principlemayonlymeanadoctrinewhichisperfectlycompatiblewithabeliefin’altruism’——thedoctrine，namely，thatasafactmostpeoplearechieflyinterestedbytheirownaffairs。Thelegislator，hetellsus，shouldtrytoincreasesympathy，butthelesshetakessympathyforthe’basisofhisarrangements’——thatis，thelesscallhemakesuponpurelyunselfishmotives——thegreaterwillbehissuccess。121*Thisisashrewdand，Ishouldsay，averysoundremark，butitimplies——notthatallmotivesareselfishinthelastanalysis，but——thatthelegislationshouldnotassumetooexaltedalevelofordinarymorality。TheutterancesintheveryunsatisfactoryDeontologyareoflittlevalue，andseemtoimplyamoralsentimentcorrespondingtoapettyformofcommonplaceprudence。122*
　　Leavingthispoint，however，theproblemnecessarilypresenteditselftoBenthaminaforminwhichselfishnessisthepredominatingforce，andanyrecognitionofindependentbenevolenceratheranincumbrancethanahelp。
　　Ifwetakethe’self-preferenceprinciple’absolutely，thequestionbecomeshowamultitudeofindividuals，eachseparatelypursuinghisownhappiness，cansoarrangemattersthattheirjointactionmaysecurethehappinessofall。Clearlyaman，howeverselfish，hasaninterestgenerallyinputtingdowntheftandmurder。Heisalreadyprovidedwithanumberofintereststowhichsecurity，atleast，andthereforearegularadministrationofjustice，isessential。Hisshopcouldnotbecarriedonwithoutthepolice；andhemayagreetopaytheexpenses，evenifothersreapthebenefitingreaterproportion。Atheoryoflegislation，therefore，whichsupposesreadyformedalltheinstinctswhichmakeadecentcommercialsocietypossiblecandowithoutmuchreferencetosympathyoraltruism。Bentham’smanisnotthecolourlessunitofaprioriwriting，northenoblesavageofRousseau，buttherespectablecitizenwithapolicemanroundthecorner。Suchamanmaywellholdthathonestyisthebestpolicy；hehasenoughsympathytobekindtohisoldmother，andhelpafriendindistress；buttheneedofromanticandelevatedconductrarelyoccurstohim；andtheheroic，ifhemeetsit，appearstohimasanexception，notfarremovedfromthesilly。Hedoesnotreflect——especiallyifhecaresnothingforhistory——howeventhesocietyinwhichheisacontentedunithasbeenbuiltup，andhowmuchloyaltyandheroismhasbeenneededforthework；noreven，todohimjustice，whatunsuspectedcapacitiesmaylurkinhisowncommonplacecharacter。Thereallycharacteristicpointis，however，thatBenthamdoesnotclearlyfacetheproblem。Heiscontenttotakeforgrantedasanultimatefactthattheself-interestprincipleinthelongruncoincideswiththegreatest’happiness’principle，andleavestheproblemtohissuccessors。Thereweshallmeetitagain。
　　Finally，Bentham’sviewofreligionrequiresaword。Theshortreply，however，wouldbesufficient，thathedidnotbelieveinanytheology，andwasinthemainindifferenttothewholequestiontillitencounteredhiminpoliticalmatters。HisfirstinterestapparentlywasrousedbytheeducationalquestionswhichIhavenoticed，andtheproposaltoteachthecatechismBentham，rememberingtheearlybullyingatOxford，examinesthecatechism；andarguesinhisusualstylethattoenforceitistocompelchildrentotelllies。
　　Butthisleadshimtoassailthechurchgenerally；andheregardsthechurchsimplyasapartofthehugecorruptmachinerywhichelsewherehadcreatedJudgeandCo。Hestatesmanyfactsaboutnon-residenceandbloatedbishopricswhichhadaveryseriousimportance；andhethenaskshowtheworkmightbedonemorecheaply。Asaclergyman’sonlydutyistoreadweeklyservicesandpreachsermons，hesuggestswhetherseriouslymaybedoubtedthatthismightbedoneaswellbyteachingaparishboytoreadproperly，andprovidehimwiththeprayer-bookandthehomilies。123*Agreatdealofexpensewouldbesaved。This，again，seemstohaveledhimtoattackSt。Paul，whomhetooktoberesponsiblefordogmatictheology，andthereforeforthecatechism；
　　andhecross-examinestheapostle，andconfrontshisvariousaccountsoftheconversionwithakeennessworthyofaprofessionallawyer。InoneoftheMSS。atUniversityCollegethesamemethodisappliedtothegospels。
　　BenthamwasclearlynotcapableofanticipatingRenan。Fromthesestudieshewasledtothefarmoreinterestingbook，publishedunderthenameofPhilipBeauchamp。Benthamsuppliedtheargumentinpart；buttomeitseemsclearthatitowessomuchtotheeditor，Grote，thatitmaymorefitlybediscussedhereafter。
　　ThelimitationsanddefectsofBentham’sdoctrinehavebeenmadeabundantlyevidentbylatercriticism。Theywereduepartlytohispersonalcharacter，andpartlytotheintellectualandspecialatmosphereinwhichhewasbroughtup。Butitismoreimportanttorecognisetheimmenserealvalueofhisdoctrine。
