterabletopenetratethegearingofsociety，theknowledgeofwhichhepossessedinpart。Themiraculousdissolvedinhismind，tothepointwherematerialismandcriticismcouldafterwardseliminatethatpoorremnantoftranscendentalism，withouttakingupwaragainstthegods。
　　Thereiscertainlyahistoryofideas；butthisdoesnotconsistintheviciouscircleofideasthatexplainthemselves。Itliesinrisingfromthingstotheidea。Thereisaproblem；stillmore，thereisamultitudeofproblems，sovaried，multiple，multiformandmingledaretheprojectionswhichmenhavemadeofthemselvesandoftheireconomic-socialconditions，andthusoftheirhopesandtheirfears，oftheirdesiresandtheirdeceptions，intheirartisticandreligiousconcepts。Themethodisfound，buttheparticularexecutionisnoteasy。Wemustaboveallguardagainstthescholastictemptationofarrivingbydeductionattheproductsofhistoricactivitywhicharedisplayedinartandinreligion。WemusthopethatphilosopherslikeKrug，whoexplainedthepenwithwhichhewrotebyaprocessofdialecticdeduction，haveremainedforeverburiedinthenotesofHegel’slogic。
　　HereImuststatecertaindifficulties。
　　Beforeattemptingtoreducesecondaryproducts（forexample，artandreligion）
　　tothesocialconditionswhichtheyidealize，onemustfirstacquirealongexperienceofspecifiedsocialpsychology，inwhichthetransformationisrealized。Thereinconsiststhejustificationofthatsumofrelations，whichisdesignatedinanotherformoflanguage，underthenameofEgyptianworld，Greekconsciousness，spiritoftheRenaissance，dominantideas，psychologyofnations，ofsocietyorofclasses。Whentheserelationsareestablished，andmenhavebecomeaccustomedtocertainconceptionsandcertainmodesofbelieforofimagination，theideastransmittedbytraditiontendtobecomecrystallized。Thustheyappearasaforcewhichresistsnewformations；andasthisresistanceshowsitselfthroughthespokenword，throughwriting，throughintolerance，throughpolemics，throughpersecution，sothestrugglebetweenthenewandtheoldsocialconditionstakesontheformofastrugglebetweenideas。
　　Inthesecondplace，throughthecenturiesofhistoryproperlyso-called，andasaconsequenceoftheheredityofthepre-historyofsavageryandoftheconditionsofsubjectionandthoseofinferiorityinwhichthemajorityofmenwereandareplaced，resultedacquiescenceinwhatistraditional，andtheancienttendenciesareperpetuatedasobstinatesurvivals。
　　Inthethirdplace，asIhavesaid，menlivingsocially，donotceasetolivealsoinnature。Theyarenot，ofcourse，boundtonatureasanimalsare，becausetheyliveonanartificialgroundwork。Everyoneunderstands，moreover，thatahouseisnotacave，thatagricultureisnotnaturalpasturage，andthatpharmacyisnotexorcism。Butnatureisalwaystheimmediatesubsoiloftheartificialgroundwork，anditistheenvironmentwhichcontainsus。
　　Theindustrialartshaveputbetweenussocialanimals，andnature，certainintermediarieswhichmodify，setasideorremovethenaturalinfluences；
　　butithasnotforallthatdestroyedtheefficacyofthese，andwecontinuallyfeeltheireffects。Andevenaswearebornmenorwomen，aswediealmostalwaysinspiteofourselves，andaswearedominatedbytheinstinctofgeneration，sowealsobearinourtemperamentcertainspecialconditionswhicheducationinthebroadsenseoftheword，orsocialcompact，canmodify，itistrue，withincertainlimits，butwhichtheycanneversuppress。Theseconditionsoftemperament，repeatedininfinitecasesthroughoutthecenturies，constitutewhatiscalledtherace。Forallthesereasons，ourdependenceuponnature，althoughithasdiminishedsinceprehistorictimes，continuesinoursociallife，justasthefoodwhichthesightofnatureaffordstothecuriosityandtheimaginationcontinuesalsoinoursociallife。Nowtheseeffectsofnature，andthesentimentsimmediateormediatewhichresultfromit，althoughtheyhavebeenperceived，sincehistorybegan，onlyonthevisualanglewhichisgivenusbytheconditionsofsociety，neverfailtoreflectthemselvesintheproductsofartandofreligion，andthataddstothedifficultiesofarealisticandcompleteinterpretationofboth。
　　XI
　　Inemployingthisdoctrineasanewprincipleofresearch，asaprecisemeansofdefiningourposition，andasavisualangle，willitreallybepossiblefinallytoarriveatanewnarrativehistory？Itisnotpossibletomakeanaffirmativeansweringeneraltothisgenericdemand。Because，infact，ifweassumethatthecriticalcommunist，thesociologistofeconomicmaterialism，orasheiscommonlycalled，theMarxist，hasthenecessarycriticalpreparation，thehabitofhistoricalstudy，andalsothegiftrequiredforanorderlyandvivaciousnarration，thereisnoreasonforaffirmingthathecannotwritehistory，asheretoforethepartisansofallotherpoliticalschoolshavewrittenit。
