KinshipastheBasisofSocietyThemostrecentresearchesintotheprimitivehistoryofsocietypointtotheconclusionthattheearliesttiewhichknittedmentogetherincommunitieswasConsanguinityorKinship。
Thesubjecthasbeenapproachedoflateyearsfromseveraldifferentsides，andtherehasbeenmuchdisputeastowhattheprimitiveblood-relationshipimplied，andhowitarose；buttherehasbeengeneralagreementastothefactIhavestated。Thecautionisperhapsneededthatwemustnotformtoolooseaconceptionofthekinshipwhichoncestoodintheplaceofthemultiforminfluenceswhicharenowthecementofhumansocieties。
Itwasregardedasanactualbondofunion，andinnorespectasasentimentalone。Thenotionofwhat，forwantofabetterphrase，Imustcallamoralbrotherhoodinthewholehumanracehasbeensteadilygaininggroundduringthewholecourseofhistory，andwehavenowalargeabstracttermansweringtothisnotion——Humanity，hemostpowerfuloftheagencieswhichhavebroughtaboutthisbroaderandlaxerviewofkinshiphasundoubtedlybeenReligion，andindeedonegreatEasternreligionextendedituntilforsomepurposesitembracedallsentientnature。Allthismodernenlargementoftheprimitiveconceptionofkinshipmustbegotridofbeforewecanbringithometoourselves。Therewasnobrotherhoodrecognisedbyoursavageforefathersexceptactualconsanguinityregardedasafact。Ifamanwasnotofkintoanothertherewasnothingbetweenthem。Hewasanenemytobeslain，orspoiled，orhated，asmuchasthewildbeastsuponwhichthetribemadewar，asbelongingindeedtothecraftiestandthecruellestorderofwildanimals。Itwouldscarcelybetoostronganassertionthatthedogswhichfollowedthecamphadmoreincommonwithitthanthetribesmenofanalienandunrelatedtribe。
Thetribesofmenwithwhichthestudentofjurisprudenceisconcernedareexclusivelythosebelongingtotheracesnowuniversallyclassed，onthegroundoflinguisticaffinities，asAryanandSemitic。BesidesthesehehasatmosttotakeintoaccountthatportionoftheoutlyingmassofmankindwhichhaslatelybeencalledUralian，theTurks，Hungarians，andFinns。Thecharacteristicofalltheseraces，wheninthetribalstate，isthatthetribesthemselves，andallsubdivisionsofthem，areconceivedbythemenwhocomposethemasdescendedfromasinglemaleancestor。SuchcommunitiesseetheFamilygroupwithwhichtheyarefamiliartobemadeupofthedescendantsofasinglelivingman，andofhiswifeorwives；andperhapstheyareaccustomedtothatlargergroup，formedofthedescendantsofasinglerecentlydeceasedancestor，whichstillsurvivesinIndiaasacompactassemblageofblood-relatives，thoughitisonlyknowntousthroughthetracesithasleftinourTablesofInheritance。Themodeofconstitutinggroupsofkinsmenwhichtheyseeproceedingbeforetheireyestheybelievetobeidenticalwiththeprocessbywhichthecommunityitselfwasformed。Thusthetheoreticalassumptionisthatallthetribesmenaredescendedfromsomecommonancestor，whosedescendantshaveformedsub-groups，whichagainhavebranchedoffintoothers，tillthesmallestgroupofall，theexistingFamily，isreached。
IbelieveImaysaythatthereissubstantialagreementastothecorrectnessofthesestatementssolongastheyareconfinedtotheAryan，Semitic，andUralianraces。Atmostitisassertedthat，amongtherecordedusagesofportionsoftheseraces，thereareobscureindicationsofanotherandanearlierstateofthings。ButthenaverydifferentsetofassertionsfromthesearemadeconcerningthatlargepartofthehumanracewhichcannotbeclassedasAryan，Semitic，orUralian。Itis，firstofall，allegedthatthereisevidenceofthewideprevalenceamongthemofideasonthesubjectofConsanguinitywhichareirreconcileablewiththeassumptionofcommondescentfromasingleancestor。Next，itispointedoutthatsomesmall，isolated，andverybarbarouscommunities——perhapslonghiddenininaccessibleIndianvalleys，orwithintheringofacoralreefintheSouthernSeas——stillfollowpracticeswhichitwouldbeincorrectandunjusttocallimmoral，because，intheviewweareconsidering，theyareolderthanmorality。Thesuggestionisfinallymadethatifthesepracticeswere，inanolderstageoftheworld’shistory，verymuchmorewidelyextendedthanatpresent，theabnormal，non-Aryan，non-Semitic，non-UraliannotionsaboutkinshipofwhichIhavespokenwouldfindtheirexplanation。If，indeed，theconclusionherepointedatexpressesthetruth，andifthesepracticeswerereallyatonetimeuniversal，itwouldbeanundeservedcomplimenttothehumanracetosaythatitoncefollowedthewaysoftheloweranimals，since，inpointoffact，alltheloweranimalsdonotfollowthepracticesthusattributedtothem。