131etseq。togiveanabridgedaccountofallthatisknownorhasbeenconjecturedonthesubjectofthat’FeudalisationofEurope’whichhashadtheeffectofconvertingtheMarkintotheManor，theVillage-CommunityintotheFief；andIshallpresentlysaymuchonthenewlightwhichtheancientlawsofIrelandhavethrownontheearlystagesoftheprocess。AtpresentIwillonlyobservethat，whencompleted，itseffectwastomaketheLandtheexclusivebondofunionbetweenmen。TheManororFiefwasasocialgroupwhollybaseduponthepossessionofland，andthevastbodyoffeudalruleswhichclusteredroundthiscentralfactarecolouredbyitthroughout。ThattheLandisthefoundationofthefeudalsystemhas，ofcourse，beenlongandfullyrecognised；
　　butIdoubtwhethertheplaceofthefactinhistoryhasbeensufficientlyunderstood。Itmarksaphaseinacourseofchangecontinuedthroughlongagesandinspheresmuchlargerthanthatoflandedproperty。Atthispointthenotionofcommonkinshiphasbeenentirelylost。ThelinkbetweenLordandVassalproducedbyCommendationisofquiteadifferentkindfromthatproducedbyConsanguinity。Whentherelationwhichitcreatedhadlastedsometime，therewouldhavebeennodeadlierinsulttothelordthantoattributetohimacommonoriginwiththegreatbulkofhistenants。Languagestillretainsatingeofthehatredandcontemptwithwhichthehighermembersofthefeudalgroupsregardedthelower；andthewordsofabusetraceabletothisaversionarealmostasstrongasthosetraceabletodifferencesofreligiousbelief。Thereis，infact，littletochoosebetweenvillain，churl，miscreant，andboor。
　　Thebreak-upofthefeudalgroup，faradvancedinmostEuropeancountries，andcompleteinFranceandEngland，hasbroughtustothestateofsocietyinwhichwelive。Towriteitscourseandcauseswouldbetore-writemostofmodernhistory，economicalaswellaspolitical。Itisnot，however，difficulttoseethatwithouttheruinofthesmallersocialgroups，andthedecayoftheauthoritywhich，whetherpopularlyorautocraticallygoverned，theypossessedoverthemencomposingthem，weshouldneverhavehadseveralgreatconceptionswhichlieatthebaseofourstockofthought。Withoutthiscollapse，weshouldneverhavehadtheconceptionoflandasanexchangeablecommodity，differingonlyfromothersinthelimitationofthesupply；andhence，withoutit，somefamouschaptersofthescienceofPoliticaleconomywouldnothavebeenwritten。Withoutit，weshouldnothavehadthegreatincreaseinmoderntimesoftheauthorityoftheState-oneofmanynamesforthemoreextensivecommunityheldtogetherbycommoncountry。Consequently，weshouldnothavehadthosetheorieswhicharethefoundationofthemostrecentsystemsofjurisprudence——thetheoryofSovereignty，orinotherwordsofaportionineachcommunitypossessingunlimitedcoerciveforceovertherest——andthetheoryofLawasexclusivelythecommandofasovereignOneorNumber。Weshould，again，nothavehadthefactwhichanswerstothesetheories——theever-increasingactivityofLegislatures；
　　and，inallprobability，thatfamoustestofthevalueoflegislation，whichitsauthorturnedintoatestofthesoundnessofmorals，wouldneverhavebeendevised——thegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber。
　　Insayingthatthenowabundantphenomenaofprimitiveownershipopentoourobservationstronglysuggestthattheearliestcultivatinggroupswereformedofkinsmen，thatthesegraduallybecamebodiesofmenheldtogetherbythelandwhichtheycultivated，andthatPropertyinLandaswenowunderstanditgrewoutofthedissolutionoftheselatterassemblages，I
