butitisextremelydiluted，andquitesubordinatedtothenewerviewoftheterritorialconstitutionofnations。Theblendedideasarereflectedinsuchanexpressionas’Fatherland，’whichisitselfanindextothefactthatourthoughtscannotseparatenationalkinshipfromcommoncountry。NodoubtitistruethatinourdaytheolderconceptionofnationalunionthroughconsanguinityhasseemedtoberevivedbytheorieswhicharesometimescalledgenerallytheoriesofNationality，andofwhichparticularformsareknowntousasPan-SclavismandPan-Teutonism。Suchtheoriesareintruthaproductofmodernphilology，andhavegrownoutoftheassumptionthatlinguisticaffinitiesprovecommunityofblood。ButwhereverthepoliticaltheoryofNationalityisdistinctlyconceived，itamountstoaclaimthatmenofthesameraceshallbeincluded，notinthesametribal，butinthesameterritorialsovereignty。
　　Wecanperceive，fromtherecordsoftheHellenicandLatincity-communities，thatthere，andprobablyoveragreatpartoftheworld，thesubstitutionofcommonterritoryforcommonraceasthebasisofnationalunionwasslow，andnotaccomplishedwithoutveryviolentstruggles。’Thehistoryofpoliticalideasbegins，’Ihavesaidelsewhere，’withtheassumptionthatkinshipinbloodisthesolepossiblegroundofcommunityinpoliticalfunctions；noristhereanyofthosesubversionsoffeelingwhichweemphaticallytermrevolutionssostartlingandsocompleteasthechangewhichisaccomplishedwhensomeotherprinciple——
　　suchasthat，forinstance，oflocalcontiguity——establishesitselfforthefirsttimeasthebasisofcommonpoliticalaction。’Theoneobjectofancientdemocracieswas，infact，tobecountedofkintothearistocracies，simplyonthegroundthatthearistocracyofoldcitizens，andthedemocracyofnew，livedwithinthesameterritorialcircumscription。ThegoalwasreachedintimebothbytheAthenianDemosandbytheRomanPlebs；butthecompletevictoryoftheRomanpopularpartywasthesourceofinfluenceswhichhavenotspentthemselvesatthepresentmoment，sinceitisoneofthecauseswhythepassagefromtheTribaltotheTerritorialconceptionofSovereigntywasmuchmoreeasyandimperceptibleinthemodernthanintheolderworld。Ihavebeforestatedthatacertainconfusion，oratanyrateindistinctnessofdiscrimination，betweenconsanguinityandcommonsubjectiontopoweristraceableamongtherudimentsofAryanthought，andnodoubtthemixtureofnotionshashelpedtobringaboutthatidentificationofcommonnationalitywithcommonallegiancetotheKing，whichhasgreatlyfacilitatedtheabsorptionofnewbodiesofcitizensbymoderncommonwealths。ButthemajestywithwhichthememoryoftheRomanEmpiresurroundedallkingshasalsogreatlycontributedtoit，andwithoutthevictoryoftheRomanPlebeianstherewouldneverhavebeen，I
　　needhardlysay，anyRomanEmpire。
　　Thenewknowledgewhichhasbeenrapidlyaccumulatingoflateyearsenablesustotrackpreciselythesametransmutationofideasamidthesmallergroupsofkinsmensettledonlandandforming，notCommonwealths，butVillage-Communities。Thehistorianofformerdayslabouredprobablyundernogreaterdisadvantagethanthatcausedbyhisunavoidableignoranceoftheimportanceofthesecommunities，andbythenecessitythusimposeduponhimofconfininghisattentiontothelargerassemblagesoftribesmen。Ithasoften，indeed，beennoticedthataFeudalMonarchywasanexactcounterpartofaFeudalManor，butthereasonofthecorrespondenceisonlynowbeginningtodawnuponus，whichis，thatbothofthemwereintheiroriginbodiesofassumedkinsmensettledonlandandundergoingthesametransmutationofideasthroughthefactofsettlement。ThehistoryofthelargergroupsendsinthemodernnotionsofCountryandSovereignty；thehistoryofthesmallerinthemodernnotionsofLandedProperty。Thetwocoursesofhistoricaldevelopmentwereforalongwhilestrictlyparallel，thoughtheyhaveceasedtobesonow。