　　WehavetheexampleofMarx，andthereisanargumentfromfactwhichadmitsofnoreply。Buthewasthefirstandtheprincipalauthorofthedecisiveconceptsofthisdoctrine，reducingitatonceintoaninstrumentofpoliticalorientation，inhischaracterofanincomparablepublicist，duringtherevolutionaryperiodof1848to1850。AndthenheapplieditwiththegreatestprecisioninthatessayentitledEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte，ofwhichitmaybesaidtoday，atagreatdistance，andaftersomanypublications，ifweexceptcertaininfinitesimaldetailsandcertainfalseforecasts，thatitwouldbepossibletomakeneithercorrectionsnorimportantcomplements。Iwillnotrepeat，sinceIamnotwritingabibliography，thelistofthedifferentwritingsofMarxorEngels——ofwhichwehavesomanyattemptsfromthePeasants’War（1850）downtohisposthumouswritingsonThePresentUnityofGermany——whichareanapplicationofthedoctrine，northoseoftheirsuccessorsandofthepopularizersofscientificsocialism。
　　Eveninthesocialistpresswemayread，fromtimetotime，valuableattemptsatexplanationofcertainpoliticalevents，inwhichisfound，preciselybyreasonofhistoricmaterialism，aclearnessofvisionwhichwouldbesoughtinvainamongthewritersandthedisputantswhohavenotyettornawaythefantasticveilsandideologicalenvelopesofhistory。
　　Hereisnottheplacetotakeupthedefenseofanabstractthesis，asanadvocatewoulddo。Itisevident，nevertheless，inallthehistorieswhichhavebeenwrittenuptothepresenttime，thatthereisalwaysatbottom，ifnotintheexplicitintentionsofthewriters，certainlyintheirspirit，atendency，aprinciple，ageneralviewoflife；andsothisdoctrine，whichhasenabledustostudythesocialstructureinanobjectivemanner，mustfinallydirectwithprecisiontheresearchesofhistory，andmustendinanarrativecomplete，transparentandintegral。
　　Helpsarenotlacking。
　　Economics，which，aseveryoneseesittoday，haditsbirthanddevelopmentasthescienceofbourgeoisproduction，afterbeingpuffedupwiththeillusionofrepresentingtheabsolutelawsofallformsofproduction，hasthroughthedearschoolofexperienceenteredsince，aseveryoneknows，uponaperiodofself-criticism。Justasthisself-criticismgavebirth，ononeside，tocriticalcommunism，soontheothersideithasgivenbirth，throughthelaborofthecalmest，thewisestandthemostprudentoftheacademictradition，tothehistoricalschoolofeconomicphenomena。Thankstothisschool，andthroughtheeffectoftheapplicationofthedescriptiveandcomparativemethods，wearehenceforthinpossessionofavastsumofknowledgeonthedifferenthistoricalformsofeconomics，fromthemostcomplexfactsandthosebestspecifiedthroughessentialdifferencesoftypes，downtothespecialdomainofacloisteroratradeguildoftheMiddleAges。Thesamethinghastakenplacewithstatistics，which，bytheindefinitecombinationofitssources，succeedsnowinthrowinglight，withasufficientapproximation，uponthemovementofpopulationinpastcenturies。
　　Thesestudies，certainly，arenotmadeintheinterestofourdoctrine，andoftenerthannottheyaremadeinaspirithostiletosocialism；somethingnotobserved，wemaysayinpassing，bythosefoolishreadersofprintedpaperswhosooftenconfuseeconomichistory，historicaleconomics，andhistoricalmaterialism。Butthesestudies，apartfromthematerialswhichtheygather，areremarkableinthattheywitnesstheprogresswhichisincourseofmakingtheinternalhistorywhich，littlebylittle，istakingtheplaceoftheexternalhistorywithwhich，forcenturies，themenoflettersandartistswereoccupied。
　　Agoodpartofthesematerialsthathavebeengatheredmustalwaysbesubmittedtonewcorrections，asforthatmatterhappensineverydomainofempiricalknowledge，whichoscillatescontinuallybetweenwhatisheldforcertainandwhatissimplyprobable，andwhatmust，later，beintegratedoreliminated。
　　Thedeductionsandthecombinationsofthehistoriansofeconomics，orofthosewhorelatehistoryingeneral，availingthemselvesoftheguidingthreadofeconomicphenomena，arenotalwayssoplausibleorsoconclusive，thatonedoesnotfeeltheneedofsayingtothem：Allthismustbetakenbackandworkedover。Butthatwhichisundoubtedisthefactthatinthispresenttimeallwritingofhistorytendstobecomeascience，or，better，asocialdiscipline；andwhenthatmovement，nowuncertainandmultiform，shallbeaccomplished，theeffortsofthescholarsandinquirerswillleadinevitablytotheacceptanceofeconomicmaterialism。Bythisincidenceofeffortsandofscientificlabors，whichstartfrompointssoopposite，thematerialisticconceptionofallhistorywillendbypenetratingmen’smindsasadefiniteconquestofthought；andthiswillfinallytakeawayfrompartisansandadversariestheattempttospeakproandconasforpartisantheses。
　　Apartfromthedirecthelpsjustenumerated，ourdoctrinehasmanyindirecthelps，sothatitcanprobablyemploytheresultsofmanydisciplines，inwhichbyreasonofthegreatersimplicityoftherelations，ithasbeenpossiblemoreeasilytomaketheapplicationofthegeneticmethod。Thetypicalcaseisfurnishedbyglottology，andinamorespecialfashionbythestudywhichhasforitsobjecttheancientlanguages。