　　wouldnotforamomentbeunderstoodtoassertthatthisseriesofchangescanbedividedintostagesabruptlyseparatedfromoneanother。Theutmostthatcanbeaffirmedisthatcertainperiodsinthishistoryaredistinguishedbythepredominance，thoughnottheexclusiveexistence，ofideaspropertothem。Here，aselsewhere，theworldisfullof’survivals，’andtheviewofsocietyasheldtogetherbykinshipstillsurviveswhenitisbeginningtobeheldtogetherbyland。Similarly，thefeudalconceptionofsocialrelationsstillexercises。powerfulinfluencewhenlandhasbecomeamerchantablecommodity。Thereisnocountryinwhichthetheoryoflandasaformofpropertylikeanyotherhasbeenmoreunreservedlyacceptedthanourown。YetEnglishlawyersliveinfaecefeodorum。Ourlawissaturatedwithfeudalprinciples，andourcustomsandopinionsarelargelyshapedbythem。Indeed，withinthelastfewyearswehaveevendiscoveredthatvestigesofthevillage-communityhavenotbeenwhollyeffacedfromourlaw，ourusages，andourmethodsoftillage。
　　ThecautionthatthesequenceofthesestagesdoesnotimplyabrupttransitionfromanyonetothenextseemstomeespeciallyneededbythestudentoftheAncientLawsofIreland。DrSullivan，ofwhoseIntroductiontothelatelypublishedlecturesofO’CurryIhavealreadyspoken，dwellswithgreatemphasisontheexistenceofprivatepropertyamongtheancientIrish，andonthejealousywithwhichitwasguarded。ButthoughitisverynaturalthatalearnedIrishman，stungbythelevitywhichhasdeniedtohisancestorsallcivilisedinstitutions，shouldattachgreatimportancetotheindicationsofprivateownershipintheBrehonlaw，Imustsaythattheydonot，inmyjudgment，constituteitsrealinterest。TheinstructivenessoftheBrehontracts，atleasttothestudentoflegalhistory，seemstometoarisefromtheirshowingthatinstitutionsofmodernstampmaybeinexistencewithanumberofrulesbytheirsidewhichsavourofanotherandagreatlyolderorderofideas。Itcannotbedoubted，Ithink，thattheprimitivenotionofkinship，asthecementbindingcommunitiestogether，survivedlongeramongtheCeltsofIrelandandtheScottishHighlandsthaninanyWesternsociety，andthatitisstampedontheBrehonlawevenmoreclearlythanitisupontheactualland-lawofIndia。ItisperfectlytruethattheformofprivateownershipinlandwhichgrewoutoftheappropriationofportionsofthetribaldomaintoindividualhouseholdsoftribesmenisplainlyrecognisedbytheBrehonlawyers；yettherightsofprivateownersarelimitedbythecontrollingrightsofabrotherhoodofkinsmen，andthecontrolisinsomerespectsevenmorestringentthanthatexercisedoverseparatepropertybyanindianvillage-community。Itisalsotruethatanotherformofownershipinland，thatwhichhaditsorigininthemanorialauthorityofthelordoverthecultivatinggroup，hasalsobeguntoshowitself；yet，thoughtheChiefoftheClanisrapidlyclimbingtoapositionansweringtotheLordshipofaManor，hehasnotfullyascendedtoit，andthemostnovelinformationcontainedinthetractsisthatwhichtheysupplyconcerningtheprocessofascent。
　　ThefirstinstructivefactwhichstrikesusonthethresholdoftheBrehonlawis，thatthesameword，’Fine，’orFamily，isappliedtoallthesubdivisionsofIrishsociety。ItisusedfortheTribeinitslargestextensionaspretendingtosomedegreeofpoliticalindependence，andforallintermediatebodiesdowntotheFamilyasweunderstandit，andevenforportionsoftheFamilySullivan，’Introduction，clxii。ItseemscertainthateachofthevariousgroupsintowhichancientCelticsocietywasdividedconceiveditselfasdescendedfromsomeonecommonancestor，fromwhomthename，oroneofthenames，oftheentirebodyofkinsmenwasderived。AlthoughthisassumptionwasneverinancientIrelandsopalpableafictionastheaffiliationofGreekracesorcommunitiesonanheroiceponymousprogenitor，itwasprobablyatmosttrueoftheChiefandhishousesofarasregardedtheIrishTribetakenasapoliticalunit。Butitisprobablethatitwasoccasionally，andevenoftentrueofthesmallergroup，theSept，sub-Tribe，orJointFamily，whichappearstometobethelegalunitoftheBrehontracts。Thetraditionsregardingtheeponymousancestorofthisgroupweredistinctandapparentlytrustworthy，anditsmemberswereofkintooneanotherinvirtueoftheircommondescentfromtheancestorwhogavehisnametoall。Thechiefforthetimebeingwas，astheAnglo-Irishjudgescalledhiminthefamous’CaseofGavelkind，’thecaputcognationis。
