Moreover，thesefactorsthemselvesariseatagivenmoment，anditisnotuntillaterthattheyacquiredthatphysiognomywhichtheyhaveintheparticularnarration。ThisState，itiswellknown，aroseatagivenmoment。Asforeveryruleoflaw，itmayeitherberememberedorconjecturedthatitwentintoeffectundersuchorsuchcircumstances。Asformanycustoms，itmayberememberedthattheywereintroducedatagivenmoment；andthesimplestcomparisonsofthefactsindifferenttimesordifferentplaceswouldshowhowsociety，asawhole，andinitscharacterofbeinganaggregationofdifferentclasses，hadtakenandtookcontinuouslyvariousforms。
Thereciprocalactionofthedifferentfactors，withoutwhichnoteventhesimplestnarrationwouldbepossible，likethemoreorlessexactinformationupontheoriginsandthevariationsofthefactorsthemselves，calledforresearchandthoughtmorethandidtheconstructivenarrationofthosegreathistorianswhoarerealartists。And，ineffect，theproblemswhicharisespontaneouslyfromthedataofhistory，combinedwithothertheoreticalelements，gavebirthtothedifferentso-calledpracticaldisciplines，whichinamoreorlessrapidfashionandwithvaryingsuccess，havedevelopedfromtheancientsuptoourdays，fromethicstothephilosophyoflaw，frompoliticstosociology，fromlawtoeconomics。
Nowwiththeriseandformationofsomanydisciplines，throughtheinevitabledivisionoflabor，pointsofviewhavebeenmultipliedoutofallproportion。
Itiscertainthatforthefirstandimmediateanalysisofthemultipleaspectsofthesocialcomplexus，alonglaborofpartialabstractionwasnecessary：
whichhasalwaysinevitablyresultedinone-sidedviews。Thiscanbeshown，inaclearerandmoreevidentmannerthanforanyotherdomain，inthatoflawanditsvariousgeneralizations，includingthephilosophyoflaw。Byreasonoftheseabstractions，whichareinevitableinparticularandempiricalanalysis，andbytheeffectofthedivisionoflabor，thedifferentsidesanddifferentmanifestationsofthesocialcomplexuswere，fromtimetotime，fixedandstratifiedingeneralconceptionsandcategories。Theworks，theeffects，theemanations，theeffusionsofhumanactivity——law，economicforms，principlesofconduct，etc。，——were，sotospeak，translatedandtransformedintolaws，intoimperativesandintoprincipleswhichremainedplacedabovemanhimself。Andfromtimetotimeithasbeennecessarytodiscoveranewthissimpletruth：thattheonlypermanentandsurefact，thatistosay，theonlydatumfromwhichdepartsandtowhichreturnseverypracticaldetailofdiscipline，ismengroupedinadeterminedsocialformbymeansofdeterminedconnections。Thedifferentanalyticaldisciplines，whichillustratethefactsthatdevelopinhistory，havefinallygivenrisetotheneedofacommonandgeneralsocialscience，whichrenderspossibletheunificationofthehistoricprocessus，andthematerialisticdoctrinemarkspreciselythefinalterm，theapexofthisunification。
Butthathasnotbeen，noreverwillbe，losttimewhichisexpendedinthepreliminaryandlateralanalysisofcomplexfacts。Tothemethodicaldivisionoflaborweowepreciselearning，thatistosay，themassofknowledgepassedintothesieve，systematized，withoutwhichsocialhistorywouldalwaysbewanderinginapurelyabstractdomain，inquestionsofformandterminology。
Theseparatestudyofthehistorico-socialfactorshasserved，likeanyotherempiricalstudywhichdoesnottranscendtheapparentmovementofthings，toimprovetheinstrumentofobservationandtopermitustofindagaininthefactsthemselves，whichhavebeenartificiallyabstracted，thekeystoneswhichbindthemintothesocialcomplexus。Thedifferentdisciplineswhichareconsideredasisolatedandindependentinthehypothesesoftheconcurrentfactorsintheformationofhistory，bothbyreasonofthedegreeofdevelopmentwhichtheyhavereached，thematerialswhichtheyhavegathered，andthemethodswhichtheyhaveelaborated，haveto-daybecomequiteindispensableforus，ifonedesirestoreconstructanyportionoutofpasttimes。Wherewouldourhistoricsciencebewithouttheone-sidednessofphilology，whichisthefundamentalinstrumentofallresearch，andwhereshouldwehavefoundtheguidingthreadofahistoryofjuridicalinstitutions，whichreturnsagainfromitselftosomanyotherfactsandtosomanyothercombinations，withouttheobstinatefaithoftheRomanistsintheuniversalexcellenceoftheRomanlaw，whichengenderedwithgeneralizedlawandwiththephilosophyoflawsomanyproblemswhichserveaspointsofdepartureforsociology？
Itisthus，afterall，thatthehistoricfactors，ofwhichsomanyspeak，andwhicharementionedinsomanyworks，indicatesomethingwhichismuchlessthanthetruth，butmuchmorethansimpleerror，intheordinarysenseofablunder，ofanillusion。Theyarethenecessaryproductofaknowledgewhichisinthecourseofdevelopmentandformation。Theyarisefromthenecessityoffindingapointofdepartureintheconfusedspectaclewhichhumaneventspresenttohimwhowishestonarratethem；andtheyservethenceforth，sotospeak，asatitle，categoryorindextothatinevitabledivisionoflabor，bytheextensionofwhichthehistorico-socialmaterialhas，uptothistime，beentheoreticallyelaborated。Inthisdomainofknowledge，aswellasinthatofthenaturalsciences，theunityofrealprincipleandtheunityofformaltreatmentareneverfoundatthefirststart，butonlyafteralongandtroublousroad。SothatagainfromthispointofviewtheanalogyaffirmedbyEngelsbetweenthediscoveryofhistoricalmaterialismandthatoftheconservationofenergyappearstousexcellent。
Theprovisionalorientation，accordingtotheconvenientsystemofwhatarecalledfactors，may，undergivencircumstances，beusefulalsotouswhoprofessanaltogetherunitaryprincipleofhistoricinterpretation，ifwedonotwishsimplytorestinthedomainoftheory，butwishtoillustrate，throughpersonalresearch，adefiniteperiodofhistory。Asinthatcasewemustproceedtodirectanddetailedresearch，wemustfirstofallfollowthegroupsoffactsthatseempre-eminent，independent，ordetachedintheaspectsofimmediateexperience。Weshouldnotimagine，infact，thattheunitaryprinciplesowellestablished，atwhichwehavearrivedinthegeneralconceptionofhistory，may，likeatalisman，actalwaysandatfirstsight，asaninfalliblemethodofresolvingintosimpleelementstheimmenseareaandthecomplicatedgearingofsociety。Theunderlyingeconomicstructure，whichdeterminesalltherest，isnotasimplemechanismwhenceemerge，asimmediate，automaticandmechanicaleffects，institutions，laws，customs，thoughts，sentiments，ideologies。Fromthissubstructuretoalltherest，theprocessofderivationandofmediationisverycomplicated，oftensubtle，tortuousandnotalwayslegible。
