II。ANCESTRALTRADITIONANDCULTURE。
　　Origin，natureandvalueofhereditaryprejudice。—Howfarcustom，religionandgovernmentarelegitimate。
　　Nothingcouldbebetterhadthenewdoctrinebeencomplete，andifReason，instructedbyhistory，hadbecomecritical，andthereforequalifiedtocomprehendtherivalshereplaced。Forthen，insteadofregardingherasanusurpertoberepelledshewouldhaverecognizedinheraneldersisterwhosepartmustbelefttoher。HereditaryprejudiceisasortofReasonoperatingunconsciously。Ithasclaimsaswellasreason，butitisunabletopresentthese；insteadofadvancingthosethatareauthenticitputsforththedoubtfulones。
　　Itsarchivesareburied；toexhumetheseitisnecessarytomakeresearchesofwhichitisincapable；neverthelesstheyexist，andhistoryatthepresentdayisbringingthemtolight。——Carefulinvestigationsshowsthat，likescience，itissuesfromalongaccumulationofexperiences；apeople，afteramultitudeofgropingsandefforts，hasdiscoveredthatacertainwayoflivingandthinkingistheonlyoneadaptedtoitssituation，themostpracticalandthemostsalutary，thesystemordogmanowseemingarbitrarytousbeingatfirstaconfirmedexpedientofpublicsafety。Frequentlyitissostill；inanyevent，initsleadingfeaturesitisindispensable；itmaybestatedwithcertaintythat，iftheleadingprejudicesofthecommunityshouldsuddenlydisappear，Man，deprivedofthepreciouslegacytransmittedtohimbythewisdomofages，wouldatoncefallbackintoasavageconditionandagainbecomewhathewasatfirst，namely，arestless，famished，wandering，huntedbrute。Therewasatimewhenthisheritagewaslacking；therearepopulationstodaywithwhichitisstillutterlylacking。[4]Toabstainfromeatinghumanflesh，fromkillinguselessorburdensomeagedpeople，fromexposing，sellingorkillingchildrenonedoesnotknowwhattodowith，tobetheonehusbandofbutonewoman，toholdinhorrorincestandunnaturalpractices，tobethesoleandrecognizedownerofadistinctfield，tobemindfulofthesuperiorinjunctionsofmodesty，humanity，honorandconscience，alltheseobservances，formerlyunknownandslowlyestablished，composethecivilizationofhumanbeings。Becauseweaccepttheminfullsecuritytheyarenotthelesssacred，andtheybecomeonlythemoresacredwhen，submittedtoinvestigationandtracedthroughhistory，theyaredisclosedtousasthesecretforcewhichhasconvertedaherdofbrutesintoasocietyofmen。Ingeneral，theolderandmoreuniversalacustom，themoreitisbasedonprofoundmotives，onphysiologicalmotivesonthoseofhygiene，andonthoseinstitutedforsocialprotection。Atonetime，asintheseparationofcastes，aheroicorthoughtfulstockmustbepreservedbypreventingthemixturesbywhichinferiorbloodintroducesmentaldebilityandlowinstincts。[5]Atanother，asintheprohibitionofspirituousliquors，andofanimalfood，itisnecessarytoconformtotheclimateprescribingavegetablediet，ortotherace—temperamentforwhichstrongdrinkispernicious。[6]Atanother，asintheinstitutionoftherightoffirst—borntoinherittitleandcastle，itwasimportanttoprepareanddesignatebeforehandthemilitarycommanderwhothetribewouldobey，orthecivilchieftainthatwouldpreservethedomain，superintenditscultivation，andsupportthefamily。[7]——IftherearevalidreasonsforlegitimizingcustomtherearereasonsofhigherimportfortheconsecrationofreligionConsiderthispoint，notingeneralandaccordingtoavaguenotion，butattheoutset，atitsbirth，inthetexts，takingforanexampleoneofthefaithswhichnowruleinsociety，Christianity，Hinduism，thelawofMohammedorofBuddha。Atcertaincriticalmomentsinhistory，afewmen，emergingfromtheirnarrowanddailyroutineoflife，areseizedbysomegeneralizedconceptionoftheinfiniteuniverse；theaugustfaceofnatureissuddenlyunveiledtothem；intheirsublimeemotiontheyseemtohavedetecteditsfirstcause；theyhaveatleastdetectedsomeofitselements。Throughafortunateconjunctionofcircumstancestheseelementsarejustthosewhichtheircentury，theirpeople，agroupofpeoples，afragmentofhumanityisinastatetocomprehend。Theirpointofviewistheonlyoneatwhichthegraduatedmultitudesbelowthemareabletoaccept。Formillionsofmen，forhundredsofgenerations，onlythroughthemisanyaccesstodivinethingstobeobtained。Theirsistheuniqueutterance，heroicoraffecting，enthusiasticortranquilizing；theonlyonewhichtheheartsandmindsaroundthemandafterthemwillheed；theonlyoneadaptedtoprofoundcravings，toaccumulatedaspirations，tohereditaryfaculties，toacompleteintellectualandmoralorganism；
　　YonderthatofHindostanoroftheMongolian；herethatoftheSemiteortheEuropean；inourEuropethatoftheGerman，theLatinortheSlave；insuchawaythatitscontradictions，insteadofcondemningit，justifyit，itsdiversityproducingitsadaptationanditsadaptationproducingbenefits。——Thisisnobarrenformula。A
　　sentimentofsuchgrandeur，ofsuchcomprehensiveandpenetratinginsight，anideabywhichMan，compassingthevastnessanddepthofthings，sogreatlyoverstepstheordinarylimitsofhismortalcondition，resemblesanillumination；itiseasilytransformedintoavision；itisneverremotefromecstasy；itcanexpressitselfonlythroughsymbols；itevokesdivinefigures。[8]Religioninitsnatureisametaphysicalpoemaccompaniedbyfaith。Underthistitleitispopularandefficacious；for，apartfromaninvisibleselectfew，apureabstractideaisonlyanemptyterm，andtruth，tobeapparent，mustbeclothedwithabody。Itrequiresaformofworship，alegend，andceremoniesinordertoaddressthepeople，women，children，thecredulous，everyoneabsorbedbydailycares，anyunderstandinginwhichideasinvoluntarilytranslatethemselvesthroughimagery。Owingtothispalpableformitisabletogiveitsweightysupporttotheconscience，tocounterbalancenaturalegoism，tocurbthemadonsetofbrutalpassions，toleadthewilltoabnegationanddevotion，totearManawayfromhimselfandplacehimwhollyintheserviceoftruth，orofhiskind，toformascetics，martyrs，sistersofcharityandmissionaries。Thus，throughoutsociety，religionbecomesatonceanaturalandpreciousinstrumentality。Ontheonehandmenrequireitforthecontemplationofinfinityandtoliveproperly；ifitweresuddenlytobetakenawayfromthemtheirsoulswouldbeamournfulvoid，andtheywoulddogreaterinjurytotheirneighbors。Besides，itwouldbevaintoattempttotakeitawayfromthem；thehandraisedagainstitwouldencounteronlyitsenvelope；itwouldberepelledafterasanguinarystruggle，itsgermlyingtoodeeptobeextirpated。