　　NotonlywastheTribeorSeptnamedafterthiseponymousancestor，buttheterritorywhichitoccupiedalsoderivedfromhimthenamewhichwasincommonestuse。Imakethisremarkchieflybecauseafalseinferencehasbeendrawnfromanassertionoflearnedmenconcerningtheconnectionbetweennamesoffamiliesandnamesofplaces，whichproperlyunderstoodisperfectlysound。Ithasbeenlaiddownthat，wheneverafamilyandplacehavethesamename，itistheplacewhichalmostcertainlygaveitsnametothefamily。Thisisnodoubttrueoffeudalisedcountries，butitisnottrueofcountriesasyetunaffectedbyfeudalism。Itislikelythatsuchnamesas’O’Brien’sCountry’and’Macleod’sCountry’areasoldasanyappropriationoflandbyman；andthisisworthrememberingwhenwearetemptedtogaugetheintelligenceofanearlywriterbytheabsurdityofhisetymologies。’Hibernia’fromaneponymousdiscoverer，’Hyber，’soundsridiculousenough；butthechroniclerwhogivesitmayhavebeennearenoughtheageoftribalsocietytothinkthattheconnectionbetweentheplaceandthenamewasthemostnaturalandprobablehecouldsuggest。EventhemostfancifuletymologiesoftheGreeks，suchasHellespont，fromHelle，mayhavebeen’survivals’fromaprimitivetribalsystemofnamingplaces。Intherelationbetweennamesandplaces，asinmuchmoreimportantmatters，feudalismhassingularlyaddedtotheimportanceofland。
　　Letmenowstatetheimpressionwhich，partlyfromtheexaminationofthetranslatedtexts，legalandnon-legal，andpartlybytheaidofDr。Sullivan’sIntroduction，IhaveformedoftheagrarianorganisationofanIrishTribe。Ithasbeenlongsettled，inallprobability，uponthetribalterritory。Itisofsufficientsizeandimportancetoconstituteapoliticalunit，andpossiblyatitsapexisoneofthenumerouschieftainswhomtheIrishrecordscallKings。Theprimaryassumptionisthatthewholeofthetribalterritorybelongstothewholeofthetribe，butinfactlargeportionsofithavebeenpermanentlyappropriatedtominorbodiesoftribesmen。ApartisallottedinaspecialwaytotheChiefasappurtenanttohisoffice，anddependsfromChieftoChiefaccordingtoaspecialruleofsuccession。Otherportionsareoccupiedbyfragmentsofthetribe，someofwhichareunderminorchiefsor’flaiths，’whileothers，thoughnotstrictlyruledbyachief，havesomebodyofanobleclasstoactastheirrepresentative。Alltheunappropriatedtribe-landsareinamoreespecialwaythepropertyofthetribeasawhole，andnoportioncantheoreticallybesubjectedtomorethanatemporaryoccupation。
　　Suchoccupationsare，however，frequent，andamongtheholdersoftribe-land，ontheseterms，aregroupsofmencallingthemselvestribesmen，butbeinginrealityassociationsformedbycontract，chieflyforthepurposeofpasturingcattle。Muchofthecommontribe-landisnotoccupiedatall，butconstitutes，tousetheEnglishexpression，the’waste’ofthetribe。Stillthiswasteisconstantlybroughtundertillageorpermanentpasturebysettlementsoftribesmen，anduponitcultivatorsofservilestatusarepermittedtosquat，particularlytowardstheborder。
　　ItisthepartoftheterritoryoverwhichtheauthorityoftheChieftendssteadilytoincrease，andhereitisthathesettleshis’fuidhir，’orstranger-tenants，averyimportantclass——theoutlawsand’broken’menfromothertribeswhocometohimforprotection，andwhoareonlyconnectedwiththeirnewtribebytheirdependenceonitschief，andthroughtheresponsibilitywhichheincursforthem。