Thesocialorganizationis，aswealreadyknow，constantlyunstable，althoughthatdoesnotseemevidenttoeveryone，exceptatthetimewhentheinstabilityentersuponthatacuteperiodwhichiscalledarevolution。Thisinstability，withtheconstantstrugglesinthebosomofthatsameorganizedsociety，excludesthepossibilityformencomingtoanagreementwhichmightinvolveanewstartatlivingananimallife。Itistheantagonismswhicharetheprincipalcauseofprogress（Marx）。Butitisequallytrue，notwithstanding，thatinthisunstableorganization，inwhichisgiventoustheinevitableformofdominationandsubjection，intelligenceisalwaysdevelopednotonlyunequally，butquiteimperfectly，incongruouslyandpartially。Therehasbeenandthereisstillinsocietywhatwemaycallahierarchyofintelligence，sentimentsandconceptions。Tosupposethatmen，alwaysandinallcases，havehadanapproximatelyclearconsciousnessoftheirownsituation，andofwhatwasthemostrationalthingtodo，istosupposetheimprobableand，indeed，theunreal。
Formsoflaw，politicalactsandattemptsatsocialorganizationwere，andtheystillare，sometimesfortunate，sometimesmistaken，thatistosay，disproportionateandunsuitable。Historyisfulloferrors；andthismeansthatifallwasnecessary，grantedtherelativeintelligenceofthosewhohavetosolveadifficultyortofindasolutionforagivenproblem，etc。，ifeverythinginithasasufficientreason，yeteverythinginitwasnotreasonable，inthesensewhichtheoptimistsgivetothisword。Tostateitmorefully，thedeterminedcausesofallchanges，thatistosaythemodifiedeconomicconditions，haveendedandendbycausingtobefound，sometimesthroughtortuousways，thesuitableformsoflaw，theappropriatepoliticalordersandthemoreorlessperfectmeansofsocialadjustment。Butitmustnotbethoughtthattheinstinctivewisdomofthereasoninganimalhasbeenmanifested，orismanifested，definitelyandsimply，inthecompleteandclearunderstandingofallsituations，andthatwehaveleftonlytheverysimpletaskoffollowingthedeductiveroadfromtheeconomicsituationtoalltherest。Ignorance——which，initsturn，maybeexplained——isanimportantreasonforthemannerinwhichhistoryismade；and，toignorancewemustaddthebrutishnesswhichisnevercompletelysubduedandallthepassions，andalltheinjustices，andthevariousformsofcorruption，whichwereandarethenecessaryproductofasocietyorganizedinsuchaway，thatthedominationofmanovermaninitisinevitable，andthatfromthisdominationfalsehood，hypocrisy，presumptionandbasenesswereandareinseparable。
Wemay，withoutbeingutopians，butsimplybecausewearecriticalcommunists，foresee，aswedoinfactforesee，thecomingofasocietywhich，developingfromthepresentsocietyandfromitsverycontrastsbythelawsinherentinitshistoricdevelopment，willendinanassociationwithoutclassantagonisms；
whichwillhaveforitsconsequencethatregulatedproductionwilleliminatefromlifetheelementofchancewhich，thusfar，hasbeenrevealedinhistoryasamultiformcauseofaccidentsandincidents。Butthatisthefuture，anditisneitherthepresentnorthepast。Ifweproposetoourselves，onthecontrary，topenetrateintothehistoriceventswhichhavedevelopeduptoourowntimes，bytaking，aswedo，foraguidingthreadthevariationsoftheformsoftheunderlyingeconomicstructureuptothesimplestdatuminthevariationsofthetoolofproduction，wemustbecomefullyconsciousofthedifficultyoftheproblemwhichwearesettingourselves：becauseherewehavenotmerelytoopenoureyesandbehold，buttomakea，supremeeffortofthought，withtheaimoftriumphingoverthemultiformspectacleofimmediateexperiencetoreduceitselementsintoageneticseries。ThatiswhyIsaidthat，inparticularinvestigations，wemustourselvesstartfromthosegroupsofapparentlyisolatedfacts，andfromthisheterogeneousmass，inaword，fromthatempiricalstudy，whencearosethebeliefinfactors，whichafterwardsbecameasemi-doctrine。
Itisuselesstoattemptatcounterbalancingtheseessentialdifficultiesbythemetaphoricalhypothesis，oftenequivocal，andafterallofapurelyanalogicalvalue，oftheso-calledsocialorganism。Itwasnecessarytoothatthemindshouldpassthrougheventhishypothesis，whichsoshortlybecamephraseologypureandsimple。Itindeedpreparesthewayforthecomprehensionofthehistoricmovementasspringingfromthelawsimmanentinsocietyitself，andtherebyexcludesthearbitrary，thetranscendentalandtheirrational。
Butthemetaphorhasnofurtherapplication；andtheparticular，criticalandcircumstantialresearchintohistoricfactsisthesolesourceofthatconcreteandpositiveknowledgewhichisnecessarytothecompletedevelopmentofeconomicmaterialism。
VII
Ideasdonotfallfromheaven，andnothingcomestousinadream。Thechangeinthewaysofthinking，latelyproducedbythehistoricdoctrinewhichwearehereexaminingandcommentingupon，takesplaceatfirstslowlyandafterwardswithanincreasingrapidity，preciselyinthatperiodofhumandevelopment，inwhichwererealizedthegreatpolitico-economicrevolutions，thatistosay，inthatepochwhich，consideredinitspoliticalforms，iscalledliberal，butwhich，consideredinitsbasis，byreasonofthedominationofcapitalovertheproletarianmass，istheepochofanarchicalproduction。