　　Andwhen，atlength，afterreligionandcustom，weregardtheState，thatistosay，thearmedpowerpossessingbothphysicalforceandmoralauthority，wefindforitanalmostequallynobleorigin。Ithas，inEuropeatleast，fromRussiatoPortugalandfromNorwaytothetwoSicilies，initsoriginandessence，amilitaryfoundationinwhichheroismconstitutesitselfthechampionofright。Hereandthereinthechaosoftribesandcrumblingsocieties，somemanhasarisenwho，throughhisascendancy，ralliesaroundhimaloyalband，drivingoutintruders，overcomingbrigands，re—establishingorder，revivingagriculture，foundingapatrimony，andtransmittingaspropertytohisdescendantshisofficeofhereditaryjusticiaryandborngeneral。
　　Throughthispermanentdelegationagreatpublicofficeisremovedfromcompetition，fixedinonefamily，sequesteredinsafehands；
　　thenceforththenationpossessesavitalcenterandeachrightobtainsavisibleprotector。Ifthesovereignconfineshimselftohistraditionalresponsibilities，isrestrainedindespotictendencies，andavoidsfallingintoegoism，heprovidesthecountrywiththebestgovernmentofwhichtheworldhasanyknowledge。Notaloneisitthemoststable，capableofcontinuation，andthemostsuitableformaintainingtogetherabodyof20or30millionpeople，butagainoneofthemostnoblebecausedevotiondignifiesbothcommandandobedienceand，throughtheprolongationofmilitarytradition，fidelityandhonor，fromgradetograde，attachestheleadertohisdutyandthesoldiertohiscommander。——Sucharethestrikinglyvalidclaimsofsocialtraditionswhichwemay，similartoaninstinct，considerasbeingablindformofreason。Thatwhichmakesitfullylegitimateisthatreasonherself，tobecomeefficient，isobligedtoborrowitsform。Adoctrinebecomesinspiringonlythroughablindmedium。Tobecomeofpracticaluse，totakeuponitselfthegovernmentofsouls，tobetransformedintoaspringofaction，itmustbedepositedinmindsgivenuptosystematicbelief，offixedhabits，ofestablishedtendencies，ofdomestictraditionsandprejudice，andthatit，fromtheagitatedheightsoftheintellect，descendsintoandbecomeamalgamatedwiththepassiveforcesofthewill；thenonlydoesitformapartofthecharacterandbecomeasocialforce。Atthesametime，however，itceasestobecriticalandclairvoyant；itnolongertoleratesdoubtandcontradiction，noradmitsfurtherrestrictionsornicedistinctions；itiseithernolongercognizantof，orbadlyappreciates，itsownevidences。Weofthepresentdaybelieveininfiniteprogressaboutthesameaspeopleoncebelievedinoriginalsin；westillreceiveready—madeopinionsfromabove，theAcademyofSciencesoccupyinginmanyrespectstheplaceoftheancientcouncils。Exceptwithafewspecialsavants，beliefandobediencewillalwaysbeunthinking，whileReasonwouldwrongfullyresenttheleadershipofprejudiceinhumanaffairs，since，tolead，itmustitselfbecomeprejudiced。
　　III。REASONATWARWITHILLUSION。
　　Theclassicintellectincapableofacceptingthispointofview。—
　　—Thepastandpresentusefulnessoftraditionaremisunderstood。——
　　Reasonundertakestosetthemaside。
　　Unfortunately，intheeighteenthcentury，reasonwasclassic；notonlytheaptitudebutthedocumentswhichenableittocomprehendtraditionwereabsent。Inthefirstplace，therewasnoknowledgeofhistory；learningwas，duetoitsdullnessandtediousness，refused；
　　learnedcompilations，vastcollectionsofextractsandtheslowworkofcriticismwereheldindisdain。VoltairemadefunoftheBenedictines。Montesquieu，toensuretheacceptanceofhis"Espritdeslois，"indulgedinwitaboutlaws。Reynal，togiveanimpetustohishistoryofcommerceintheIndies，weldedtoitthedeclamationofDiderot。TheAbbéBarthélemycoveredovertherealitiesofGreekmannersandcustomswithhisliteraryvarnish。Sciencewasexpectedtobeeitherepigrammaticororatorical；crudeortechnicaldetailswouldhavebeenobjectionabletoapubliccomposedofpeopleofthegoodsociety；correctnessofstylethereforedroveoutorfalsifiedthosesmallsignificantfactswhichgiveapeculiarsenseandtheiroriginalrelieftoancientpersonalities。——Evenifwritershaddaredtonotethem，theirsenseandbearingwouldnothavebeenunderstood。Thesympatheticimaginationdidnotexist[9]；peoplewereincapableofgoingoutofthemselves，ofbetakingthemselvestodistantpointsofview，ofconjecturingthepeculiarandviolentstatesofthehumanbrain，thedecisiveandfruitfulmomentduringwhichitgivesbirthtoavigorouscreation，areligiondestinedtorule，astatethatissuretoendure。TheimaginationofManislimitedtopersonalexperiences，andwhereintheirexperience，couldindividualsinthissocietyhavefoundthematerialwhichwouldhaveallowedthemtoimaginetheconvulsionsofadelivery？Howcouldminds，aspolishedandasamiableasthese，fullyadoptthesentimentsofanapostle，ofamonk，ofabarbarianorfeudalfounder；seetheseinthemilieuwhichexplainsandjustifiesthem；picturetothemselvesthesurroundingcrowd，atfirstsoulsindespairandhauntedbymysticdreams，andnexttherudeandviolentintellectsgivenuptoinstinctandimagery，thinkingwithhalf—visions，theirresolveconsistingofirresistibleimpulses？A
　　speculativereasoningofthisstampcouldnotimaginefigureslikethese。Tobringthemwithinitsrectilinearlimitstheyrequiretobereducedandmadeover；theMacbethofShakespearebecomesthatofDucis，andtheMahometoftheKoranthatofVoltaire。Consequently，astheyfailedtoseesouls，theymisconceivedinstitutions。Thesuspicionthattruthcouldhavebeenconveyedonlythroughthemediumoflegends，thatjusticecouldhavebeenestablishedonlybyforce，thatreligionwasobligedtoassumethesacerdotalform，thattheStatenecessarilytookamilitaryform，andthattheGothicedificepossessed，aswellasotherstructures，itsownarchitecture，proportions，balanceofparts，solidity，andevenbeauty，neverenteredtheirheads。——Furthermore，unabletocomprehendthepast，theycouldnotcomprehendthepresent。Theyknewnothingaboutthemechanic，theprovincialbourgeois，oreventhelessernobility；thesewereseenonlyfarawayinthedistance，half—effaced，andwhollytransformedthroughphilosophictheoriesandsentimentalhaze。"Twoorthreethousand"[10]polishedandcultivatedindividualsformedthecircleofladiesandgentlemen，theso—calledhonestfolks，andtheyneverwentoutsideoftheirowncircle。Iftheyfleetinghadaglimpseofthepeoplefromtheirchateauxandontheirjourneys，itwasinpassing，thesameasoftheirpost—horses，orofthecattleontheirfarms，showingcompassionundoubtedly，butneverdiviningtheiranxiousthoughtsandtheirobscureinstincts。Thestructureofthestillprimitivemindofthepeoplewasneverimagined，thepaucityandtenacityoftheirideas，thenarrownessoftheirmechanical，routineexistence，devotedtomanuallabor，absorbedwiththeanxietiesfordailybread，confinedtotheboundsofavisiblehorizon；theirattachmenttothelocalsaint，torites，tothepriest，theirdeep—