　　Theapplicationofhistoricalmaterialismiscertainly，hitherto，veryfarfromthatevidenceandthatclearnessofprocessusofanalysisandofreconstruction。Itwouldbeconsequentlyavainattempttotry，atthismoment，towriteasummaryofuniversalhistory，whichshouldproposetodevelopallthevariedformsofproductioninordertodeducefromthemafterwardsalltherestofhumanactivity，inaparticularandcircumstantialfashion。
　　Inthepresentstateofknowledge，hewhoshouldtrytogivethiscompendiumofanewKulturgeschichtewoulddonothingbuttranslateintoeconomicphraseologythepointsofgeneralorientationwhich，inotherbooks，forexample，inHellwald，giveitinDarwinianphraseology。
　　Itisalongstepfromtheacceptanceoftheprincipletoitscompleteandparticularapplicationtothewholeofavastprovinceoffacts，ortoagreatsuccessionofphenomena。
　　Sotheapplicationofourdoctrinemustbekeptforamomenttotheexpositionandthestudyofdefinitepartsofhistory。Themodernformsarecleartoall。Theeconomicdevelopmentsofthebourgeoisie，themanifestknowledgeofthedifferentobstacleswhichithashadtoovercomeinthedifferentcountries，and，consequently，thedevelopmentofthedifferentrevolutions，takingthiswordinitsbroadestsense，contributetomakeourunderstandingofiteasy。Tooureyesthepre-historyofthebourgeoisie，atthemomentofthedeclineoftheMiddleAges，isequallyclear，anditwouldnotbedifficulttofind，forexample，inthedevelopmentofthecityofFlorence，anattestedseriesofdevelopments，inwhichtheeconomicandstatisticalmovementfindsaperfectcorrespondenceinthepoliticalrelationsandasufficientillustrationinthecontemporarydevelopmentofintelligencealreadyreducedintoproseandstripped，ingreatpart，ofideologicalillusions。
　　Norwoulditbeimpossibletoreduce，now，underthedefinitevisualangleofmaterialism，thewholeofancientRomanhistory。Butforthat，andparticularlyfortheprimitiveperiod，therearenodirectsources；theyare，onthecontrary，abundantinGreece，frompopulartradition，theepic，andtheauthenticjuridicalinscriptions，downtothepragmaticstudiesofthehistoricalsocialrelations。
　　AtRome，ontheotherhand，thestrugglesforpoliticalrightscarrywiththemalmostalwaystheeconomicreasonsuponwhichtheyrest。Thus，thedeclineofdefiniteclasses，theformationofnewclasses，themovementofconquest，thechangeofthelawsandoftheformsofpoliticalarray，appeartouswithperfectclearness。ThisRomanhistoryishardandprosaic；itwasnevercladwiththeseideologicalcomplementswhichweresuitedtoGreeklife。
　　Therigidproseofconquest，ofplannedcolonization，ofinstitutionsandoftheformsoflaw，conqueredanddevisedforsolvingtheproblemsarisingfromdefinitefrictionsandcontrasts，makesallRomanhistoryachainofeventswhichfolloweachotherinasequencewhichisgrosslyevident。
　　Thetrueproblemconsists，indeed，notinsubstitutingsociologyforhistory，asifthelatterhadbeenanappearancewhichconcealsbehinditasecretreality，butinunderstandinghistoryasawhole，inallitsintuitivemanifestations，andinunderstandingitthroughtheaidofeconomicsociology。Itisnotaquestionofseparatingtheaccidentfromthesubstance，theappearancefromthereality，thephenomenonfromtheintrinsickernel，orapplyinganyotherformulausedbythepartisansofanyspeciesofscholasticism，butofexplainingtheconnectionandthecomplexuspreciselyinsofarasitisaconnectionandacomplexus。Itisnotmerelyaquestionofdiscoveringanddeterminingthesocialgroundwork，andthenofmakingmenappearuponitlikesomanymarionettes，whosethreadsareheldandmoved，nolongerbyProvidencebutbyeconomiccategories。Thesecategorieshavethemselvesdevelopedandaredeveloping，likealltherest——becausemenchangeastothecapacityandtheartofvanquishing，subduing，transformingandutilizingnaturalconditions；becausemenchangeinspiritandattitudethroughthereactionoftheirtoolsuponthemselves；becausemenchangeintheirrespectiveandco-associatedrelations；andthereforeasindividualsdependinginvariousdegreesupononeanother。Wehave，infine，todowithhistory，andnotwithitsskeleton。Wearedealingwithnarrationandnotwithabstraction，withtheexplainingandtreatingofthewhole，andnotmerelywithresolvingandanalyzingit；wehavetodo，inaword，now，asalways，withanart。
　　Itmaybethatthesociologistwhofollowstheprinciplesofeconomicmaterialismproposestokeephimselfsimplytotheanalysis，forexample，ofwhattheclasseswereatthemomentwhentheFrenchRevolutionbrokeout，andtopassthentotheclassesthatresultfromtheRevolutionandsurviveit。Inthatcasethetitles，theindicationsandtheclassificationsofthematerialstoanalyzearedefinite；theyare，forexample，thecityandthecountry，theartisanandthelaborer，thenoblesandtheserfs，thelandwhichisfreedfromfeudalcharges，andthesmallproprietorswhocameintobeing，commercewhichfreesitselffromsomanyrestrictions，moneywhichaccumulates，industrywhichprospers，etc。Thereisnothingtoobjecttointhechoiceofthismethod，which，becauseitfollowsthetrackofembryonicorigins，wasindispensabletothepreparationofhistoricalresearchaccordingtothedirectionofthenewdoctrine。（2*）