Thechangeinideas，eventothecreationofnewmethodsofconception，hasreflectedlittlebylittletheexperienceofanewlife。This，intherevolutionsofthelasttwocenturies，waslittlebylittledespoiledofthemythical，religiousandmysticalenvelopesinproportionasitacquiredthepracticalandpreciseconsciousnessofitsimmediateanddirectconditions。Humanthought，also，whichsumsupthislifeandtheorizesuponit，haslittlebylittlebeenplunderedofitstheologicalandmetaphysicalhypothesestotakerefugefinallyinthisprosaicassertion：intheinterpretationofhistorywemustlimitourselvestotheobjectiveco-ordinationofthedeterminingconditionsandofthedeterminedeffects。Thematerialisticconceptionmarkstheculminatingpointofthisnewtendencyintheinvestigationofthehistoricsociallaws，insofarasitisnotaparticularcaseofagenericsociology，orofagenericphilosophyoftheState，oflaw，andofhistory，butthesolutionofalldoubtsandalluncertaintieswhichaccompanytheotherformsofphilosophizinguponhumanaffairs，andthebeginningoftheirintegralinterpretation。
Itisthusaneasything，especiallyinthewayithasbeendonebycertainshallowcritics，tofindprecursorsforMarxandEngels，whofirstdefinedthisdoctrineinitsfundamentalpoints。Andwhendiditeveroccurtoanyoftheirdisciples，evenofthestrictestschool，torepresentthesetwothinkersasmiracle-workers？Whatismore，ifwewishtogoonasearchafterthepremisesofthelogicalcreationofMarxandEngels，itwillnotsufficetostopatthosewhoarecalledtheprecursorsofsocialism，SaintSimonforexample，andhispredecessors，orthephilosophers，particularlyHegel，ortheeconomistswhohadlaidbaretheanatomyofthesocietywhichproducescommodities；wemustgobacktotheveryformationofmodernsociety，andthenatlastdeclaretriumphantlythatthetheoryisaplagarismfromthethingsthatitexplains。
Thetruthisthattherealprecursorsofthenewdoctrinewerethefactsofmodernhistory，whichhasbecomesotransparentandsoexplanatoryofitselfsincetheaccomplishmentinEnglandofthegreatindustrialrevolutionattheendoftheeighteenthcentury，andsincethegreatsocialupheavaltookplaceinFrance。Thesethings，mutatismutandis，havesubsequentlybeenreproduced，invariouscombinationsandinmilderforms，throughoutthewholecivilizedworld。Andwhatelseisourthoughtatbottomifnottheconsciousandsystematiccomplementofexperience，andwhatisthislastifnotthereflectionandthementalelaborationofthethingsandtheprocesseswhichariseandunfoldeitheroutsideourvolition，orthroughtheworkofouractivity；andwhatisgeniusbuttheindividualized，derivedandacuteformofthought，whichrisesthroughthesuggestionofexperience，inmanymenofthesameepoch，butwhichremainsinmostofthemfragmentary，incomplete，uncertain，waveringandpartial？
Ideasdonotfallfromheaven；andwhatismore，liketheotherproductsofhumanactivity，theyareformedingivencircumstances，intheprecisefullnessoftime，throughtheactionofdefiniteneeds，thankstotherepeatedattemptsattheirsatisfaction，andbythediscoveryofsuchandsuchothermeansofproofwhichare，asitwere，theinstrumentsoftheirproductionandtheirelaboration。Evenideasinvolveabasisofsocialconditions；theyhavetheirtechnique；thoughtalsoisaformofwork。Torobtheoneandtheother，ideasandthought，oftheconditionsandenvironmentoftheirbirthandtheirdevelopment，istodisfiguretheirnatureandtheirmeaning。
Toshowhowthematerialisticconceptionofhistoryarisespreciselyingivenconditions，notasapersonalandtentativeopinionoftwowriters，butasthenewconquestofthoughtbytheinevitablesuggestionofanewworldwhichisinprocessofbirth，thatistosaytheproletarianrevolution，thatwastheobjectofmyfirstessay，"InMemoryoftheCommunistManifesto。"
Thatis，torepeat，anewhistoricsituationfounditscomplementinitsappropriatementalinstrument。
Toimaginenowthatthisintellectualproductionmighthavebeenrealizedatanytimeandatanyplace，wouldbetotakeabsurdityfortherulingprincipleinresearch。Totransportideasarbitrarilyfromthebasisandthehistoricconditionsinwhichtheyarisetoanyotherbasiswhatever，isliketakingtheirrationalforthebasisofreasoning。Whyshouldonenotfancyequallythattheancientcity，inwhicharoseGreekartandscienceandRomanlaw，remainingallthewhileanancientdemocraticcity，withslavery，mightatthesametimeacquireanddevelopalltheconditionsofmoderntechnique？
WhynotbelievethatthetradeguildoftheMiddleAges，remainingallthewhileonitsinflexiblemould，shouldtakeitswaytotheconquestoftheworldmarketwithouttheconditionsofunlimitedcompetition，whichactuallybeganbyitsdestructionandnegation？Whynotimagineafiefwhich，remainingafiefallthewhile，shouldbecomeafactoryproducingcommoditiesexclusively？
WhycouldnotMicheldeLandohavewrittentheCommunistManifesto？Whycouldwenotalsobelievethatthediscoveriesofmodernsciencecouldhaveproceededfromthebrainsofmenofnomatterwhatothertimeandplace，thatistosay，beforedeterminedconditionshadgivenrisetodeterminedneeds，andbeforerepeatedandaccumulatedexperiencesshouldhaveprovidedforthesatisfactionoftheseneeds？
Ourdoctrineassumesthebroad，consciousandcontinuousdevelopmentofmoderntechnique，andwithitthatsocietywhichproducescommoditiesintheantagonismsofcompetition，thatsocietywhichasafirstconditionandanindispensablemeansforitsownperpetuationpresupposescapitalistaccumulationintheformofprivateproperty；thatsocietywhichcontinuallyproducesandreproducesproletarians，andwhichifitistoperpetuateitself，mustincessantlyrevolutionizeitstools，andwiththemtheStateanditslegalgearings。Thissociety，which，bytheverylawsofitsmovement，haslaidbareitsownanatomy，producesbyitsreactionthematerialisticconception。
Evenasithasproducedinsocialismitspositivenegation，soithasengenderedinthenewhistoricdoctrineitsidealnegation。Ifhistoryistheproduct，notarbitrary，butnecessaryandnormal，ofmeninsofarastheyaredeveloping，andiftheyaredevelopinginsofarastheyaremakingsocialexperiments，andiftheyareexperimentinginsofarastheyaremakingimprovementsintheirlabor，whichaccumulateandpreserveproductsandresults，thephaseofdevelopmentinwhichwelivecannotbethelastandfinalphase，andthecontrastswhichareintimatelyboundtoitandinherentinitaretheproductiveforcesofnewconditions。Andthisishowtheperiodofthegreateconomicandpoliticalrevolutionsoftheselasttwocenturieshasripenedinthemindthesetwoconcepts：theimmanenceandconstancyoftheprocessusinhistoricfacts，andthematerialistdoctrine，whichisatbottomtheobjectivetheoryofsocialrevolutions。