　　seatedrancor，theirinveteratedistrust，theircredulitygrowingoutoftheimagination，theirinabilitytocomprehendabstractrights，thelawandpublicaffairs，thehiddenoperationbywhichtheirbrainswouldtransformpoliticalnoveltiesintonurseryfablesorintoghoststories，theircontagiousinfatuationslikethoseofsheep，theirblindfurylikethatofbulls，andallthosetraitsofcharactertheRevolutionwasabouttobringtolight。Twentymillionsofmenandmorehadscarcelypassedoutofthementalconditionofthemiddleages；hence，initsgrandlines，thesocialedificeinwhichtheycoulddwellhadnecessarilytobemediaeval。Ithadtobecleanedup，windowsputinandwallspulleddown，butwithoutdisturbingthefoundations，orthemainbuildinganditsgeneralarrangement；
　　otherwiseafterdemolishingitandlivingencampedfortenyearsintheopenairlikesavages，itsinmateswouldhavebeenobligedtorebuilditonthesameplan。Inuneducatedminds，thosehavingnotyetattainedtoreflection，faithattachesitselfonlytothecorporealsymbol，obediencebeingbroughtaboutonlythroughphysicalrestraint；
　　religionisupheldbythepriestandtheStatebythepoliceman。——
　　Onewriteronly，Montesquieu，thebestinstructed，themostsagacious，andthebestbalancedofallthespiritsoftheage，madethesetruthsapparent，becausehewasatonceanerudite，anobserver，ahistorianandajurisconsult。Hespoke，however，asanoracle，inmaximsandriddles；andeverytimehetouchedmattersbelongingtohiscountryandepochhehoppedaboutasifuponredhotcoals。Thatiswhyheremainedrespectedbutisolated，hisfameexercisingnoinfluence。Theclassicreasonrefused[11]togosofarastomakeacarefulstudyofboththeancientandthecontemporaryhumanbeing。Itfounditeasierandmoreconvenienttofollowitsoriginalbent，toshutitseyesonmanasheis，tofallbackonitsstoresofcurrentnotions，toderivefromtheseanideaofmaningeneral，andbuildinemptyspace。——
　　Throughthisnaturalandcompletestateofblindnessitnolongerheedstheoldandlivingrootsofcontemporaryinstitutions；nolongerseeingthemmakesitdenytheirexistence。Customnowappearsaspureprejudice；thetitlesoftraditionarelost，androyaltyseemsbasedonrobbery。SofromnowonReasonisarmedandatwarwithitspredecessortowrenchawayitscontroloverthemindsandtoreplacearuleoflieswitharuleoftruth。
　　IV。CASTINGOUTTHERESIDUEOFTRUTHANDJUSTICE。
　　Twostagesinthisoperation。—Voltaire，Montesquieu，thedeistsandthereformersrepresentthefirstone。—Whattheydestroyandwhattheyrespect。
　　Inthisgreatundertakingtherearetwostages。Owingtocommonsenseortimiditymanystophalf—way。Motivatedbypassionorlogicothersgototheend。——Afirstcampaignresultsincarryingtheenemy’sout—worksandhisfrontierfortresses，thephilosophicalarmybeingledbyVoltaire。Tocombathereditaryprejudice，otherprejudicesareopposedtoitwhoseempireisasextensiveandwhoseauthorityisnotlessrecognized。MontesquieulooksatFrancethroughtheeyesofaPersian，andVoltaire，onhisreturnfromEngland，describestheEnglish，anunknownspecies。Confrontingdogmaandtheprevailingsystemofworship，accountsaregiven，eitherwithopenorwithdisguisedirony，ofthevariousChristiansects，theAnglicans，theQuakers，thePresbyterians，theSocinians，thoseofancientorofremotepeople，theGreeks，Romans，Egyptians，Muslims，andGuebers，oftheworshippersofBrahma，oftheChineseandofpureidolaters。Inrelationtoestablishedlawsandcustoms，expositionsaremade，withevidentintentions，ofotherconstitutionsandothersocialhabits，ofdespotism，oflimitedmonarchy，ofarepublic，herethechurchsubjecttothestate，therethechurchfreeofthestate，inthiscountrycastes，inanotherpolygamy，and，fromcountrytocountry，fromcenturytocentury，thediversity，contradictionandantagonismoffundamentalcustomswhich，eachonitsownground，areallequallyconsecratedbytradition，alllegitimatelyformingthesystemofpublicrights。Fromnowonthecharmisbroken。Ancientinstitutionslosetheirdivineprestige；theyaresimplyhumanworks，thefruitsoftheplaceandofthemoment，andbornoutofconvenienceandacovenant。Skepticismentersthroughallthebreaches。WithregardtoChristianityitatonceentersintoopenhostility，intoabitterandprolongedpolemicalwarfare；for，underthetitleofastatereligionthisoccupiestheground，censuringfreethought，burningwritings，exiling，imprisoningordisturbingauthors，andeverywhereactingasanaturalandofficialadversary。Moreover，byvirtueofbeinganasceticreligion，itcondemnsnotonlythefreeandcheerfulwaystoleratedbythenewphilosophybutagainthenaturaltendenciesitsanctions，andthepromisesofterrestrialfelicitywithwhichiteverywheredazzlestheeyes。Thustheheartandtheheadbothagreeintheiropposition。——Voltaire，withtextsinhand，pursuesitfromoneendtotheotherofitshistory，fromthefirstbiblicalnarrationtothelatestpapalbulls，withunflagginganimosityandenergy，ascritic，ashistorian，asgeographer，aslogician，asmoralist，questioningitssources，opposingevidences，drivingridiculelikeapick—axintoeveryweakspotwhereanoutragedinstinctbeatsagainstitsmysticwalls，andintoalldoubtfulplaceswhereulteriorpatchworkdisfigurestheprimitivestructure。——Herespects，however，thefirstfoundation，and，inthisparticular，thegreatestwritersofthedayfollowthesamecourse。Underpositivereligionsthatarefalsethereisanaturalreligionthatistrue。