　　Thereisprobablygreatuniformityinthecompositionofthevariousgroupsoccupying，permanentlyortemporary，thetribalterritory。Eachseemstobemoreorlessaminiatureofthelargetribewhichincludesthemall。Eachprobablycontainsfreemenandslaves，oratalleventsmenvaryingmateriallyinpersonalstatus，yeteachcallsitselfinsomesenseafamily。Eachverypossiblyhasitsappropriatedlandanditswaste，andconductstillageandgrazingonthesameprinciples。EachiseitherunderaChiefwhoreallyrepresentsthecommonancestorofallthefreekinsmen，orundersomebodywhohasundertakentheresponsibilitiesdevolvingaccordingtoprimitivesocialideauponthenaturalheadofthekindred。InenquiriesoftheclassuponwhichweareengagedtheimportantfactwhichIstatedherethreeyearsagoshouldalwaysbeborneinmind。WhenthefirstEnglishemigrantssettledinNewEnglandtheydistributedthemselvesinvillagecommunities；sodifficultisittostrikeoutnewpathsofsociallifeandnewroutesofsocialhabit。Itisallbutcertainthat，insuchasocietyasthatofwhichwearespeaking，onesinglemodelofsocialorganisationandsocialpracticewouldprevail，andnonebutslightorinsensibledeparturesfromitwouldbepracticableorconceivable。
　　Butstillthesocietythusformedisnotaltogetherstationary。Thetemporaryoccupationofthecommontribe-landtendstobecomepermanent，eitherthroughthetacitsufferanceortheactiveconsentofthetribesmen。Particularfamiliesmanagetoeludethetheoreticallyperiodicalre-divisionofthecommonpatrimonyofthegroup；othersobtainallotmentswithitsconsentastherewardofserviceortheappanageofoffice；andthereisaconstanttransferoflandstotheChurch，andanintimateintermixtureoftribalrightswithecclesiasticalrights。TheestablishmentofPropertyinSeveraltyisdoubtlessretardedbothbytheabundanceoflandandbytheverylawunderwhich，torepeatthemetaphoroftheIndianpoetess，thetribalsocietyhascrystallised，sinceeachfamilywhichhasappropriatedaportionoftribe-landtendsalwaystoexpandintoanextensiveassemblageoftribesmenhavingequalrights。Butstillthereisaco-operationofcausesalwaystendingtoresultinSeveralProperty，andtheBrehonlawshowsthatbythetimeitwasputintoshapetheyhadlargelytakeneffect。Asmightbeexpected，theseveranceoflandfromthecommonterritoryappearstohavebeenmostcompleteinthecaseofChiefs，manyofwhomhavelargeprivateestatesheldunderordinarytenureinadditiontothedemesnespeciallyattachedtotheirsignory。
　　SuchisthepictureofIrishtribalorganisationinrelationtothelandwhichIhavebeenabletopresenttomyownmind。Allsuchdescriptionsmustbereceivedwithreserve：amongotherreasons，becauseeventheevidenceobtainablefromthelaw-tractsisstillincomplete。Butiftheaccountisinanydegreecorrect，allwhohaveattendedtothisclassofsubjectswillobserveatoncethattheelementsofwhatweareaccustomedtoconsiderthespeciallyGermaniclandsystemarepresentintheterritorialarrangementsoftheIrishtribe。Doubtlesstherearematerialdistinctions。Kinshipasyet，ratherthanlandedright，knitsthemembersoftheIrishgroupstogether。TheChiefisasyetaverydifferentpersonagefromtheLordoftheManor。Andtherearenosignsasyetevenofthebeginningsofgreattownsandcities。
　　Stilltheassertion，whichisthetextofDrSullivan’streatise，maybehazardedwithoutrashness，thateverythingintheGermanichasatleastitsembryointheCelticlandsystem。ThestudyoftheBrehonlawleadstothesameconclusionpointedatbysomanybranchesofmodernresearch。ItconveysastrongerimpressionthaneverofawideseparationbetweentheAryanraceandracesofotherstocks，butitsuggeststhatmany，perhapsmost，ofthedifferencesinkindallegedtoexistbetweenAryansub-racesarereallydifferencesmerelyindegreeofdevelopment。Itistobehopedthatcontemporarythoughtwillbeforelongmakeanefforttoemancipateitselffromthosehabitsoflevityinadoptingtheoriesofracewhichitseemstohavecontracted。Manyofthesetheoriesappeartohavelittlemeritexceptthefacilitywhichtheygiveforbuildingontheminferencestremendouslyoutofproportiontothementallabourwhichtheycostthebuilder。