　　Butweknowthatthestudyofembryonicoriginsdoesnotsufficetomakeusunderstandanimallife，whichisnotascheme，butiscomposedoflivingbeingswhichstruggle，andintheirstruggleemployforces，instinctsandpassions。Anditisthesame，mutatismutandis，withmenalso，insofarastheylivehistorically。Theseparticularmen，movedbycertainpassions，urgedbycertaincircumstances，withsuchandsuchdesigns，suchintentions，actinginsuchanattemptwithsuchanillusionoftheirown，orwithsuchadeception，ofanother，who，martyrsofthemselvesorofothers，enteronharshcontestsandreciprocalsuppressionsofeachother——thereistherealhistoryoftheFrenchRevolution。If，however，itistruethatallhistoryisbuttheunfoldingofdefiniteeconomicconditions，itisequallytruethatitdevelopsonlyindefiniteformsofhumanactivity——whetherthelatterbepassionateorreflective，fortunateorunsuccessful，blindlyinstinctiveordeliberatelyheroic。
　　Tounderstandtheinterlacingsandthecomplexusinitsinnerconnectionanditsoutermanifestations；todescendfromthesurfacetothefoundation，andthentoreturnfromthefoundationtothesurface；toanalyzethepassionsandtheintentions，intheirmotives，fromtheclosesttothemostremote，andthentobringbackthedataofthepassionsandoftheintentionsandoftheircausestothemostremoteelementsofadefiniteeconomicsituation；
　　thereisthedifficultartwhichthematerialisticconceptionmustrealize。
　　Andaswemustnotimitatethatteacherwhoonthebanktaughthispupilstoswimbythedefinitionofswimming，IbegthereadertoawaittheexampleswhichIshallgiveinotheressaysinarealhistoricalnarration，workingoverintoabookwhichforsometimeIhavealreadybeendoinginmyteaching。
　　Inthiswaycertainsecondaryandderivativequestionsareonceforallclearedup。
　　What，forexample，isthemeaningofthelivesofthegreatmen？
　　Intheselatertimes，answershavebeengiven，which，inonesenseoranother，haveanextremecharacter。Ontheoneside，therearetheextremesociologists，ontheothersidetheindividualistswho，afterthefashionofCarlyle，puttheheroesintothefirstrankoftheirhistory。Accordingtosomeitissufficienttoshowwhatwerethereasons，forexample，ofCaesarism，andCaesarmatterslittle。Accordingtoothers，therearenoobjectivereasonsofclassesandsocialinterestswhichsufficetoexplainanything；itisthegreatmindswhichgivetheimpulsetothewholehistoricmovement；andhistoryhas，sotospeak，itslordsanditsmonarchs。Theempiricistsofnarrationextractthemselvesfromembarrassmentinaverysimplefashion，puttingtogetherathazardmenandthings，objectivenecessitiesoffactandsubjectiveinfluences。
　　Historicalmaterialismgoesbeyondtheantitheticalviewsofthesociologistsandtheindividualists，andatthesametimeiteliminatestheeclecticismoftheempiricalnarrators。
　　Firstofallthefactum。
　　LetthisparticularCaesar，asNapoleonwas，beborninsuchayear，lethimfollowsuchacareer，andfindhimselfreadyfortheEighteenthBrumaire。
　　Allthisiscompletelyaccidentalwithrelationtothegeneralcourseofthingswhichwaspushingthenewclass，mistressofthefield，tosavefromtheRevolutionthatwhichappearedtoitnecessarytosave，andthatnecessitatedthecreationofabureaucratico-militarygovernment。Itwas，however，necessarytofindtheman，orthemen。Butwhatactuallyhappenedcameaboutinthefashionthatweknow。Itdependedonthisfact，thatitwasNapoleonwhodirectedtheenterpriseandnotapitiableMonk，oraridiculousBoulanger。
　　Andfromthatmomenttheaccidentceasestobeaccident，preciselybecauseitisthisdefinitepersonwhogiveshisimprintandphysiognomytotheevents，determiningthefashionorthemannerinwhichtheyhaveunfolded。
　　Theveryfactthatallhistoryrestsuponantitheses，contrasts，strugglesandwars，explainsthedecisiveinfluenceofcertainmenindefiniteoccasions。
　　Thesemenareneitheranegligibleaccidentofthesocialmechanism，normiraculouscreatorsofwhatsociety，withoutthem，couldhavemadeinnootherfashion。Itistheveryinterlacingsoftheantitheticconditions，whichcausesthefactthatdefiniteindividuals，generous，heroic，fortunate，mischievous，arecalledatcriticalmomentstosaythedecisiveword。Aslongastheparticularinterestsofthedifferentsocialgroupsareinsuchastateoftension，thatallthepartiesinthestrugglereciprocallyparalyzeeachother，thentomakethepoliticalgearingmove，thereisneedoftheindividualconsciousnessofadefiniteindividual。