Thisisthesimpleandauthentictextofwhichtheothersarealteredandamplifiedtranslations。Removetheulterioranddivergentexcessesandtheoriginalremains；thiscommonessence，onwhichallcopiesharmonize，isdeism。——Thesameoperationistobemadeoncivilandpoliticallaw。InFrance，wheresomanysurvivetheirutility，whereprivilegesarenolongerpaidforwithservice，whererightsarechangedintoabuses，howincoherentisthearchitectureoftheoldGothicbuilding！Howpoorlyadaptedtoamodernnation！Ofwhatuse，inanuniqueandcompactstate，arethosefeudalcompartmentsseparatingorders，corporationsandprovinces？Whatalivingparadoxisthearchbishopofasemi—province，achapterowning12，000serfs，adrawingroomabbéwellsupportedbyamonasteryheneversaw，alordliberallypensionedtofigureinantechambers，amagistratepurchasingtherighttoadministerjustice，acolonelleavingcollegetotakethecommandofhisinheritedregiment，aParisiantraderwho，rentingahouseforoneyearinFranche—Comté，alienatesthroughthisactalonetheownershipofhispropertyandofhisperson。ThroughoutEuropethereareothersofthesamecharacter。Thebestthatcanbesaidof"acivilizednation"[12]isthatitslaws，customsandpracticesarecomposed"one—halfofabusesandone—halfoftolerableusage"。——
　　But，underneaththeseconcretelaws，whichcontradicteachother，andofwhicheachcontradictsitself，anaturallawexists，impliedinthecodes，appliedsocially，andwritteninallhearts。
　　"Showmeacountrywhereitishonesttostealthefruitsofmylabor，toviolateengagements，tolieforinjuriouspurposes，tocalumniate，toassassinate，topoison，tobeungratefultoone’sbenefactor，tostrikeone’sfatherandmotheronofferingyoufood"。—
　　"Justiceandinjusticeisthesamethroughouttheuniverse，"
　　and，asintheworstcommunityforcealways，insomerespects，isattheserviceofright，so，intheworstreligion，theextravagantdogmaalwaysinsomefashionproclaimsasupremearchitect。——
　　Religionsandcommunities，accordingly，disintegratedundertheinvestigatingprocess，discloseatthebottomofthecrucible，someresidueoftruth，othersaresidueofjustice，asmallbutpreciousbalance，asortofgoldingotofpreservedtradition，purifiedbyReason，andwhichlittlebylittle，freedfromitsalloys，elaboratedanddevotedtoallusage，mustsolelyprovidethesubstanceofreligionandallthreadsofthesocialwarp。
　　V。THEDREAMOFARETURNTONATURE。
　　Thesecondstage，areturntonature。—Diderot，d’Holbachandthematerialists。—Theoryofanimatedmatterandspontaneousorganization。—Themoralofanimalinstinctandself—interestproperlyunderstood。
　　Herebeginsthesecondphilosophicexpedition。Itconsistsoftwoarmies:thefirstcomposedoftheencyclopedists，someofthemskepticsliked’Alembert，otherspantheistslikeDiderotandLamarck，thesecondopenatheistsandmaterialistsliked’Holbach，LamettrieandHelvétius，andlaterCondorcet，LalandeandVolney，alldifferentandindependentofeachother，butunanimousinregardingtraditionasthecommonenemy。Asaresultofprolongedhostilitiesthepartiesbecomeincreasinglyexasperatedandfeeladesiretobemasterofeverything，topushtheadversarytothewall，todrivehimoutofallhispositions。TheyrefusetoadmitthatReasonandtraditioncanoccupyanddefendthesamecitadeltogether；assoonasoneenterstheothermustdepart；henceforthoneprejudiceisestablishedagainstanotherprejudice。——Infact，Voltaire，"thepatriarch，doesnotdesiretoabandonhisredeemingandavengingGod；"[13]letustolerateinhimthisremnantofsuperstitiononaccountofhisgreatservices；
　　letusneverthelessexaminethisphantominmanwhichheregardswithinfantilevision。Weadmititintoourmindsthroughfaith，andfaithisalwayssuspicious。Itisforgedbyignorance，fear，andimagination，whicharealldeceptivepowers。Atfirstitwassimplythefetishofsavages；invainhavewestriventopurifyandaggrandizeit；itsoriginisalwaysapparent；itshistoryisthatofahereditarydreamwhich，arisinginarudeanddotingbrain，prolongsitselffromgenerationtogeneration，andstilllastsinthehealthyandcultivatedbrain。Voltairewantedthatthisdreamshouldbetruebecause，otherwise，hecouldnotexplaintheadmirableorderoftheworld。Sinceawatchsuggestsawatchmakerhehadfirstlytoprovethattheworldisawatchand，thenseeifthehalf—finishedarrangement，suchasitisandwhichwehaveobserved，couldnotbetterbeexplainedbyasimplertheory，moreinconformitywithexperience，thatofeternalmatterinwhichmotioniseternal。Mobileandactiveparticles，ofwhichthedifferentkindsareindifferentstatesofequilibrium，theseareminerals，inorganicsubstances，marble，lime，air，waterandcoal。[14]Iformhumusoutofthis，"I
　　sowpeas，beansandcabbages；"plantsfindtheirnourishmentinthehumus，and"Ifindmynourishmentintheplants。"Ateverymeal，withinme，andthroughme，inanimatematterbecomesanimate；"I
　　convertitintoflesh。Ianimalizeit。Irenderitsensitive。"Itharborslatent，imperfectsensibilityrenderedperfectandmademanifest。Organizationisthecause，andlifeandsensationaretheeffects；IneednospiritualmonadtoaccountforeffectssinceIaminpossessionofthecause。"Lookatthisegg，withwhichallschoolsoftheologyandallthetemplesoftheearthcanbeoverthrown。Whatisthisegg？Aninanimatemassprevioustotheintroductionofthegerm。Andwhatisitaftertheintroductionofthegerm？Aninsensiblemass，aninertfluid。"Addheattoit，keepitinanoven，andlettheoperationcontinueofitself，andwehaveachicken，thatistosay，"sensibility，life，memory，conscience，passionsandthought。"Thatwhichyoucallsoulisthenervouscenterinwhichallsensitivechordsconcentrate。Theirvibrationsproducesensations；aquickenedorrevivingsensationismemory；ourideasaretheresultofsensations，memoryandsigns。Matter，accordingly，isnottheworkofanintelligence，butmatter，throughitsownarrangement，producesintelligence。Letusfixintelligencewhereitis，intheorganizedbody；wemustnotdetachitfromitssupporttoperchitintheskyonanimaginarythrone。Thisdisproportionateconception，onceintroducedintoourminds，endsinpervertingthenaturalplayofoursentiments，and，likeamonstrousparasite，abstractsforitselfalloursubstance。[15]Thefirstinterestofasanepersonistogetridofit，todiscardeverysuperstition，every"fearofinvisiblepowers。"[16]——Thenonlycanheestablishamoralorderofthingsanddistinguish"thenaturallaw。"Theskyconsistingofemptyspace，wehavenoneedtoseekcommandsfromonhigh。Letuslookdowntotheground；letusconsidermaninhimself，asheappearsintheeyesofthenaturalist，namely，anorganizedbody，asensitiveanimalpossessingwants，appetitesandinstincts。Notonlyaretheseindestructiblebuttheyarelegitimate。Letusthrowopentheprisoninwhichprejudiceconfinesthem；letusgivethemfreeairandspace；