But，whateverbetheinterestofsuchenquiries，theydonotconcernustilltheKinshipofthehigherracescanbedistinctlyshowntohavegrownoutoftheKinshipnowknownonlytothelower，andeventhentheyconcernusonlyremotely。Nodoubtseveralrecentwritersdobelieveinthedescentofoneformofconsanguinityfromtheother。MrLewisMorgan，ofNewYork，theauthorofaremarkableandverymagnificentvolumeon’SystemsofConsanguinityandAffinityintheHumanFamily，’publishedbytheSmithsonianInstituteatWashington，reckonsnolessthantenstagesp：486throughwhichcommunitiesfoundedonkinshiphavepassedbeforethatformofthefamilywasdevelopedoutofwhichtheAryantribesconceivethemselvestohavesprung。ButMrMorganalsosaysofthesystemknownupontheevidenceactuallytoprevailamongtheAryan，Semitic，andUraliandivisionsofmankindthatp。469it’manifestlyproceedsupontheassumptionoftheexistenceofmarriagebetweensinglepairs，andofthecertaintyofparentagethroughthemarriagerelation。’’Hence，’headds，’itmusthavecomeintoexistenceaftertheestablishmentofmarriagebetweensinglepairs。’
Aremarkofconsiderableimportancetothestudentofearlyusagehasnowtobemaderespectingthebondofunionrecognisedbythesegreaterraces。Kinship，asthetiebindingcommunitiestogether，tendstoberegardedasthesamethingwithsubjectiontoacommonauthority。ThenotionsofPowerandConsanguinityblend，buttheyinnowiseSUpersedeoneanother。Wehaveafamiliarexampleofthismixtureofideasinthesubjectionofthesmallestgroup，theFamily，toitspatriarchalhead。Whereverwehaveevidenceofsuchagroup，itbecomesdifficulttosaywhetherthepersonscompiledinitaremostdistinctlyregardedaskinsmen，orasservileorsemi-serviledependentsofthepersonwhowasthesourceoftheirkinship。Theconfusion，however，ifwemaysostyleit，ofkinshipwithsubjectiontopatriarchalpowerisobservablealsointhelargergroupsintowhichtheFamilyexpands。InsomecasestheTribecanhardlybeotherwisedescribedthanasthegroupofmensubjecttosomeonechieftain。Thispeculiarblendingofideasisundoubtedlyconnectedwiththeextensionafamiliarfacttomostofusoftheareaofancientgroupsofkindredbyartificesorfictions。
JustaswefindtheFamilyrecruitedbystrangersbroughtunderthepaternalpowerofitsheadbyadoption，sowefindtheTribe，orClan，includinganumberofpersons，intheoryofkintoit，yetinfactconnectedwithitonlybycommondependenceontheChief。Idonotaffecttogiveanysimpleexplanationofthesubjectionofthevariousassemblagesofkindredtoformsofpowerofwhichthepatriarchalpoweroftheheadofthefamilyisthetype。Doubtlessitispartlytobeaccountedforbydeep-seatedinstincts。ButMrMorgan’sresearchesseemtometohavesuppliedanotherpartialexplanation。Hehasfoundthatamongrudeandpartiallynomadcommunitiesgreatnumbersofkindred，whomweshouldkeepapartinmind，anddistinguishfromoneanotherinlanguage，aregroupedtogetheringreatclassesandcalledbythesamegeneralnames。Everymanisrelatedtoanextraordinarynumberofmencalledhisbrothers，toanextraordinarynumbercalledhissons，toanextraordinarynumbercalledhisuncles。MrMorganexplainsthefactinhisownway，buthepointsouttheincidentalconvenienceservedbythismethodofclassificationandnomenclature。Thoughthepointmaynotatfirststrikeus，kinshipisaclumsybasisforcommunitiesofanysize，onaccountofthedifficultywhichthemind，andparticularlytheuntutoredmind，hasinembracingallthepersonsboundtoanyonemanbytieofblood，andthereforewhichistheimportantmatterconnectedwithhimbycommonresponsibilitiesandrights。Agreatextensionandconsiderablerelaxationofthenotionofkinshipgetsoverthedifficultyamongthelowerraces，butitmaybethat，amongthehigher，PatriarchalPoweranswersthesameobject。Itsimplifiestheconceptionsofkinshipandofconjointresponsibility，firstinthePatriarchalFamilyandultimately——intheClanorTribe。
Wehavenexttoconsidertheepoch，reachedatsometimebyalltheportionsofmankinddestinedtocivilisation，atwhichtribalcommunitiessettledownuponadefinitespaceofland。TheliveliestaccountwhichIhavereadofthisprocessoccursinanancientIndianrecordwhichhaseverypretensiontoauthenticity。