　　Thesocialantitheses，whichmakeofeveryhumancommunityanunstableorganization，givetohistory，especiallywhenitisseenandexaminedrapidlyandinitsmainfeatures，thecharacterofadrama。Thisdramainallitsrelationsisrepeatedfromcommunitytocommunity，fromnationtonation，fromstatetostate，becausetheinnerinequalitiesconcurringwiththeexternaldifferentiations，haveproducedandproducethewholemovementofwars，conquests，treaties，colonizations，etc。Inthisdramahavealwaysappeared，intheroleofleadersofsociety，themenwhoarecharacterizedaseminent，asgreat，andempiricismhasconcludedfromtheirpresencethattheyweretheprincipalauthorsofhistory。Tocarrybacktheexplanationoftheirappearancetothegeneralcausesandthecommonconditionsofthesocialstructure，isathingwhichharmonizesperfectlywiththedataofourdoctrine；buttotrytoeliminatethem，ascertainaffectedobjectivistsofsociologywouldwillinglydo，ispurecapriciousness。
　　Andtoconclude，thepartisanofhistoricalmaterialismwhosetshimselfthetaskofexplaining，orrelating，cannotdoitthroughschemes。
　　Historyhasalwaysreceivedadefiniteform，withaninfinitenumberofaccidentsandvariations。Ithasacertaingrouping，ithasacertainperspective。
　　Itisnotenoughtohaveeliminatedpreventivelythehypothesisoffactors，becausethenarratorconstantlyfindshimselfinthepresenceofthingswhichseemincongruous，independent，andsell-directing。Topresentthewholeasawhole，andtodiscoverinitthecontinuousrelationsoftheeventswhichborderoneachother，thereisthedifficulty。
　　Thesumofeventsnarrowlyconsecutiveandprecisegivesthewholeofhistory；andthisisequivalenttosayingthatitisallthatweknowofourbeing，insofaraswearesocialbeingsandnotsimplynaturalbeings。
　　XII
　　Inthesuccessivewhole，andinthecontinuousnecessityofallhistoricalevents，isthere，then，someask，anymeaning，anysignificance？Thisquestion，whetheritcomesfromthecampoftheidealists，orwhetheritcomestousfromthemouthofthemostcircumspectcritics，certainly，andinallcases，demandsourattention，andrequiresanadequateanswer。
　　Infact，ifwestopatthepremises，intuitiveorintellectual，fromwhichisderivedtheconceptionofprogressasanideawhichinclosesandembracesthetotalofthehumanprocessus，itisseenthatthesepresumptionsallrestuponthementalneed，whichisinus，ofattributingtooneormoreseriesofeventsacertainsenseandacertainsignification。Theconceptionofprogress，forwhoeverexaminesitcarefullyinitsspecificnature，alwaysimpliesjudgementsofestimation，andtherefore，thereisnoonewhocanconfuseitwiththecrudeandbarenotionofsimpledevelopment，whichdoesnotcontainthatincrementofvaluewhichmakesussayofathingthatitisprogressing。
　　Ihavealreadysaid，and，itseemstome，atsufficientlength，howitisthatprogressdoesnotexistassomethingimperativeorregulativeoverthenaturalandimmediatesuccessionofthegenerationsofmen。Thatisasintuitiveasistheactualcoexistenceofpeoples，ofnationsandofstates，whichfindthemselves，atthesametime，inadifferentstageofdevelopment；
　　soundeniableistheactualconditionofrelativesuperiorityandinferiorityofnationascomparedwithnation；andagainsocertainisthepartialandrelativeretrogressionwhichhasbeenproducedseveraltimesinhistory，asItalyhasexemplifiedforcenturies。Stillmore，ifthereisaconvincingproofofhowprogressmustbeunderstoodinthesenseofimmediatelaw，and，touseastrongexpression，ofaphysicalandinevitablelaw，itispreciselythisfact——thatsocialdevelopmentbytheveryreasonsoftheprocessuswhichareinherentinit，oftenleadstoretrogression。Itisevident，ontheotherhand，thatthefacultyofprogressing，likethepossibilityofretrogressing，doesnotconstitute，tobeginwith，animmediateprivilege，oraninnatedefectofarace，noriseitheronethedirectconsequenceofgeographicalconditions。And，infact，theprimitivecentersofcivilizationweremultiple，thosecentershavebeenremovedinthecourseofcenturies，andfinallythemeans，thediscoveries，theresultsandtheimpulsesofadefinitecivilization，alreadydeveloped，arewithincertainlimits，communicable，toallmenindefinitely。Inaword，progressandretrogressionareinherentintheconditionsandtherhythmofsocialdevelopment。
　　Nowthen，thefaithintheuniversalityofprogress，whichappearedwithsomuchviolenceintheeighteenthcentury，restsuponthisfirstpositivefact，thatmen，whentheydonotfindobstaclesinexternalconditions，ordonotfindtheminthosewhichresult。fromtheirownworkintheirsocialenvironment，areallcapableofprogress。