　　letthembedisplayedinalltheirstrengthandallwillgowell。
　　AccordingtoDiderot，[17]alastingmarriageisanabuse，being"thetyrannyofamanwhohasconvertedthepossessionofawomanintoproperty。"Purityisaninventionandconventional，likeadress；[18]
　　happinessandmoralsgotogetheronlyincountrieswhereinstinctissanctioned；asinTahiti，forinstance，wheremarriagelastsbutamonth，oftenonlyaday，andsometimesaquarterofanhour，where，intheeveningandwithhospitableintent，ahostoffershisdaughtersandwifetohisguests，wherethesonespouseshismotheroutofpoliteness，wheretheunionofthesexesisareligiousfestivitycelebratedinpublic。——And，pushingthingstoextremes，thelogicianendswithfiveorsixpagescalculated"tomakeone’shairstandonend，"[19]himselfavowingthathisdoctrineis"neithersuitedforchildrennorforadults。"——WithDiderot，tosaytheleast，theseparadoxeshavetheircorrectives。Inhispicturesofmodernwaysandhabits，heisthemoralist。Henotonlyisfamiliarwithallthechordsofthehumankeyboard，butheclassifieseachaccordingtoitsrank。Helovesfineandpuretones，andisfullofenthusiasmfornobleharmonies；hisheartisequaltohisgenius。[20]Andbetterstill，onthequestionofprimitiveimpulsesarising，heassigns，sidebysidewithvanity，anindependentandsuperiorpositiontopity，friendship，kindnessandcharity；toeverygenerousaffectionoftheheartdisplayingsacrificeanddevotionwithoutcalculationorpersonalbenefit。——Butassociatedwithhimareothers，coldandnarrow，whoformmoralsystemsaccordingtothemathematicalmethodsoftheideologists，[21]afterthestyleofHobbes。Onemotivealonesatisfiesthese，thesimplestandmostpalpable，utterlygross，almostmechanical，completelyphysiological，thenaturalanimaltendencyofavoidingpainandseekingpleasure:
　　"Painandpleasure，"saysHelvétius，"formtheonlyspringsofthemoraluniverse，whilethesentimentofvanityistheonlybasisonwhichwecanlaythefoundationsofmoralusefulness。Whatmotivebutthatofself—interestcouldleadamantoperformagenerousaction？
　　Hecanaslittlelovegoodforthesakeofgoodasevilforthesakeofevil。"[22]"Theprinciplesofnaturallaw，saythedisciples，arereducedtooneuniqueandfundamentalprinciple，self—
　　preservation。"[23]"Topreserveoneself，tobehappy，"isinstinct，rightandduty。"Oh，yea，"[24]saysnature，"who，throughtheimpulsionIbestowonyou，tendingtowardshappinessateverymomentofyourbeing，resistnotmysovereignlaw，striveforyourownfelicity，enjoyfearlesslyandbehappy！"Buttobehappy，contributetothehappinessofothers；ifyouwishthemtobeusefultoyou，beusefultothem。"everyman，frombirthtodeath，hasneedofmankind。"
　　"Livethenforthem，thattheymayliveforyou。""Begood，becausegoodnesslinksheartstogether；begentle，becausegentlenesswinsaffection；bemodest，becausepriderepelsbeingsfulloftheirself—
　　importance……Becitizens，becauseyourcountryisnecessarytoensureyoursafetyandwell—being。Defendyourcountry，becauseitrendersyouhappyandcontainsyourpossessions。"
　　Virtuethusissimplyegotismfurnishedwithatelescope；manhasnootherreasonfordoinggoodbutthefearofdoinghimselfharm，whileself—devotionconsistsofself—interest。
　　Onegoesfastandfaronthisroad。Whenthesolelawforeachpersonistobehappy，eachwishestobesoimmediatelyandinhisownway；theherdofappetitesisletloose，rushingaheadandbreakingdownallbarriers。Andthemorereadilybecauseithasbeendemonstratedtothemthateverybarrierisanevil，inventedbycunningandmaliciousshepherds，thebettertomilkandshearthem:
　　"Thestateofsocietyisastateofwarfareofthesovereignagainstall，andofeachmemberagainsttherest。[25]……Weseeonthefaceoftheglobeonlyincapable，unjustsovereigns，enervatedbyluxury，corruptedbyflattery，depravedthroughunpunishedlicense，andwithouttalent，morals，orgoodqualities……Maniswickednotbecauseheiswicked，butbecausehehasbeenmadeso。"—"Wouldyouknowthestory，inbrief，ofalmostallourwretchedness？Hereitis。
　　Thereexistedthenaturalman，andintothismanwasintroducedanartificialman，whereuponacivilwararosewithinhim，lastingthroughlife。[26]……Ifyouproposetobecomeatyrantoverhim，……doyourbesttopoisonhimwithatheoryofmoralsagainstnature；
　　imposeeverykindoffetteronhim；embarrasshismovementswithathousandobstacles；placephantomsaroundhimtofrightenhim……
　　Wouldyouseehimhappyandfree？Donotmeddlewithhisaffairs……
　　Remainconvincedofthis，（wroteDiderot）thatthesewiselegislatorshaveformedandshapedyouastheyhavedone，notforyourbenefit，butfortheirown。Iappealtoeverycivil，religious，andpoliticalinstitution；examinetheseclosely，and，ifIamnotmistaken，youwillfindthehumanspecies，centuryaftercentury，subjecttoayokewhichamerehandfulofknaveschosetoimposeonit……Bewaryofhimwhoseekstoestablishorder；toorderistoobtainthemasteryofothersbygivingthemtrouble。"
　　Therenothinganymoretobeashamedof；thepassionsaregood，andiftheherdwouldeatfreely，itsfirstcaremustbetotrampleunderitswoodenshoesthemiteredandcrownedanimalswhokeepitinthefoldfortheirownadvantage。[27]
　　VI。THEABOLITIONOFSOCIETY。ROUSSEAU。
　　Rousseauandthespiritualists。—Theoriginalgoodnessofman。—
　　Themistakecommittedbycivilization。—Theinjusticeofpropertyandofsociety。
　　Areturntonature，meaningbythistheabolitionofsociety，isthewar—cryofthewholeencyclopedicbattalion。Thesameshoutisheardinanotherquarter，comingthebattalionofRousseauandthesocialistswho，intheirturn，marchuptotheassaultoftheestablishedrégime。Theminingandthesappingofthewallspracticedbythelatterseemslessextensive，butareneverthelessmoreeffective，andthedestructivemachineryitemploysconsistsofanewconceptionofhumannature。ThisRousseauhasdrawnexclusivelyfromthespectacleinhisownheart:[28]Rousseau，astrange，originalandsuperiorman，who，fromhisinfancy，harboredwithinhimagermofinsanity，andwhofinallybecamewhollyinsane；awonderful，ill—