　　Thenaturallyorganised，self-existing，Village-CommunitycannolongerbeclaimedasaninstitutionspeciallycharacteristicoftheAryanraces。M。deLaveleye，followingDutchauthorities，hasdescribedthesecommunitiesastheyarefoundinJava；andM
　　RenanhasdiscoveredthemamongtheobscurerSemitictribesinNorthernAfrica。But，wherevertheyhavebeenexamined，theextantexamplesofthegroupsuggestthesametheoryofitsoriginwhichMrFreeman’ComparativePolitics，’p。103hasadvancedconcerningtheGermanicvillage-communityorMark；’Thislowestpoliticalunitwasatfirst，herei。e。inEnglandaselsewhere，formedofmenboundtogetherbyatieofkindred，initsfirstestatenatural，inalaterstageeitherofkindrednaturalorartificial。’Theevidence，however，isnowquiteampleenoughtofurnishuswithstrongindicationsnotonlyofthemodeinwhichthesecommunitiesbegan，butofthemodeinwhichtheytransformedthemselves。Theworld，infact，containsexamplesofcultivatinggroupsineverystage，fromthatinwhichtheyareactuallybodiesofkinsmen，tothatinwhichthemerestshadowofconsanguinitysurvivesandtheassemblageofcultivatorsisheldtogethersolelybythelandwhichtheytillincommon。ThegreatstepsinthescaleoftransitionseemtometobemarkedbytheJointFamilyoftheHindoos，bytheHouse-CommunityoftheSouthernSclavonians，andbythetrueVillage-Community，asitisfoundfirstinRussiaandnextinIndia。ThegroupwhichIhaveplacedatthehead，theHindoo-JointFamily，isreallyabodyofkinsmen，thenaturalandadoptivedescendantsofaknownancestor。AlthoughthemodernlawofIndiagivessuchfacilitiesforitsdissolutionthatitisoneofthemostunstableofsocialcompounds，andrarelylastsbeyondacoupleofgenerations，still，solongasitlasts，ithasalegalcorporateexistence，andexhibits，inthemostperfectstate，thatcommunityofproprietaryenjoymentwhichhasbeensooftenobserved，andletmeaddsooftenmisconstrued，incultivatingsocietiesofarchaictype。’AccordingtothetruenotionofajointundividedHindoofamily，’saidthePrivyCouncil，’nomemberofthefamily，whileitremainsundivided，canpredicateofthejointundividedpropertythathe，thatparticularmember，hasacertaindefiniteshare……Theproceedsofundividedpropertymustbebrought，accordingtothetheory，intothecommonchestorpurse，andthendealtwithaccordingtothemodesofenjoymentofthemembersofanundividedfamily。’PerLordWestbury，Appovierv。RamaSubbaAiyan，11Moore’sIndianAppeals，75。While，however，theseHindoofamilies，’jointinfood，worship，andestate，’areconstantlyengagedinthecultivationofland，anddealingwithitsproduce’accordingtothemodesofenjoymentofanundividedfamily，’theyarenotvillage-communities。Theyareonlyaccidentallyconnectedwiththeland，howeverextensivetheirlandedpropertymaybe。Whatholdsthemtogetherisnotland，butconsanguinity，andthereisnoreasonwhytheyshouldnotoccupythemselves，asindeedtheyfrequentlydo，withtradeorwiththepracticeofahandicraft。TheHouse-Community，whichcomesnextintheorderofdevelopment，hasbeenexaminedbyM。deLaveleyeP。et8。F。P。，p。201，andbyMr。Patterson’FortnightlyReview，’No。xliv。