　　Moreover，atthebottomofthissupposedorimaginedunityofhistory，inconsequenceofwhichtheprocessusofthedifferentsocietieswouldformonesingleseriesofprogress，thereisanotherfact，whichhasofferedmotiveandoccasionforsomanyfantasticideologies。Ifallnationshavenotprogressedequally，stillmore，ifsomehavestoppedandhavefollowedabackwardroute，iftheprocessusofsocialdevelopmenthasnotalways，ineveryplaceandinalltimes，thesamerhythmandthesameintensity，itisneverthelesscertainthat，withthepassageofthedecisiveactivityfromonepeopletoanotherpeopleinthecourseofhistory，theusefulproducts，alreadyacquiredbythosewhowereindecadence，havebeentransmittedtothosewhoweregrowingandrising。Thatisnotsotrueoftheproductsofsentimentandimagination，whichneverthelessarethemselvespreservedandperpetuatedinliterarytradition，asoftheresultsofthought，andespeciallyofthediscoveryandoftheproductionoftechnicalmeans，which，oncefound，arecommunicatedandtransmitteddirectly。
　　Needweremindthereaderthatwritingwasneverlost，althoughthepeopleswhoinventedithavedisappearedfromhistoriccontinuity？Needwerecallagainthatweallhaveinourpockets，engravedonourwatches，theBabyloniandial，andthatwemakeuseofalgebra，whichwasintroducedbythoseArabs，whosehistoricalactivityhassincebeendispersedlikethesandsofthedesert？Itisuselesstomultiplytheseexamples，becauseitissufficienttothinkoftechnologyandthehistoryofdiscoveriesinthebroadsenseoftheword，forwhichthealmostcontinuoustransmissionoftheinstrumentsoflaborandproductionisevident。
　　Andafterall，theprovisionalsummarieswhicharecalleduniversalhistories，althoughtheyalwaysreveal，intheiraimandintheirexecution，somethingforcedandartificial，wouldneverhavebeenattemptedifhumaneventshadnotofferedtotheempiricismofthenarratorsacertainthread，eventhoughsubtle，ofcontinuity。
　　TakeforexampletheItalyofthesixteenthcentury，whichisevidentlyindecadence；butwhileitisdeclining，ittransmitstotherestofEuropeitsintellectualweapons。Thesearenotallthatpasstothecivilizationwhichcontinues，buteventheworldmarketestablishesitselfuponthefoundationofthosegeographicaldiscoveries，andthosediscoveriesinthenavalart，whichweretheworkofItalianmerchants，travelersandsailors。ItisnotonlythemethodsoftheartofwarandtherefinementsofpoliticaldiplomacywhichpassedoutsideofItaly（thoughitisonlywiththesethatmenoflettersordinarilyconcernedthemselves），buteventheartofmakingmoney，whichhadacquiredalltheevidenceofanelaboratecommercialdiscipline，andoneaftertheothertherudimentsofthescience，uponwhichisfoundedmoderntechnique，andtobeginwithallthemethodicalirrigationoffieldsandthegenerallawsofhydraulics。Allthatissopreciselytrue，thatanamateurinconjecturalthesesmightcometothepointofaskinghimselfthisquestion：
　　whatwouldhavebecomeofItaly，inthismodernbourgeoisepoch，if，executingtheprojectoftheVenetianSenate（1504）ofmakingsomethingwhichwouldhaveresembledinitseffectsapiercingoftheIsthmusofSuez，theItaliannavyhadfounditselfinadirectstrugglewiththePortugueseintheIndianOcean，attheverymomentwhentheshiftingofhistoricalactivityfromtheMediterraneantotheoceanpreparedthedecadenceofItaly？Butenoughoffantasy！
　　Acertainhistoricalcontinuity，intheempiricalandcircumstantialsenseofthetransmissionandthesuccessiveincreaseofthemeansofcivilization，isthenanincontestablefact。And，althoughthisfactexcludesallideaofpreconceiveddesign，ofintentionalorhiddenfinality，orpre-establishedharmonyandalltheotherwhimsicalitiesinregardtowhichtherehasbeensuchadealofspeculation，itdoesnotexclude，forallthat，theideaofprogress，whichwecanutilizeasanestimationofthecoursehumandevelopment。
　　Itisundeniablethatprogressdoesnotembracemateriallythesuccessionofgenerations，andthatitsconceptionimpliesnothingcategorical，consideringthatsocietieshavealsobeeninretrogression，butthatdoesnotpreventthisideafromservingasaguidingthreadandameasuretogiveameaningtothehistoricalprocessus。Thereisnocommongroundforcriticswhoareprudent，intheuseofspecificconceptsasinthemethodortheirapplication，andthosepoorextremeevolutionists，whoarescientistswithoutthegrammarandtheprincipleofscience，thatistosay，withoutlogic。
　　AsIhavesaidseveraltimes，ideasdonotfallfromheaven，andeventhosewhich，atagivenmomentarisefromdefinitesituationswiththeimpetuosityoffaithandwithametaphysicalgarb，carryalwayswithinthemselvestheindexoftheircorrespondencewiththeorderofthefacts，ofwhichtheexplanationissoughtorattempted。Theideaofprogress，astheunifierofhistory，appearswithviolenceandbecomesagiantintheeighteenthcentury，thatistosay，intheheroicperiodoftheintellectualandpoliticallifeoftherevolutionarybourgeoisie。Justasthisengendered，intheorderofitsworks，themostintensiveperiodofhistorythatisknown，italsoproduceditsownideologyinthenotionofprogress。Thisideologyinitssubstancemeansthatcapitalismistheonlyformofproductionwhichiscapableofextendingallovertheearthandofreducingthewholehumanracetoconditionswhichresembleeachothereverywhere。Ifmoderntechniquecanbetransportedeverywhere，ifallthehumanraceappearonasinglefieldofcompetitionandalltheworldasasinglemarket，whatisthereastonishingintheideologywhich，reflectingintellectuallytheseconditionsoffact，reachestheaffirmationthatthepresenthistoricalunityhasbeenpreparedbyeverythingwhichprecedesit？Translatingthisconceptofpretendedpreparationintothealtogethernaturalconceptofsuccessivecondition，andthereisopenedbeforeustheroadbywhichthepassageismadefromtheideologyofprogresstohistoricalmaterialism；andnowwearriveattheaffirmationofMarx，thatthisformofbourgeoisproductionisthelastantagonisticformoftheprocessusofsociety。