　　balancedmindinwhichsensations，emotionsandimagesaretoopowerful:atonceblindandperspicacious，averitablepoetandamorbidpoet，who，insteadofthingsandeventsbeheldreveries，livinginaromanceanddyinginanightmareofhisowncreation；incapableofcontrollingandofbehavinghimself，confoundingresolutionwithaction，vaguedesirewithresolution，andtheroleheassumedwiththecharacterhethoughthepossessed；whollydisproportionatetotheordinarywaysofsociety，hitting，woundingandsoilinghimselfagainsteveryhindranceonhisway；attimesextravagant，meanandcriminal，yetpreservinguptotheendadelicateandprofoundsensibility，ahumanity，pity，thegiftoftears，thefacultyofliving，thepassionforjustice，thesentimentofreligionandofenthusiasm，likesomanyvigorousrootsinwhichgeneroussapisalwaysfermenting，whilstthestemandthebranchesproveabortiveandbecomedeformedorwitherundertheinclemencyoftheatmosphere。Howexplainsuchacontrast？HowdidRousseauhimselfaccountforit？A
　　critic，apsychologistwouldmerelyregardhimasasingularcase，theeffectofanextraordinarilydiscordantmentalformation，analogoustothatofHamlet，Chatterton，RenéorWerther，adoptedtopoeticspheres，butunsuitableforreallife。Rousseaugeneralizes；occupiedwithhimself，eventoinfatuation，and，seeingonlyhimself，heimaginesmankindtobelikehimself，and"describesitasthefeelsitinsidehimself"。Hispride，moreover，findsthisprofitable；heisgratifiedatconsideringhimselftheprototypeofhumanity；thestatueheerectsofhimselfbecomesmoreimportant；herisesinhisownestimationwhen，inconfessingtohimself，hethinksheisconfessingthehumanspecies。Rousseauconvokestheassemblyofgenerationswiththetrumpetofthedayofjudgment，andboldlystandsupintheeyesofallmenandoftheSupremeJudge，exclaiming，"Letanyonesay，ifhedares:’IwasabettermanthanThou！’"[29]Allhisblemishesmustbethefaultofsociety；hisvicesandhisbasenessmustbeattributedtocircumstances:
　　"IfIhadfallenintothehandsofabettermaster……IshouldhavebeenagoodChristian，agoodfather，agoodfriend，agoodworkman，agoodmaninallthings。"
　　Thewrongisthusallonthesideofsociety。——Inthesameway，withManingeneral，hisnatureisgood。
　　"Hisfirstimpulsesarealwaysright……ThefundamentalprincipleofallmoralquestionswhichIhavearguedinallmywritings，isthatManisnaturallygood，andlovingjusticeandorder……’Emile，’especially，isatreatiseonthenaturalgoodnessofMan，intendedtoshowhowviceanderror，foreigntohisconstitution，graduallyfindtheirwayintoitfromwithoutandinsensiblychangehim……NaturecreatedManhappyandgood，whilesocietyhasdepravedhimandmadehimmiserable。"[30]
　　Imaginehimdivestedofhisfactitioushabits，ofhissuperaddednecessities，ofhisfalseprejudices；putasidesystems，studyyourownheart，listentotheinwarddictatesoffeeling，letyourselfbeguidedbythelightofinstinctandofconscience，andyouwillagainfindthefirstAdam，likeanincorruptiblemarblestatuethathasfallenintoamarsh，alongtimelostunderacrustofslimeandmud，butwhich，releasedfromitsfoulcovering，maybereplacedonitspedestalinthecompletenessofitsformandintheperfectpurityofitswhiteness。
　　Aroundthiscentralideaareformoccursinthespiritualisticdoctrine。——Abeingsonoblecannotpossiblyconsistofasimplecollectionoforgans；heissomethingmorethanmerematter；theimpressionhederivesfromhissensesdonotconstitutehisfullbeing。
　　"Iamnotmerelyasensitiveandpassivebeing，butanactiveandintelligentbeing，and，whateverphilosophymaysay，Idareclaimthehonorofthinking。"
　　Andbetterstill，thisthinkingprinciple，inMan，atleast，isofasuperiorkind。
　　"Showmeanotheranimalontheglobecapableofproducingfireandofadmiringthesun。What？Iwhoamabletoobserve，tocomprehendbeingsandtheirassociations；whocanappreciateorder，beautyandvirtue；whocancontemplatetheuniverseandexaltmyselftothehandwhichcontrolsit；whocanlovethegoodanddogood，shouldIcomparemyselftobrutes！"Manisfree，capableofdecidingbetweentwoactions，andthereforethecreatorofhisactions；heisaccordinglyafirstandoriginalcause，"animmaterialsubstance，"distinctfromthebody，asoulhamperedbythebodyandwhichmaysurvivethebody。
　　——Thisimmortalsoulimprisonedwithinthefleshhasconscienceforitsorgan。"OConscience，divineinstinct，immortalandcelestialvoice，unfailingguideofanignorantandfinitebutfreeandintelligentbeing，infalliblejudgebetweengoodandevil，andrenderingMansimilartoGod，Thouforemostthesuperiorityofhisnature！"
　　Alongsideofvanity，bywhichwesubordinateeverythingtoourselves，thereisaloveoforderbywhichwesubordinateourselvestothewhole。Alongsideofegoism，bywhichManseekshappinessevenattheexpenseofothers，issympathy，bywhichheseeksthehappinessofothersevenattheexpenseofhisown。Personalenjoymentdoesnotsufficehim；hestillneedstranquillityofconscienceandtheeffusionsoftheheart。——SuchisManasGoddesignedandcreatedhim；inhisorganizationthereisnodefect。Inferiorelementsareasserviceableasthesuperiorelements；allareessential，proportionate，inproperplace，notonlytheheart，theconscience，theintellect，andthefacultiesbywhichwesurpassbrutes，butagaintheinclinationsincommonwithanimals，theinstinctofself—
　　preservationandofself—defense，theneedofphysicalactivity，sexualappetite，andotherprimitiveimpulsesasweobservetheminthechild，thesavageandtheuncultivatedMan。[31]Noneoftheseinthemselvesareeitherviciousorinjurious。Nonearetoostrong，eventheloveofself。Nonecomeintoplayoutofseason。Ifwewouldnotinterferewiththem，ifwewouldimposenoconstraintonthem，ifwewouldpermitthesesparklingfountainstoflowaccordingtotheirbent，ifwewouldnotconfinethemtoourartificialandfoulchannels，weshouldneverseethemboilingoverandbecomingturbid。