，inCroatia，Dalmatia，andIllyria，countrieswhich，thoughnewertousthanIndia，havestillmuchincommonwiththepartsoftheEastnotbroughtcompletelyunderMahometaninfluences；butthereisreasontobelievethatneitherRomanlawnorfeudalismentirelycrushediteveninWesternEurope。Itisaremarkablefactthatassemblagesofkinsmen，almostpreciselythecounterpartoftheHouse-CommunitiessurvivingamongtheSclavonians，wereobservedbyM。Dupin，in1840，intheFrenchDepartmentoftheNi鑦re，andwereabletosatisfyhimthatevenin1500theyhadbeenaccountedancient。TheseHouse-CommunitiesseemtometobesimplytheJoint-FamilyoftheHindoos，allowedtoexpanditselfwithouthindranceandsettledforagesontheland。AllthechiefcharacteristicsoftheHindooinstitutionarehere——thecommonhomeandcommontable，whichwealwaysintheorythecentreofHindoofamilylife；thecollectiveenjoymentofpropertyanditsadministrationbyanelectedmanager。
　　Nevertheless，manyinstructivechangeshavebegunwhichshowhowsuchagroupmodifiesitselfintimeThecommunityisacommunityofkinsmen；but，thoughthecommonancestryisprobablytoagreatextentreal，thetraditionhasbecomeweakenoughtoadmitofconsiderableartificialitybeingintroducedintotheassociation，asitisfoundatanygivenmoment，throughtheabsorptionofstrangersfromoutside。Meantime，thelandtendstobecomethetruebasisofthegroup；itisrecognizedasofpre-eminentimportancetoitsvitality，anditremainscommonproperty，whileprivateownershipisallowedtoshowitselfinmoveablesandcattle。InthetrueVillage-Community，thecommondwellingandcommontablewhichbelongaliketotheJointFamilyandtotheHouse-Community，arenolongertobefound。Thevillageitselfisanassemblageofhouses，containedindeedwithinnarrowlimits，butcomposedofseparatedwellings，eachjealouslyguardedfromtheintrusionofaneighbour。Thevillagelandsarenolongerthecollectivepropertyofthecommunity；thearablelandshavebeendividedbetweenthevarioushouseholds；
　　thepasturelandshavebeenpartiallydivided；onlythewasteremainsincommon。IncomparingthetwoextanttypesofVillage-Communitywhichhavebeenlongestexaminedbygoodobservers，theRussianandtheIndian，wemaybeledtothinkthatthetracesleftonusageandideabytheancientcollectiveenjoymentarefaintexactlyinproportiontothedecayofthetheoryofactualkinshipamongtheco-villagers。TheRussianpeasantsofthesamevillagereallybelieve，wearetold，intheircommonancestry，andaccordinglywefindthatinRussiathearablelandsofthevillageareperiodicallyre-distributed，andthatthevillageartificer，evenshouldhecarryhistoolstoadistance，worksfortheprofitofhisco-villagers。InIndia，thoughthevillagersarestillabrotherhood，andthoughmembershipinthebrotherhoodseparatesamanfromtheworldoutside，itisverydifficulttosayinwhatthetieisconceivedasconsisting。Manypalpablefactsinthecompositionofthecommunityareconstantlyinconsistentwiththeactualdescentofthevillagersfromanyoneancestor。Accordingly，privatepropertyinlandhasgrownup，thoughitsoutlinesarenotalwaysclear；theperiodicalre-divisionofthedomainhasbecomeameretradition，orisonlypractisedamongtheruderportionsoftherace；andtheresultsofthetheoreticalkinshipareprettymuchconfinedtothedutyofsubmittingtocommonrulesofcultivationandpasturage，ofabstainingfromsaleoralienationwithouttheconsentoftheco-villagers，andaccordingtosomeopinionsofrefrainingfromimposingarack-rentuponmembersofthesamebrotherhood。Thus，theIndianVillage-Communityisabodyofmenheldtogetherbythelandwhichtheyoccupy：theideaofcommonbloodanddescenthasallbutdiedout。