　　Themiraclesofthebourgeoisepoch，intheunificationofthesocialprocessus，findnoparallelinthepast。HerearethewholeNewWorld，Australia，NorthernAfrica，andNewZealand！Andtheyallresembleus！AndthereboundintheextremeEastismadethroughimitation，andinAfricathroughconquest！
　　Inthepresenceofthisuniversalityandthiscosmopolitanism，theacquisitionoftheCeltsandtheIberianstoRomancivilization，andoftheGermansandthattheSlavstothecycleofRomanByzantineChristiancivilizationshrinkintoinsignificance。Thisever-growingunificationisreflectedmoreeverydayinthepoliticalmechanismofEurope；thismechanism，becausefoundedontheeconomicconquestoftheotherpartsoftheworld，oscillateshenceforthwiththefluxandrefluxwhichcomefromthemostdistantregions。InthismostcomplicatedminglingofactionandreactionsthewarbetweenJapanandChina，madewithmethodsimitated，ordirectlyborrowed，fromEuropeantechnique，leavesitstraces，deepandfar-reaching，inthediplomaticrelationsofEurope，andstillclearertracesinthestockexchange，whichisthefaithfulinterpreteroftheconsciousnessofourtime。ThisEurope，mistressofalltherestoftheworld，hasrecentlyseentherelationsofthepoliticsofthestatesofwhichitiscomposedoscillateinconsequenceofarevoltintheTransvaal，andinconsequenceoftheillsuccessoftheItalianarmiesinAbyssiniaintheselastdays。（3*）
　　Thecenturieswhichhavepreparedandcarriedtoitspresentformtheeconomicdominationofbourgeoisproductionhavealsodevelopedthetendencytoaunificationofhistoryunderageneralview：andinthisfashionwefindexplainedandjustifiedtheideologyofprogress，whichfillssomanybooksofthephilosophyofhistoryandofKulturgeschichte。Theunityofsocialform，thatistosay，theunityofthecapitalisticformofproduction，towhichthebourgeoisiehastendedforcenturies，isreflectedintheconceptionoftheunityofhistoryinmoresuggestiveformsthanthemindcouldeverhavereceivedfromthenarrowcosmopolitanismoftheRomanempireortheone-sidedcosmopolitanismoftheCatholicChurch。
　　Butthisunificationofthesociallife，bytheworkingofthecapitalistformofproduction，developeditselffromthebeginning，andcontinuestodevelopitself，notaccordingtopreconceivedrules，plansanddesigns，but，onthecontrary，byreasonoffrictionsandstruggles，whichintheirsumformacolossalcomplicationofantitheses。Warwithoutandwarwithin。Struggleincessantamongthenations，andstrugglesincessantbetweenthemembersofeachnation。Andtheinterlacingsofthedeedsandtheactionofsomanyemulators，competitorsandadversariesissocomplicated，thattheco-ordinationofeventsveryoftenescapestheattention，anditisaverydifficultthingtodiscovertheirintimateconnection。Thestrugglewhichactuallyexistsamongmen，thestruggleswhichnow，withvariousmethods，areunfoldingamongnationsandwithinnations，havecometomakeusunderstandbetterinthemidstofwhatdifficultiesthehistoryofthepasthasunfolded。Ifthebourgeoisideology，reflectingthetendencytocapitalistunification，hasproclaimedtheprogressofthehumanrace，historicalmaterialism，onthecontrary，andwithoutproclamation，hasdiscoveredthatthesearetheantitheseswhichhavethusfarbeenthecauseandthemotiveofallhistoricalevents。
　　Thusthemovementofhistory，takeningeneral，appearstousasitwereoscillating——orrather，touseamoreappropriateimage，itseemsthatitisunfoldingonalineofteninterrupted，andatcertainmomentsitseemstoreturnuponitself，sometimesitstretchesout，removingitselffarfromthepointofdeparture——inanactualzigzag。
　　Grantedtheinternalcomplicationofeverysociety，andgrantedthemeetingofseveralsocietiesonthefieldofcompetition（fromtheingenuousformsofrobbery，rapineandpiracytotherefinedmethodsoftheelegantsportofthestockexchange）itisnaturalthateveryhistoricalresult，whenitismeasuredintheonemeasureofindividualexpectation，appearsveryoftenlikechance，andafterwards，consideredtheoretically，becomesforthemindmoreinextricablethanthetrackofmeteors。
　　Speakingoftheironywhichsitsasasovereignabovehistoryisnotasimplephrase；because，intruth，ifthereisnogodofEpicuruslaughingaboveoverhumanaffairs，herebelowhumanaffairsareofthemselvesplayingadivinecomedy。