　　Briefly，Ishouldsay，thatthereishardyanargumentinBentham’svoluminouswritingswhichisnottothepurposesofarasitgoes。Givenhispointofview，heisinvariablycogentandrelevant。And，moreover，thatisapointofviewwhichhastobetaken。Noethicalorpoliticaldoctrinecan，asI
　　hold，besatisfactorywhichdoesnotfindaplaceforBentham，thoughhewasfar，indeed，fromgivingacompletetheoryofhissubject。AndthemainreasonofthisisthatwhichIhavealreadyindicated。Bentham’swholelifewasspentintheattempttocreateascienceoflegislation。Evenwhereheismosttiresome，thereisacertaininterestinhisunflaggingworkingoutofeveryargument，anditsapplicationtoallconceivablecases。Itisallgenuinereasoning；andthroughoutitisdominatedbyarespectforgoodsolidfacts。Hishatredof’vaguegeneralities’124*meansthathewillbecontentwithnoformulawhichcannotbeinterpretedintermsofdefinitefacts。Theresolutiontoinsistuponthisshouldreallybecharacteristicofeverywriteruponsimilarsubjects，andnooneeversurpassedBenthaminattentiontoit。Classifyandreclassify，tomakesurethatateverypointyourclassescorrespondtorealities。Intheefforttocarryouttheseprinciples，Benthamatleastbroughtinnumerablequestionstoasoundtest，andexplodedmanypestilentfallacies。Ifhedidnotsucceedfurther，ifwholespheresofthoughtremainedoutsideofhisvision，itwasbecauseinhisdaytherewasnotonlynoscienceof’sociology’orpsychology——therearenosuchsciencesnow——butnoadequateperceptionofthevastvarietyofinvestigationwhichwouldbenecessarytolayabasisforthem。Buttheefforttoframeascienceisitselfvaluable，indeedofsurpassingvalue，sofarasitiscombinedwithagenuinerespectforfacts。Itiscommonenoughtoattempttocreateasciencebyinventingtechnicalterminology。Benthamtriedthefarwiderandfarmorefruitfulmethodofaminuteinvestigationofparticularfacts。
　　Hiswork，therefore，willstand，howeverdifferentsomeoftheresultsmayappearwhenfittedintoadifferentframework。And，therefore，howevercrudelyandimperfectly，Benthamdid，asIbelieve，helptoturnspeculationintoatrueandprofitablechannel。Ofthat，morewillappearhereafter；but，ifanyonedoubtsBentham’sservices，IwillonlysuggesttohimtocompareBenthamwithanyofhisBritishcontemporaries，andtoaskwherehecanfindanythingatallcomparabletohisresoluteattempttobringlightandorderintoachaoticinfusionofcompromiseandprejudice。
　　NOTES：
　　1。SeenoteunderBentham’sLife，note20，previouschapter。
　　2。PrefacetoMoralsandLegislation。
　　3。Works，i，’MoralsandLegislation’，ii，n。
　　4。Essay，bk，ii，ch。xxi，section39-section44。Thewill，saysLocke，isdeterminedbythe’uneasinessofdesire’。Whatmovesdesire?Happiness，andthatalone。Happinessispleasure，andmiserypain。Whatproducespleasurewecallgood；andwhatproducespainewecallevil。Locke，however，wasnotaconsistentUtiliarian。
　　5。Epistle，iv，openinglines。
　　6。Works，viii，82。
　　7。Works’ConstitutionalCode’，ix，123。
　　8。Works，’Fragment’，i，287。
　　9。Works，’MoralsandLegislation’，i，6-10。MillquotesthispassageinhisessayonBenthaminthefirstvolumeofhisDissertations。Thisessay，excellentinitself，mustbespeciallynoticedasanexpositionbyanauthoritariandisciple。
　　10。Works’MoralsandLegislation’，i，13。
　　11。Works’MoralsandLegislation’i，v。
　　12。Works’Evidence’，vi，261。
　　13。Works’Evidence’，vii。116。
　　14。Ibid。，’MoralsandLegislation’i，14，etc；Ibid。，vi，260。InIbid。
　　’Evidence’vii，116’humanity，andin’LogicalArrangement’，Ibid。ii，290，’sympathy’appearsasafifthsanction。AnothermodificationissuggestedinIbid。，i，14n。
　　15。Ibid。，’MoralsandLegislation’i，67。
　　16。Works’MoralsandLegislation’i，96n。
　　17。SeeespeciallyIbid。，viii，104，etc。；253，etc。；289，etc。
　　18。Ibid，viii，106。
　　19。’Codify’wasoneofBetham’ssuccessfulneologisms。
　　20。Works’Logic’，viii，220。
　　21。HereBenthamcoincideswithHorneTooke，towhose’discoveries’herefersintheChrestomathiaWorks，viii，120，185，188。
　　22。Works，iii，286，viii，119。
　　23。Ibid。，’Ontology’viii，196n。
　　24。Ibid。，viii，197n。
　　25。Ibid。，viii，263。
　　26。Works’Ontology’，viii，119。
　　27。Ibid。，viii，198。
　　28。Ibid。，viii，199。
　　29。Ibid。，viii，206，247。
　　30。Helvé；tiusaddstothisthattheonlyrealpainsandpleasuresarethephysical，butBenthamdoesnotfollowhimhere。SeeHelvé；tiusOEuvres1781，ii，121，etc。
　　31。Works，i，211’SpringsofAction’。