Itisbeyonddoubtthattoreascendthroughthecenturiesandreconstructinourthoughtthedevelopmentofsocialideastotheextentthatwefindtheirdocumentsinwriters，issomethingalwaysveryinstructive，andservingespeciallytoaddtoourcriticalknowledgeofourconceptsasofourwaysofthinking。Suchareturnofthemindoveritshistoricpremises，whenitdoesnotleadusastrayintotheempiricismofaboundlesserudition，anddoesnotleadustoset-uphastilyvainanalogies，serveswithoutanydoubttogivesupplenessandapersuasiveforcetotheformsofourscientificactivity。Inthesumofoursciencewefindagain，infactandthroughtheapproximativecontinuityoftradition，theexcellenceofallthathasbeenfound，conceivedandproved，notonlyinmoderntimesbuteveninancientGreece，wherefirstbeginspreciselyandinadefinitefashionforthehumanracetheorderlydevelopmentofconscious，reflectiveandmethodicalthought。
Itwouldbeimpossibletotakeasinglestepinscientificresearchwithoutemployingmeanslongagofoundandtried，suchforexampleaslogicandmathematics。
Tothinkotherwisewouldbetoassumethateachgenerationmustbeginoveragainalltheworkdonesincethechildhoodofhumanity。
Butitwasnotgiveneithertotheancientauthorsinthelimitedcircleoftheirurbanrepublics，nortothewritersoftheRenaissance，alwaysdriftingbetweenanimaginaryreturntoantiquityandtheneedofgraspingintellectuallythenewworldinprocessofbirth，toarriveatthepreciseanalysisofthelastelementsfromwhichsocietyresults，andwhichtheincomparablegeniusofAristotledidnotsee，anddidnotunderstandbeyondthelimitswithinwhichpassesthelifeofthetypicalcitizen。
Theinvestigationofthesocialstructure，consideredinitsmannersoforiginandprocessus，becameactiveandpenetratingandtookonmultiformaspectsintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies，wheneconomicstookshapeandwhenunderthedifferentnamesof"NaturalRights，""TheSpiritoftheLaws，"or"TheSocialContract，itwasattemptedtoresolveintocauses，intofactorsandintologicalandpsychologicaldata，themultiformandoftenobscurespectacleofalifeinwhichwaspreparingthegreatestrevolutioneverknown。Thesedoctrines，whatevermayhavebeenthesubjectiveintentionandspiritoftheauthors——asinthecontrastingcasesoftheconservativeHobbesandtheproletarianRousseau——wereallrevolutionaryintheirsubstanceandtheireffects。Underallofthemisalwaysfound，asastimulusandmotive，thematerialandmoralneedsofanewage，which，byreasonofhistoricconditions，werethoseofthebourgeoisie。
Thusitwasnecessarytowagewarinthenameoflibertyupontradition，theChurch，privileges，fixedclasses，thatistosay，theordersandconditions，andconsequentlyupontheStatewhichwasorappearedtobetheirauthor，andthenuponthespecialprivilegesofcommerce，thearts，laborandscience。
Andmanwasstudiedinanabstractfashion，thatistosay，individualstakenseparately，emancipatedanddeliveredbyalogicalabstractionfromtheirhistoricconnectionandfromeverysocialnecessity：inthemindofmanytheconceptofsocietywasreducedtoatoms，anditevenseemednaturaltothegreatestnumbertobelievethatsocietyisonlythesumoftheindividualscomposingit。Theabstractcategoriesofindividualpsychologysufficedfortheexplanationofallhumanfacts；andthisishowinallthesesystems，nothingisspokenofbutfear，self-love，egoism，voluntaryobedience，tendencytowardhappiness，theoriginalgoodnessofman，thefreedomofcontractandofthemoralconsciousness，andofthemoralinstinctorsense，andalsomanyothersimilarabstractandgenericthings，asiftheyweresufficienttoexplainhistory，andtocreateanewhistoryoutofitsfragments。
Bythefactthatallsocietywasenteringuponanacutecrisis，itshorrorattheantique，atwhatwassuperannuated，atwhatwastraditionalandhadbeenorganizedforcenturies，andthepresentimentofarenovationofallhumanlife，finallyproducedatotaleclipseoftheideasofhistoricnecessityandsocialnecessity，thatistosay，ofthoseideaswhich，barelyindicatedbytheancientphilosophers，andsodevelopedinourcentury，hadatthisperiodofrevolutionaryrationalismonlyrarerepresentatives，likeVico，Montesquieu，and，inpart，Quesnay。Inthishistoricsituation，whichgavebirthtoaliteraturethatwasnimble，destructiveandverypopular，isfoundthereasonforwhatLouisBlancwithacertainemphasishascalledindividualism。
Latersomehavethoughttheysawinthiswordtheexpressionofapermanentfactinhumannature，whichespeciallymightserveasadecisiveargumentagainstsocialism。
Asingularspectacle，andasingularcontrast！Capital，howeverproduced，tendedtoovercomeallpreviousformsofproduction，and，breakingeverybondandboundary，tobecomethedirectorindirectmasterofsociety，as，infact，ithasbecomeinthegreaterpartoftheworld；henceitresulted，thatapartfromallformsofmodernmiseryandthenewhierarchyinwhichwelive，therewasrealizedthemostacuteantithesisofallhistory，thatistosay，theexistinganarchyofproductioninthewholeofsociety，andanirondespotisminthemodeofproductionineachworkshopandeachfactory！
Andthethinkers，thephilosophers，theeconomistsandthepopularizersoftheeighteenthcenturysawnothingbutlibertyandequality！Allreasonedinthesameway；allstartedfromthesamepremises，whichbroughtthemtoconcludethatlibertymustbeobtainedfromagovernmentofpureadministration，orthattheyweredemocratsorevencommunists。Theapproachingreignoflibertywasbeforetheeyesofallasacertainevent，providedtheycouldsuppressthebondsandfetterswhichforcedignoranceandthedespotismofchurchandstatehadimposeduponmen，goodbynature。Thesefettersdidnotappeartobeconditionsandboundarieswithinwhichmenwerefoundbythelawsoftheirdevelopment，andbytheeffectoftheantagonisticandthusuncertainandtortuousmovementofhistory，butsimplyobstaclesfromwhichthemethodicaluseofreasonwastodeliverus。Inthisidealism，whichreacheditsculminatingpointincertainheroesoftheFrenchRevolution，istheseedofalimitlessfaithinthecertainprogressofthewholehumanrace。Forthefirsttime，theconceptofhumanityappearedinallitsbranches，unmingledwithreligiousideasorhypotheses。Theboldestoftheseidealistsweretheextremematerialists，because，denyingeveryreligiousfiction，theyassignedthisearthasacertaindomaintothenecessityofhappinessprovidedthatreasonmightopentheway。