InaveryinterestingvolumepublishedbytheGovernmentofMadras，andcalled’PapersonMirasiRight’Madras，1862，thereareprintedsomeancientMemorialVerses，astheyarecalled，whichdescribethemannerinwhichtheVellalee，apossiblyAryantribe，followedtheirchiefintoTondeimandalam，aregionroughlycorrespondingwithastateoncefamousinmodernIndianhistory，Arcot。TheretheVellaleeconqueredandextirpated，orenslaved，somemoreprimitivepopulationandtookpermanentpossessionofitsterritory。Thepoetess——forthelinesareattributedtoawoman——comparestheinvasiontotheflowingofthejuiceofthesugar-caneoveraflatsurface。’MirasiPapers，’p。233。Thejuicecrystallises，andthecrystalsarethevariousvillage-communities。Inthemiddleisonelumpofpeculiarlyfinesugar，theplacewhereisthetempleofthegod。Homelyasistheimage，itseemstomeinonerespectpeculiarlyfelicitous。Itrepresentsthetribe，thoughmovinginafusedmassofmen，ascontainingwithinitselfaprincipleofcoalescencewhichbegantoworkassoonasthemovementwasover。Thepointisnotalwaysrecollected。Socialhistoryisfrequentlyconsideredasbeginningwiththetribalsettlement，andasthoughnoprinciplesofunionhadbeenbroughtbythetribefromanolderhome。Butwehavenoactualknowledgeofanyaboriginalorautochthonoustribe。
Whereverwehaveanyapproximatelytrustworthyinformationconcerningthetribeswhichwediscerninthefardistanceofhistory，theyhavealwayscomefromsomemoreancientseat。TheVellalee，intheIndianexample，musthavebeenagriculturistssomewhere，sincetheycrystallisedatonceintovillage-communities。
Ithaslongbeenassumedthatthetribalconstitutionofsocietybelongedatfirsttonomadcommunities，andthat，whenassociationsofmenfirstsettleddownuponland，agreatchangecameoverthem。Butthemanneroftransitionfromnomadtosettledlife，anditseffectsuponcustomandidea，havebeentoomuchdescribed，asitseemstome，frommereconjectureoftheprobabilities；andthewholeprocess，asIhavejustobserved，hasbeenconceivedasmoreabruptthansuchknowledgeaswehavewouldleadustobelieveittohavebeen。attentionhasthusbeendrawnofffromoneassertiononthissubjectwhichmaybemade，I
think，upontrustworthyevidence——that，fromthemomentwhenatribalcommunitysettlesdownfinallyuponadefinitespaceofland，theLandbeginstobethebasisofsocietyinplaceoftheKinship。Thechangeisextremelygradual，andinsomeparticularsithasnotevennowbeenfullyaccomplished，butithasbeengoingonthroughthewholecourseofhistory。TheconstitutionoftheFamilythroughactualblood-relationshipisofcourseanobservablefact，but，forallgroupsofmenlargerthantheFamily，theLandonwhichtheylivetendstobecomethebondofunionbetweenthem，attheexpenseofKinship，evermoreandmorevaguelyconceived。WecantracethedevelopmentofideabothinthelargeandnowextremelymiscellaneousaggregationsofmencombinedinStatesorPoliticalCommunities，andalsointhesmalleraggregationscollectedinVillage-CommunitiesandManors，amongwhomlandedpropertytookitsrise。ThebarbarianinvadersoftheWesternRomanEmpire，thoughnotuninfluencedbyformersettlementsinolderhomes，broughtbacktoWesternEuropeamassoftribalideaswhichtheRomandominionhadbanishedfromit；
but，fromthemomentoftheirfinaloccupationofdefiniteterritories，atransformationoftheseideasbegan。SomeyearsagoIpointedout’AncientLaw，’pp。103etseq。theevidencefurnishedbythehistoryofInternationalLawthatthenotionofterritorialsovereignty，whichisthebasisoftheinternationalsystem，andwhichisinseparablyconnectedwithdominionoveradefiniteareaofland，veryslowlysubstituteditselfforthenotionoftribalsovereignty。Cleartracesofthechangearetobeseenintheofficialstyleofkings。Ofourownkings，KingJohnwasthefirstwhoalwayscalledhimselfKingofEngland。
Freeman，’NormanConquest，’I。82，84。HispredecessorscommonlyoralwayscalledthemselvesKingsoftheEnglish。ThestyleofthekingreflectedtheoldertribalsovereigntyforamuchlongertimeinFrance。ThetitleofKingofFrancemaynodoubthavecomeintouseinthevernacularsoonaftertheaccessionofthedynastyofCapet，butitisanimpressivefactthat，evenatthetimeoftheMassacreofSt。Bartholomew，theKingsofFrancewerestillinLatin’RegesFrancorum；’andHenrytheFourthonlyabandonedthedesignationbecauseitcouldnotbegottofitinconvenientlyonhiscoinswiththetitleofKingofNavarre，thepurelyfeudalandterritorialprincipalityoftheBourbons。Freeman，loc。cit。Wemaybringhometoourselvesthetransformationofideainanotherway。EnglandwasoncethecountrywhichEnglishmeninhabited。EnglishmenarenowthepeoplewhoinhabitEngland。ThedescendantsofourforefatherskeepupthetraditionofkinshipbycallingthemselvesmenofEnglishrace，buttheytendsteadilytobecomeAmericansandAustralians。
Idonotsaythatthenotionofconsanguinityisabsolutelylost；