　　Welookwithwonderontheirravagesandontheirstains；weforgetthat，inthebeginning，theywerepureandundefiled。Thefaultiswithus，inoursocialarrangements，inourencrustedandformalchannelswherebywecausedeviationsandwindings，andmakethemheaveandbound。"Yourverygovernmentsarethecauseoftheevilswhichtheypretendtoremedy。Yesceptersofiron！yeabsurdlaws，yewereproachforourinabilitytofulfillourdutiesonearth！"Awaywiththesedikes，theworkoftyrannyandroutine！Anemancipatednaturewillatonceresumeadirectandhealthycourseandman，withouteffort，willfindhimselfnotonlyhappybutvirtuousaswell。[32]Onthisprincipletheattackbegins:thereisnonethatispushedfurther，norconductedwithmorebitterhostility。Thusfarexistinginstitutionsaredescribedsimplyasoppressiveandunreasonable；butnowtheyarenowtheyareaccusedofbeingunjustandcorruptingaswell。Reasonandthenaturaldesiresweretheonlyinsurgents；
　　conscienceandpridearenowinrebellion。WithVoltaireandMontesquieuallImighthopeforisthatfewerevilsmightbeanticipated。WithDiderotandd’HolbachthehorizondisclosesonlyaglowingElDoradooracomfortableCythera。WithRousseauIbeholdwithinreachanEdenwhereIshallimmediatelyrecoveranobilityinseparablefrommyhappiness。Itismyright；natureandProvidencesummonmetoit；itismyheritage。Onearbitraryinstitutionalonekeepsmeawayfromit，thecreatorofmyvicesasofmymisery。WithwhatrageandfuryIwilloverthrowthisancientbarrier！——Wedetectthisinthevehementtone，intheembitteredstyle，andinthesombreeloquenceofthenewdoctrine。Funandgamesarenolongerinvogue，aserioustoneismaintained；peoplebecomeexasperated，whilethepowerfulvoicenowheardpenetratesbeyondthedrawing—room，totherudeandsufferingcrowdtowhichnowordhadyetbeenspoken，whosemuteresentmentforthefirsttimefindsaninterpreter，andwhosedestructiveinstinctsaresoontobesetinmotionatthesummonsofitsherald。——Rousseauisamanofthepeople，andnotamanofhighsociety。Hefeelsawkwardinadrawing—room。[33]Heisnotcapableofconversingandofappearingamiable；theniceexpressionsonlycomeintohisheadtoolate，onthestaircaseasheleavesthehouse；hekeepssilentwithasulkyairoruttersstupidities，redeeminghisawkwardnesswiththesalliesofaclownorwiththephrasesofavulgarpedant。Eleganceannoyshim，luxurymakeshimuncomfortable，politenessisalie，conversationmereprattle，easeofmanneragrimace，gaietyaconvention，witaparade，sciencesomuchcharlatanry，philosophyanaffectionandmoralsuttercorruption。Allisfactitious，falseandunwholesome，[34]fromthemake—up，toiletandbeautyofwomentotheatmosphereoftheapartmentsandtheragoutsonthedinner—table，insentimentasinamusement，inliteratureasinmusic，ingovernmentasinreligion。Thiscivilization，whichboastsofitssplendor，issimplytherestlessnessofover—excited，servilemonkeyseachimitatingtheother，andeachcorruptingtheotherto，throughsophistication，endupinworryandboredom。Humanculture，accordingly，isinitselfbad，whilethefruititproducesismerelyexcrescenceorpoison。——Ofwhatusearethesciences？Uncertainanduseless，theyaffordmerelyapasture—groundforidlersandwranglers。[35]
　　"Whowouldwanttopassalifetimeinsterileobservation，ifthey，apartfromtheirdutiesandnature’sdemands，hadhadtobestowtheirtimeontheircountry，ontheunfortunateandontheirfriends！"
　　——Ofwhatusearethefinearts？Theyserveonlyaspublicflatteryofdominantpassions。"Themorepleasingandthemoreperfectthedrama，themorebanefulitsinfluence；"thetheater，evenwithMolière，isaschoolofbadmorals，"inasmuchasitexcitesdeceitfulsoulstoridicule，inthenameofcomedy，thecandorofartlesspeople。"Tragedy，saidtobemoralizing，wastesincounterfeiteffusionsthelittlevirtuethatstillremains。"Whenamanhasbeenadmiringthenoblefeatsinthefableswhatmoreisexpectedofhim？
　　Afterpayinghomagetovirtueishenotdischargedfromallthatheowestoit？Whatmorewouldtheyhavehimdo？Musthepracticeithimself？Hehasnoparttoplay，heisnotacomedian。"——Thesciences，thefinearts，theartsofluxury，philosophy，literature，allthisserveonlytoeffeminateanddistractthemind；allthatisonlymadeforthesmallcrowdofbrilliantandnoisyinsectsbuzzingaroundthesummitsofsocietyandsuckingawayallpublicsubstance。
　　——Asregardsthesciences，butoneisimportant，thatofourduties，and，withoutsomanysubtletiesandsomuchstudy，ourinnermostconsciencesufficetoshowustheway。——Asregardstheartsandtheskills，onlythoseshouldbetoleratedwhich，ministeringtoourprimenecessities，provideuswithbreadtofeedus，witharooftoshelterus，clothingtocoverus，andarmswithwhichtodefendourselves。——Inthewayofexistencethatonlyishealthywhichenablesustoliveinthecountry，artlessly，withoutdisplay，infamilyunion，devotedtocultivation，livingontheproductsofthesoilandamongneighborsthatareequalsandwithservantsthatonetrustsasfriends。[36]——Asfortheclasses，butoneisrespectable，thatoflaboringmen，especiallythatofmenworkingwiththeirownhands，artisansandmechanics，onlythesebeingreallyofservice，theonlyoneswho，throughtheirsituation，areincloseproximitytothenaturalstate，andwhopreserve，underaroughexterior，thewarmth，thegoodnessandtheintegrityofprimitiveinstincts。——Accordingly，letuscallbyitstruenamethiselegance，thisluxury，thisurbanity，thisliterarydelicacy，thisphilosophicaleccentricity，admiredbytheprejudicedastheflowerofthelifeofhumanity；itisonlymoldandmildew。Inlikemanneresteematitsjustvaluetheswarmthatliveuponit，namely，theindolentaristocracy，thefashionableworld，theprivilegedwhodirectandmakeadisplay，theidlersofthedrawingroomwhotalk，divertthemselvesandregardthemselvesastheelectofhumanity，butwhoaresimplysomanyparasites。Whetherparasiticorexcretory，oneattractstheother，andthetreecanonlybewellifwegetridofboth。
　　Ifcivilizationisbad，societyisworse。[37]Forthiscouldnothavebeenestablishedexceptbydestroyingprimitiveequality，whileitstwoprincipalinstitutions，propertyandgovernment，areencroachments。
　　"Hewhofirstenclosedaplotofground，andwhotookitintohistosaythisbelongstome，andwhofoundpeoplesimpleenoughtobelievehim，[38]wasthetruefounderofcivilsociety。Whatcrimes，whatwars，whatmurders，whatmiseryandwhathorrorswouldhavebeensparedthehumanraceifhewho，pullingupthelandmarkandfillinguptheditch，hadcriedouttohisfellows:Bewaryofthatimpostor；