Neverwereideasabusedinsoinhumanafashionasbetweenthecloseoftheeighteenthcenturyandthebeginningofthenineteenth。Thelessonofthingswasveryhard，thesaddestdisillusionsaroseandaradicalupheavalfollowedinthemindsofmen。Facts，inaword，provedtobecontrarytoallexpectations；andthisatfirstproducedaprofounddiscouragementamongthedisillusioned，which，notwithstanding，gaverisetothedesireandtheneedofnewinvestigations。WeknowthatSaintSimonandFourier，inwhomoperatedpreciselyatthebeginningofthecentury，intheexclusiveformsoftheideasofprematuregenius，thereactionagainsttheimmediateresultsofthepolitico-economicrevolution，aroseresolutely，thefirstagainstthejurists，andthesecondagainsttheeconomists。
Infact，whenoncetheobstaclestoliberty，whichhadbeencharacteristicofothertimes，hadbeensuppressed，newobstacles，graverandmorepainful，hadreplacedthem，and，asequalhappinessforallwasnotrealized，societyremainedinitspoliticalformasithadbeenbefore，anorganizationofinequalities。Itmustbe，then，thatsocietyissomethingautonomous，innate，acomplexautomatonofrelationsandconditions，whichdefiesthesubjectivegoodintentionsofeachofthememberswhocomposeit，andwhichescapesfromtheillusionsandthedesignsoftheidealists。Itthusfollowsacourseofitsownfromwhichwemayinfercertainlawsofprocessanddevelopment，butdoesnotsufferustoimposelawsuponit。Bythistransformationinthemindsofmen，thenineteenthcenturyheraldeditselfasthecenturyofhistoricscienceandofsociology。
Theprincipleofdevelopmenthas，indeed，sincethen，invadedalldomainsofthought。Inthiscentury，thegrammarofhistoryhasbeendiscovered，andthusthekeyhasbeenfoundtoexplorethegenesisofmyths。Theembryonictracesofprehistoryhavebeensoughtout，and，forthefirsttime，theprocessesofpoliticalandlegalformshavebeenarrangedintoaseries。ThenineteenthcenturyheraldeditselfasthecenturyofsociologyinthepersonofSaintSimon，inwhom，ashappenswiththeself-taughtprecursorsofgenius，wefindconfusedtogetherthegermsofsomanycontradictorytendencies。Inthisaspectthematerialisticconceptionisaresult；butitisaresultwhichisthecomplementofthewholeprocessofformation；andasaresultandacomplementitisalsothesimplificationofallhistoricscienceandofallsociology，becauseittakesusbackfromthingsderivedandfromcomplexconditionstoelementalfunctions。Andthatisbroughtaboutbythedirectsuggestionofnewdynamicexperience。
Thelawsofeconomics，suchastheyareofthemselvesandtheirowninherentforce，havetriumphedoverallillusionsandhaveshownthemselvestobethedirectingpowerofsociallife。Thegreatindustrialrevolutionwhichwasproducedmadeitclearthatsocialclasses，iftheyarenotafactofnature，arestilllessaconsequenceofchanceandoffreewill；theyarisehistoricallyandsociallyinadeterminedformofproduction。Andwho，intruth，hasnotseenthebirthunderhiseyesofnewproletariansupontheeconomicruinofsomanyclassesofsmallproprietors，smallpeasantsandartisans；andwhohasnotbeeninapositiontodiscoverthemethodofthisnewcreationofanewsocialstatus，towhichsomanymenwerereducedandinwhichtheywerenecessarilyobligedtolive。Whohasnotbeeninapositiontodiscoverthatmoney，transformedintocapital，hadsucceeded，inafewyears，inbecomingmasterbytheattractionwhichitexercisesoverthelaboroffreemen，inwhomthenecessityofsellingthemselvesfreelyaswageworkershadbeenpreparedlongbeforebysomanyingeniouslegalprocessesandbyviolentorindirectexpropriation？Andwhohasnotseenthenewcitiesrisearoundfactoriesandcreatearoundtheircircumferencethisdesolatingpoverty，whichisnolongertheeffectofindividualmisfortune，buttheconditionandthesourceofwealth？Andinthisnewpovertywerenumerouswomenandchildren，arisingforthefirsttimefromanunknownexistencetotaketheirplaceonthepageofhistoryasasinisterillustrationofasocietyofequals。
Andwhodidnotfeel——evenifthathadnot，beenannouncedintheso-calleddoctrineoftheRev。Malthus——thatthenumberofguestswhichthismodeofeconomicorganizationcanentertain，ifitissometimesinsufficientforhimwho，byreasonofthefavorablestateofproduction，hasneedofhands，isoftenalsosuperabundant，andthereforefindsnooccupationandbecomesasourceofdanger？Itbecomesevident，also，thattherapidandviolenteconomictransformationwhichwasaccomplishedopenlyinEnglandhadsucceededthere，becausethatcountryhadbeenabletobuildupforitself，ascomparedwiththerestofEurope，amonopolytillthenunknown，andbecausetomaintainthismonopolyanunscrupulouspolicyhadbeenrenderednecessary，andthatpermittedall，foronehappymoment，totranslateintoprosetheideologicalmythofthestate，whichwastobetheguardianandthepreceptorofthepeople。
Thisimmediateperceptionoftheseconsequencesofthenewlifewastheoriginofthepessimism，moreorlessromantic，ofthelaudatorestemporisactifromDeMaistretoCarlyle。Thesatireofliberalisminvadedmindsandliteratureatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury。Thenbeginsthatcriticismofsociety，whichisthefirststepinallsociology。Itwasnecessarybeforeallelsetooverthrowtheideology，whichhadaccumulatedandexpresseditselfinsomanydoctrinesoftheNaturalRightortheSocialContract。Itwasnecessarytogetintocontactwiththefactswhichtherapideventsofsointensiveaprocessusimposedupontheattentioninformssonewandstartling。