　　Willthisironyofhumandestiniesevercease？Willthatformofassociationeverbepossiblewhichgivesroomforthepossiblecompletedevelopmentofallaptitudes，insuchawaythattheulteriorprocessusofhistorymaybecomearealandtrueevolution？And，tospeakliketheamateursofhigh-soundingphrases，willthereeverbeahumanizationofallmen？Whenonceinthecommunismofproductiontheantitheseswhicharenowthecauseandtheeffectofeconomicdifferentiationsareeliminated，willnotallhumanenergiesacquireaveryhighdegreeofefficacyandintensityinco-operativeeffects，andatthesametimewilltheynotdevelopwithagreaterlibertyofself-expressionamongallindividuals？
　　Itisintheaffirmativeanswerstothesequestionsthatconsistswhatcriticalcommunismsays，thatistosay，foresees，ofthefuture。Butitdoesnotsayitanditdoesnotforetellitasifitwerediscussinganabstractpossibility，orlikehimwhowishes，byhiswill，togivelifetoastateofthingswhichhedesiresandwhichhedreams。Butitsaysandpredictsbecausewhatitannouncesmustinevitablyhappenbytheimmanentnecessityofhistory，seenandstudiedhenceforthinthefoundationofitseconomicsubstructure。
　　"Itisonlyinanorderofthingswheretherewillnolongerbeclassesandclassantagonismsthatsocialrevolutionswillceasetobepoliticalrevolutions。"（4*）
　　"Totheoldbourgeoissocietywithitsclassesandclassantagonismswillsucceedanassociationinwhichthefreedevelopmentofeachistheconditionofthefreedevelopmentofall。"
　　"Therelationsofbourgeoisproductionarethelastantagonisticformofthesocialprocessusofproduction——aformantagonisticnotinthesenseofindividualantagonism，butoftheantagonismwhichproceedsfromtheconditionsofthesociallifeofindividuals；buttheproductiveforceswhicharedevelopinginthelapofbourgeoissocietyarecreatingatthesametimethematerialconditionstoterminatethatantagonism。Withthissocialorganizationendstheprehistoryofthehumanrace。"（5*）
　　"Withthetakingpossessionofthemeansofproductiononthepartofsociety，isexcludedtheproductionofcommodities，andwithitthedominanceoftheproductovertheproducer。Theanarchywhichdominatesinsocialproductionwillbesucceededbyconsciousorganization。Thestruggleforindividualexistencewillcease。Onlyinthiswaymanwilldetachhimself，inacertainsense，fromtheanimalworldinadefinitefashion，andwillpassfromaconditionofanimalexistencetoconditionsofhumanexistence。Theentiresumoftheconditionsoflifewhichhasthusfardominatedmenwillpassundertheruleandtheexaminationofmenthemselves，whowillthusforthefirsttimebecometherealmastersofnature，becausetheywillbethemastersoftheirownassociation。Thelawsoftheirownsocialactivity，whichhadbeenoutsideofthemlikeforeignlawsimposeduponthem，willbeappliedandmasteredbythementhemselves，withfullknowledgeoftheircause。Theirveryassociation，whichappearedtomenasifimposedbynatureandhistory，willbecometheirownandtheirfreework。
　　Theforeignandobjectiveforces，whichtillthendominatedhistory，willpassunderthecareofmen。Onlyfromthatmomentwillmenmaketheirownhistorywithfullunderstanding；onlyfromthatmomentwillthesocialcauseswhichtheyputinmotion，beabletoarrive，ingreatpartandinaproportioneverincreasing，atthedesiredeffects。Itistheleapofthehumanracefromthereignofnecessityintothatofliberty。Toaccomplishthisactionemancipatingtheworld，suchisthehistoricmissionofthemodernproletariat。"
　　IfMarxandEngelshadbeenphrasemakers，iftheirspirithadnotbeenmadeprudent，evenscrupulous，bythedailyandminuteuseandapplicationofscientificmethods，ifthepermanentcontactwithsomanyconspiratorsandvisionarieshadnotgiventhemahorrorofeveryUtopia，opposingitindeeduptothepointofpedantry，theseformulasmightpassforgood-naturedparadoxes，whichcriticismneednotexamine。Buttheseformulasare，asitwere，theclose，theeffectiveconclusionofthedoctrineofhistoricmaterialism。
　　Theyarethedirectresultofthecriticismofeconomiesandofhistoricaldialectics。
　　Intheseformulas，whichmaybedeveloped，asIhavehadoccasiontoshowelsewhere，issummedupeveryforecastofthefuture，whichisnotandisnotintendedforaromanceoraUtopia。Andintheseveryformulasthereisanadequateandconclusiveresponsetothequestionwithwhichthischapterbegan：Isthereintheseriesofhistoriceventsameaningandasignificance？
　　THEEND
　　NOTES：
　　1。Thisgeneticstudyformsthesubjectofmyfirstessay，InMemoryoftheCommunistManifesto，whichistheindispensablepreambletoanunderstandingofalltherest。
　　2。IalludetotheexcellentworkofKarlKautsky，DieKlassengensaetzevon1789。
　　3。Marx，MiseredelaPhilosophie，Paris，1847，p。178。
　　4。CommunistManifesto，p。16。
　　5。Marx，ZurKritikderpoltisichenOekonomie，Berlin，1859，p。
　　6Pref。ComparemyfirstEssay，pp。48-50。