Afewstepsmoreinthesamecourseofdevelopment——andthesetheEnglishlawisactuallyhastening——willdiffusethefamiliarideasofourowncountryandtimethroughoutIndia；theVillage-Communitywilldisappear，andlandedproperty，inthefullEnglishsense，willcomeintoexistence。MrFreemantellsusthatUffington，Gillingham，andTootingwereinallprobabilityEnglishvillage-communitiesoriginallysettledbytheUffingas，Gillingas，andTotingas，threeTeutonicjoint-families。ButassuredlyallmenwholiveinTootingdonotconsiderthemselvesbrothers；theybarelyacknowledgedutiesimposedonthembytheirmutualvicinity；theironlyrealtieisthroughtheircommoncountry。
　　The’naturalcommunism’oftheprimitivecultivatinggroupshassometimesbeendescribedoflateyears，andmoreparticularlybyRussianwriters，asananticipationofthemostadvancedandtrenchantdemocratictheories。Noaccountofthemattercouldinmyjudgmentbemoremisleading。Ifsuchtermsas’aristocratic’
　　and’democratic’aretobeusedatall，Ithinkitwouldbeamoreplausiblestatementthatthetransformationandoccasionaldestructionofthevillage-communitieswerecaused，overmuchoftheworld，bythesuccessfulassaultofademocracyonanaristocracy。ThesecretofthecomparativelyslightdepartureoftheRussianvillage-communitiesfromwhatmaybebelievedtohavebeentheprimitivetype，appearstometolieintheancientRussianpracticeofcolonisation，bywhichswarmswereconstantlythrownofffromtheoldervillagestosettlesomewhereintheenormouswastes；buttheIndiancommunities，placedinaregionofwhichthepopulationhasfromtimeimmemorialbeenfardenserthanintheNorth，bearmanymarksofpastcontestsbetweentheancientbrotherhoodofkinsmenandaclassofdependantsoutsideitstrugglingforashareintheland，orfortherighttouseitoneasyterms。IamawarethatthereissomegrotesquenessatfirstsightinacomparisonofIndianvillagers，intheirobscurityandignorance，andoftenintheirsqualidmisery，tothecitizensofAthensorRome；yetnotraditionconcerningtheoriginoftheLatinandHellenicstatesseemsmoretrustworthythanthatwhichrepresentsthemasformedbythecoalescenceoftwoormorevillage-communities，andindeed，evenintheirmostgloriousforms，theyappeartomethroughouttheirearlyhistorytobelongessentiallytothattype。IthasoftenoccurredtomethatIndianfunctionaries，intheirvehementcontroversiesabouttherespectiverightsofthevariousclasseswhichmakeupthevillage-community，areunconsciouslystrivingtoadjust，byabeneficentarbitration，theclaimsandcounter-claimsoftheEupatridsandtheDemos，ofthePopulusandthePlebs。Thereisevenreasontothinkthatonewell-knownresultoflongcivilcontentioninthegreatstatesofantiquityhasshownitselfeverynowandtheninthevillage-communities，andthatallclasseshavehadtosubmittothatsortofauthoritywhichassumeditsmostinnocentshapeintheofficeoftheRomanDictator，itsmoreodiousintheusurpationoftheGreekTyrant。
　　ThefoundersofapartofonemodernEuropeanaristocracy，theDanish，areknowntohavebeenoriginallypeasantswhofortifiedtheirhousesduringdeadlyvillagestrugglesandthenusedtheiradvantage。
　　SuchcommencementsofnobilityasthattowhichIhavejustreferred，appear，however，tohavebeenexceptionalintheWesternworld，andothercausesmustbeassignedforthatgreattransformationoftheVillage-CommunitywhichhasbeencarriedouteverywhereinEngland，alittlelesscompletelyinGermany，muchlessinRussiaandinallEasternEurope。Ihaveattemptedinanotherwork’Village-CommunitiesintheEastandWest，’pp。