HereappearsOwen，incomparableatallpointsofview，butespeciallyfortheclearnesswhichhedisplayedinthedeterminationofthecausesofthenewpoverty，eventhoughhewasbutachildinhisquestofthemeansforovercomingit。Itwasnecessarytoarriveattheobjectivecriticismofeconomics，whichappearedforthefirsttime，inone-sidedandreactionaryforms，inSismondi。Inthisperiodwheretheconditionsofanewhistoricsciencewereripening，arosesomanydifferentformsofsocialism，utopian，one-sidedorcompletelyextravagant，whichneverreachedtheproletarians，eitherbecausethesehadnopoliticalconsciousness，oriftheyhadany，itmanifesteditselfinsuddenstarts，asintheFrenchconspiraciesandriotsfrom1830to1848，ortheykeptonthepoliticalgroundofimmediatereforms，asisthecasewiththeChartists。Andneverthelessallthissocialism，howeverUtopian，fantasticandideologicalitmayhavebeen，wasanimmediateandoftensalutarycriticismofeconomics——aone-sidedcriticism，indeed，whichlackedthescientificcomplementofageneralhistoricalconception。
Alltheseformsofcriticism，partial，one-sidedandincompletehadtheirculminationinscientificsocialism。Thisisnolongersubjectivecriticismappliedtothingsbutthediscoveryoftheself-criticismwhichisinthethingsthemselves。Therealcriticismofsocietyissociety，itself，which，bytheantitheticconditionsofthecontrastsuponwhichitrests，engendersfromitself，withinitself，thecontradiction，andfinallytriumphsoverthisbyitspassageintoanewform。Thesolutionoftheexistingantithesesistheproletariat，whichtheproletariansthemselvesknowordonotknow。
Evenastheirmiseryhasbecometheconditionofpresentsociety，sointheirmiseryisthejustificationofthenewproletarianrevolution。Itisinthispassagefromthecriticismofsubjectivethought，whichexaminesthingsoutsideandimaginesitcancorrectthematonce，totheunderstandingoftheself-criticismexercisedbysocietyoveritselfntheimmanenceofitsownprocessus——
itisinthisonlythatthedialecticofhistoryconsists，whichMarxandEngels，insofarastheywerematerialists，drewfromtheidealismofHegel。
Butonthefinalreckoningitmatterslittlewhethertheliterarymen，whoknewnoothermeaningfordialecticsthanthatofanartificialsophistrynorwhetherthedoctorsandscholarswhoareneverapttogobeyondtheknowledgeofparticularfactscaneveraccountthemselvesforthesehiddenandcomplicatedformsofthought。
Butthegreateconomictransformation，whichhasfurnishedthematerialscomposingmodernsociety，inwhichtheempireofcapitalismhasarrivedatthelimitofitscompletedevelopment，wouldnothavebeensoimmediatelyandsosuggestivelyinstructive，ifithadnotbeenluminouslyillustratedbythebewilderingandcatastrophicmovementoftheFrenchRevolution。Thisputinevidence，likeatragedyonthestage，alltheantagonisticforcesofmodernsociety，becausethissocietyhasdevelopedontheruinsofpreviousforms，andbecause，insoshortatimeandwithsohastyamarch，ithastraversedthephasesofitsbirthanditsestablishment。
Therevolutionensuedfromtheobstacleswhichthebourgeoisiehadtoovercomebyviolence，sinceitappearedfromevidencethatthepassagefromtheoldformstothenewformsofproduction——orofproperty，ifweborrowthelanguageofjurists-couldnotberealizedbythequieterwaysofsuccessiveandgradualreforms。Itbroughtinitstraintheupheaval，thefrictionandtheinterminglingofalltheoldclassesoftheAncientRegime，andtherapidandbewilderingformationatthesametimeofnewclasses，intheveryrapidbutveryintensiveperiodoftenyears，which，comparedwiththeordinaryhistoryofothertimesandothercountries，seemstouslikecenturies。Thisrapidsuccessionofmonumentaleventsbroughttolightthemostcharacteristicmomentsandaspectsofthenewormodernsociety，andthatsomuchthemoreclearlysincethemilitantbourgeoisiehadalreadycreatedforitselfintellectualmeansandorganswhichhadgivenitwiththetheoryofitsownworkthereflexconsciousnessofitsmovement。
Theviolentexpropriationofthegreatpartoftheoldproperty，thatistosay，ofthepropertycrystallizedinfiefs，inroyalandprincelydomainsandinmortmain，withtherealandpersonalrightsderivedtherefrom，putatthedisposalofthestate，whichbythenecessityofthingshadbecomeanexceptional，terribleandall-powerfulgovernment，anextraordinarymassofeconomicresources；thus，therewere，ontheoneside，thesingularpolicyoftheassignatswhichfinallyannulledthemselves，andontheotherside，theformationofthenewproprietorswhoowedtheirfortunetothechancesofgambling，tointrigueandtospeculation。Andwhoagainwouldhavedaredthereaftertoswearupontheancient，sacredaltarofproperty，whenhisrecentandauthentictitlerestedinsoevidentamannerupontheknowledgeoffortunatecircumstances？Ifithadeverpassedthroughtheheadofsomanytroublesomephilosophers，beginningwiththeSophists，thatlawisacreationofman，usefulandconvenient，thishereticalpropositionmightseemthenceforthasimpleandintuitivetruthtothemeanestofthebeggarsinParis。HadnottheproletarianswithallthecommonpeoplegiventheimpulsetotherevolutioningeneralbytheexpectedmovementsofApril，I789，anddidtheynotafterwardsfindthemselves，asitwere，drivenanewfromthestageofhistoryafterthefailureoftherevoltofPrairialin1795？Hadtheynotcarriedontheirshouldersalltheardentdefendersoflibertyandequality？HadtheynotheldintheirhandstheParisCommune，whichwas，foratime，theimpulsiveorganoftheAssemblyandofallFrance；hadtheynotfinallythebitterdisillusionofhavingcreatednewmastersforthemselveswiththeirownhands？Thebewilderingconsciousnessofthisdisillusionconstitutesthepsychologicalmotive，rapidandimmediate，oftheconspiracyofBabeuf，which，forthatveryreason，isagreatfactinhistory，andbearsinitselfalltheelementsofobjectivetragedy。
Thelandwhichfiefandmortmainhad，asitwere，boundtoabody，toafamily，toatitle，now，deliveredfromitsbonds，hadbecomeacommodity，toserveasabasisandinstrumentfortheproductionofmerchandise；sodocileacommodity，thatitwasputintocirculationintheformofmorselsofpaper。Andaroundthesesymbols，multipliedtosuchadegreeoverthethingsthattheyweretorepresentthattheyfinishedbynolongerhavinganyvalue，Businesscameforth，agiant，arising，fromallsides，ontheshouldersofthosemostwretchedintheirpoverty，andthroughallthedeviouswaysofpolitics；itwasespeciallyshamelessinitswayoftakingpartinwaranditsglorioussuccesses。Eventherapidprogressoftechnique，hastenedbytheurgencyofcircumstances，gavematerialandoccasiontotheprosperityofbusiness。
Thelawsofbourgeoiseconomics，whicharethoseofindividualproductionintheantagonisticfieldofcompetition，revoltedfuriously，throughviolenceandruse，againsttheidealisticeffortsofarevolutionarygovernmentwhich，stronginitscertaintyofsavingitscountry，andstrongerstillinitsillusionoffoundingforeternitythelibertyofequals，believeditwaspossibletosuppressgamblingbytheguillotine，toeliminateBusinessbyclosingtheStockExchangeandtoassureexistencetothecommonpeoplebyfixingthemaximumofpricesforobjectsofprimenecessity。Commodities，pricesandBusinessreassertedwithviolencetheirownlibertyagainstthosewhowishedtopreachtothemandimposeethicsuponthem。
Thermidor，whatevermayhavebeentheoriginalintentionsoftheThermidorians，whethervile，cowardly，ormisguided，was，initshiddencausesasinitsapparenteffects，thetriumphofBusinessoverdemocraticidealism。Theconstitutionof1793，whichmarkstheextremelimitthatcanbereachedbythedemocraticideal，wasneverputintopractice。Thegravepressureofcircumstances，themenaceoftheforeigner，thedifferentformsofinternalrebellion，fromtheGirondiststotheVendé；e，renderednecessaryanexceptionalgovernment，whichwastheTerror，bornoffear。Inproportionasdangersceased，theneedoftheterrorceased。ButthedemocracyshattereditselfagainsttheBusinesswhichwasbringingintoexistencethepropertyofnewproprietors。
TheconstitutionoftheyearIIIconsecratedtheprincipleofmoderateliberalism，whenceproceedsalltheconstitutionalismoftheEuropeancontinent；butitwas，beforeallelse，theroadleadingtotheguarantyofproperty。Tochangetheproprietorswhilepreservingproperty——thatisthebanner，thewatchword，theensignwhichdefiedthroughtheyearsfromAug。10，1792，theviolenttumultsaswellasthebolddesignsofthosewhoattemptedtofoundsocietyuponvirtue，equalityandSpartanabnegation。ButtheDirectorywasthefootpathbywhichtherevolutionarrivedatthedownfallofitselfasanidealisticeffort；andwiththeDirectory，whichwasopenandprofessedcorruption，thisbannerbecameareality；theproprietorsarechanged，butpropertyissaved。And，indeed，toraiseuponsomanyruinsastableedifice，therewasneedofrealforce；andthiswasfoundinthatstrangeadventurerofincomparablegenius，uponwhomfortunehadimperiallysmiled，andhewastheonlyonewhopossessedthevirtueofputtinganendtothisgiganticfable，becausetherewasinhimneithershadownortraceofmoralscruples。
Inthisfurorofeventsstrangethingshappened。Thecitizensarmedforthedefenseoftheircountry，victoriousbeyonditsfrontiersoversurroundingEurope，intowhichwiththeirconquesttheycarriedtherevolution，transformedthemselvesintoasoldierytooppressthelibertyoftheircountry。Thepeasantswho，atamomentofimperioussuggestion，producedoverthefeudalestatestheanarchyof1789，nowhavingbecomesoldiers，orsmallproprietors，orsmallfarmers，andhavingremainedforamomenttheadvancesentinelsoftherevolution，fellbackintothesilentandstolidcalmoftheirtraditionallife，which，withoutrisksandwithoutmovements，servedasasurebasisfortheso-calledsocialorder。Thepettybourgeoisofthecities，andtheformermembersoftheguildsrapidlydeveloped，inthecampofeconomicstruggle，intofreetraffickersinmanuallabor。Thefreedomoftraderequiredthateveryproductbecomeeasilymerchantable，andthusittriumphedoverthelastobstacle，byenforcingthedemandthatlaboralsobecomeforitafreecommodity。
Allchangedatthismoment。Thestate，whichforcenturiessomanymilliondeludedoneshadregardedasasacredinstitutionoradivinemandate，alloweditssovereigntobebeheadedbytheprosaicmeansofatechnicalmachine，andtherebylostitssacredcharacter。Thestate，also，wasbecomingatechnicalappliance，whichsubstitutedbureaucracyforhierarchy。Andastheancienttitlesnolongerassuredtheirpossessorstheprivilegeofexercisingdiversefunctions，thisnewstatecouldbecomethepreyofallthosewhowishedtoseizeuponit；itfounditself，inaword，putupatauction，withtheprovisionthatthesuccessfulaspirantsmustbethesolidguarantorsofthepropertyofthenewandtheoldproprietors。Thenewstate，whichhadneedofitsEighteenthBrumairetobecomeanorderlybureaucracy，supporteduponvictoriousmilitarism，thisstatewhichcompletedtherevolutionintheactwhichdeniedit，couldnotdispensewithitsscripture，anditfounditintheCivilCode，whichisthegoldenbookforasocietywhichproducesandsellscommodities。
Itisnotinvainthatgeneralizedjurisprudencehadpreservedandannotatedforcenturies，intheformofascientificdiscipline，thisRomanlaw，whichwas，whichisandevershallbe，thetypicalandclassicalformofthelawofeveryshopkeepingsociety，untilcommunismputsanendtothepossibilityofbuyingandselling。
Thebourgeoisie，which，bytheconcurrenceofsomanysingularcircumstanceseffectedtherevolutionwiththeconcurrenceofsomanyotherclassesandsemi-classeswhichafterashortlapseoftimealmostalldisappearedfromthepoliticalstage，seemed，inthemomentsofthemostviolentshocks，asifmovedbymotivesinspiredbyanideology，whichwouldhaveabsolutelynorelationwiththeeffectswhichactuallysuperveneandperpetuatedthemselves。
Themeaningofthatisthatintheheatofstrugglethebewilderingchangeoftheeconomicsubstructureappeared，asitwere，disguisedbyidealsandobscuredbytheinterlacingsofsomanyintentionsanddesigns，whencesprungsomanyactsofcrueltyandofunparalleledheroism，somanycurrentsofillusionandhardfactsofdisenchantment。Neverhadsopowerfulafaithintheidealofprogresssprungfromhumanbreasts。Todeliverthehumanracefromsuperstitution，andevenfromreligion，tomakeofeachindividualacitizen，orofeveryprivatemanapublicman；thoseareitsbeginnings——andthenonthelineofthisprogrammetosumup，intheshortactivityofafewyears，anevolutionwhichappearstothemostidealisticoftodayastheworkofseveralcenturiestocome——thatistheidealismofthattime！
Andwhyshoulditrevoltatthepedagogyoftheguillotine？
Thatpoetry，grandcertainly，ifnotjoyous，leftbehinditaprosethatwassevereenough。Anditwastheproseoftheproprietorswhoownedtheirpropertytochance，itwasthatofthehighfinanceandthenewlyrichpurveyors，marshals，prefects，journalistsandmercenarymenofletters；itwastheproseofthecourtofthatstrangemantowhomthequalitiesofmilitarygeniusgrafteduponthesoulofabrigand，had，withoutanydoubt，conferredtherightoftreatingasanideologistwhoeverdidnotadmirethebarefactwhich，inlife，asitwaswithhim，canbenothingelsethanthesimplebrutalityofsuccess。
TheFrenchRevolutionhastenedthecourseofhistoryinalargepartofEurope。Toitattaches，ontheContinent，allthatwecallliberalismandmoderndemocracy，exceptinthecaseofthefalseimitationofEngland，anduptotheestablishmentofItalianunity，whichwasandwillremainperhapsthelastactoftherevolutionarybourgeoisie。Thisrevolutionwasthemostvividandmostinstructiveexampleofthefashioninwhichasocietytransformsitselfandhowneweconomicconditionsdevelop，andindevelopingco-ordinatethemembersofsocietyintogroupsandclasses。Itwasthepalpableproofofthefashioninwhichlawisfound，whenitisnecessaryfortheexpressionandthedefenseofdefiniterelations，andhowthestateiscreated，andhowdisposalismadeofitsmeans，itsforcesanditsorgans。Hereisseenhowideasarisefromthefieldsofsocialinstitutions，andhowcharacters，tendencies，sentiments，volitions，thatistosay，inaword，moralforces，areproducedanddevelopintoconditionsgovernedbycircumstances。Inaword，thedataofsocialsciencewere，sotospeak，preparedbysocietyitself，anditisnowonderiftherevolution，whichwasprecededideologicallybythemostacuteformofrationalisticdoctrinairismeverknown，endedfinallybyleavingbehindittheintellectualneedofananti-doctrinairehistoricalandsociologicalscience，likethatwhichourowncenturyhasattemptedtoconstruct。
Andhere，bothbywhatwehaveseenandbywhatisknowngenerally，itisuselesstorecallanew，howOwenformsoneofthesamegroupwithSaintSimonandFourier，andtorepeatthroughwhatwaysscientificsocialismtookitsbirth。Theimportantthingisinthesetwopoints：thathistoricalmaterialismcouldnotarisebutfromthetheoreticalconsciousnessofsocialism；andthatitcanhenceforthexplainitsownoriginwithitsownprinciples，whichisthegreatestproofofitsmaturity。
ThusIhavejustifiedthephraseatthebeginningofthischapter：ideasdonotdescendfromheaven。
VIII
Theroadtraversedthusfarhasenabledustotakeexactaccountofthepreciseandrelativevalueoftheso-calleddoctrineoffactors；weknowalsohowitsadherentscometoeliminateobjectivelythoseprovisionalconcepts，whichwereandareasimpleexpressionofathoughtnotfullyarrivedatmaturity。
And，nevertheless，itisnecessarythatwespeakfurtherofthisdoctrine，inordertoexplainbetterandmoreindetailforwhatreasonstwooftheso-calledfactors，thestateandthelaw，havebeenandarestillconsideredastheprincipalandexclusivesubjectofhistory。
Historianshaveindeedforcenturiesplacedintheseformsofsociallifetheessenceofdevelopment。Moreover，theyhaveperceivedthisdevelopmentonlyinthemodificationoftheseforms。Historyhasforcenturiesbeentreatedasadisciplinerelativetothejuridico-politicalmovementandeventothepoliticalmovementprincipally。Thesubstitutionofsocietyforpoliticsisarecentthing，andmuchmorerecentstillisthereductionofsocietytotheelementsofhistoricalmaterialism。Inotherwords，sociologyisofquiterecentinvention，andthereader，Ihope，willhaveunderstoodforhimselfthatIemploythistermforthesakeofbrevity，toindicateinageneralmannerthescienceofsocialfunctionsandvariations，andthatI
donotholdtothespecificsensegivenitbythePositivists。
Itismoresatisfactorytosaythat，uptothebeginningofthiscentury，thedatabearinguponusages，customs，beliefs，etc。，orevenuponthenaturalconditions，whichserveasthefoundationandconnectionforsocialforms，werenotmentionedinpoliticalhistoriesunlessasobjectsofsimplecuriosity，orasaccessoriesandcomplementsofthenarration。
Allthiscannotbeasimpleaccident，andindeedisnot。Thereis，then，adoubleinterestintakingaccountofthetardyappearanceofsocialhistory，bothbecauseourdoctrinejustifiesyetagainbythismeansitsreasonforexistence，andbecausewethuseliminate，inadefinitemanner，theso-calledfactors。
Ifwemakeanexceptionofcertaincriticalmomentsinwhichsocialclasses，byanextremeincapacityforadaptingthemselvestoaconditionofrelativeequilibrium，enterintoacrisisofmoreorlessprolongedanarchy，andifwemakeanexceptionofthosecatastrophesinwhichanentireworlddisappears，asatthefalloftheRomanEmpireoftheWest，oratthedissolutionoftheCalifate，thenitmaybesaidthat，eversincetherehasbeenawrittenhistory，thestateappearsnotonlyasthecreationofsocietybutalsoasitssupport。Thefirststepthatchild-likethoughthadmadeinthisorderofconsiderationsisinthisstatement：Thatwhichgovernsisalsothatwhichcreates。
If，moreover，wemakeanexceptionofcertainshortperiodsofdemocracyexercisedwiththevividconsciousnessofpopularsovereignty，aswasthecaseinafewGreekcities，especiallyatAthens，andinafewItaliancities，andespeciallyFlorence（theformerneverthelesswerecomposedoffreemenwereproprietorsofslaves，andthelatterofprivilegedcitizenswhoexploitedforeignersandpeasants）thesocietyorganizedintoastatewasalwayscomposedofamajorityatthemercyoftheminority。Andthusthemajorityofmenhasappearedinhistoryasamasssustained，governed，guided，exploitedandilltreated，oratleastasavariegatedconglomerationofinterests，whichafewhadtogovern，maintaininginequilibriumthedivergences，eitherbypressureorbycompensation。