　　youarelostifyouforgetthatnoonehasarighttothelandandthatitsfruitsarethepropertyofall！"——Thefirstownershipwasarobberybywhichanindividualabstractedfromthecommunityaportionofthepublicdomain。Nothingcouldjustifytheoutrage，nothingaddedbyhimtothesoil，neitherhisindustry，norhistrouble，norhisvalor。"Invainmayheassertthathebuiltthiswall，andacquiredthislandbyhislabor。Whomarkeditoutforhim，onemightask，andhowdoyoucometobepaidforlaborwhichwasneverimposedonyou？Areyounotawarethatamultitudeofyourbrethrenaresufferingandperishingwithwantbecauseyouhavetoomuch，andthattheexpressandunanimousconsentofthewholehumanspeciesisrequisitebeforeappropriatingtoyourselfmorethanyourshareofthecommonsubsistence？"——
　　Underneaththistheorywerecognizethepersonalattitude，thegrudgeofthepoorembitteredcommoner，who，onenteringsociety，findstheplacesalltaken，andwhoisincapableofcreatingoneforhimself；who，inhisconfessions，marksthedaywhenheceasedtofeelhungry；who，forlackofsomethingbetter，livesinconcubinagewithaserving—womanandplaceshisfivechildreninanorphanage；whoisinturnservant，clerk，vagabond，teacherandcopyist，alwaysonthelook—out，usinghiswitstomaintainhisindependence，disgustedwiththecontrastbetweenwhatheisoutwardlyandwhathefeelshimselfinwardly，avoidingenvyonlybydisparagement，andpreservinginthefoldsofhisheartanoldgrudge"againsttherichandthefortunateinthisworldasiftheyweresoathisexpense，asiftheirassumedhappinesshadbeenaninfringementonhishappiness。"[39]——Notonlyisthereinjusticeintheoriginofpropertybutagainthereisinjusticeinthepoweritsecurestoitself，thewrongincreasinglikeacankerunderthepartialityoflaw。
　　"Arenotalltheadvantagesofsocietyfortherichandforthepowerful？[40]Dotheynotabsorbtothemselvesalllucrativepositions？Isnotthepublicauthoritywhollyintheirinterest？Ifamanofpositionrobshiscreditorsorcommitsotheroffensesishenotcertainofimpunity？Arenottheblowshebestows，hisviolentassaults，themurdersandtheassassinationsheisguiltyof，mattersthatarehushedupandforgotteninafewmonths？——Letthissamemanberobbedandtheentirepolicesettowork，andwoetothepoorinnocentstheysuspect！——Hashetopassadangerousplace，escortsoverrunthecountry。—Iftheaxleofhiscoachbreaksdowneverybodyrunstohelphim。——Isanoisemadeathisgate，awordfromhimandallissilent。——Doesthecrowdannoyhim，hemakesasignandorderreigns。——Doesacarterchancetocrosshispath，hisattendantsarereadytoknockhimdown，whilefiftyhonestpedestriansmightbecrushedratherthandelayingarascalinhiscarriage。——
　　Alltheseconsiderationsdonotcosthimapenny。；theyarearichman’sentitlementsandnotthepriceforbeingrich。——Whatadifferentpictureofthepoor！Themorehumanityowesthemthemoreitrefusesthem。Alldoorsareclosedtothemevenwhentheyhavetherighttohavethemopened，andiftheysometimesobtainjusticetheyhavemoretroublethanothersinobtainingfavors。Ifthereisstatutelabortobecarriedout，amilitiatoraise，thepoorarethemosteligible。Italwaysbearsburdensfromwhichitswealthierneighborwithinfluencesecuresexemption。Attheleastaccidenttoapoormaneverybodyabandonshim。LethiscarttoppleoverandIregardhimasfortunateifheescapestheinsultsofthesmartcompanionsofayoungdukepassingby。Inawordallassistancefreeofchargeiswithheldfromhimintimeofneed，preciselybecausehecannotpayforit。I
　　regardhimasalostmanifheissounfortunateastobehonestandhaveaprettydaughterandapowerfulneighbor。——Letussumupinafewwordsthesocialpactofthetwoestates:
　　YouneedmebecauseIamrichandyouarepoor:letusthenmakeanagreementtogether。IwillallowyouthehonorofservingmeonconditionthatyougivemethelittlethatremainstoyouforthetroubleIhaveingoverningyou。"
　　Thisshowsthespirit，theaimandtheeffectofpoliticalsociety。
　　——Atthestart，accordingtoRousseau，itconsistedofanunfairbargain，madebyanadroitrichmanwithapoordupe，"providingnewfettersfortheweakandfreshpowerfortherich，"and，underthetitleoflegitimateproperty，consecratingtheusurpationofthesoil。
　　——Todaythecontractisstillmoreunjust"bymeansofwhichachildmaygovernanoldman，afoolleadthewise，andahandfulofpeopleliveinabundancewhilstafamishedmultitudelackthenecessitiesforlife。"Itisthenatureofinequalitytogrow；hencetheauthorityofsomeincreasesalongwiththedependenceoftherest，sothatthetwoconditions，havingatlastreachedtheirextremes，thehereditaryandperpetualobjectionofthepeopleseemstobeadivinerightequallywiththehereditaryandperpetualdespotismoftheking。
　　——Thisisthepresentsituationand，anychange，willbefortheworse。"For，[41]theoccupationofallkings，orofthosechargedwiththeirfunctions，consistswhollyoftwoobjects，toextendtheirswayabroadandtorenderitmoreabsoluteathome。"Whentheypleadsomeothercauseitisonlyapretext。"Thetermspublicgood，happinessofsubjects，thegloryofthenation，soheavilyemployedingovernmentannouncements，neverdenoteotherthandisastrouscommands，andthepeopleshudderbeforehandwhenitsmastersalludetotheirpaternalsolicitude。"——However，thisfatalpointoncereached，"thecontractwiththegovernmentisdissolved；thedespotismasteronlywhileremainingthemostpowerful，and，assoonashecanbeexpelled，itisuselessforhimtocryoutagainstviolence。"Becauserightcanonlyexistthroughconsent，andnoconsentnorrightcanexistbetweenmasterandslave。
　　Whetherbetweenonemanandanotherman，orbetweenonemanandapeople，thefollowingisanabsurdaddress:’ImakeanagreementwithyouwhollyatyourexpenseandtomyadvantagewhichIshallrespectaslongasIpleaseandwhichyoushallrespectaslongasitpleasesme。’"——
　　Onlymadmenmaysignsuchatreaty，but，asmadmen，theyarenotinaconditiontonegotiateandtheirsignatureisnotbinding。Onlythevanquishedontheground，withswordspointedattheirthroats，mayacceptsuchconditionsbut，beingunderconstraint，theirpromiseisnullandvoid。Madmenandtheconqueredmayforathousandyearshaveboundoverallsubsequentgenerations，butacontractforaminorisnotacontractforanadult，andonthechildarrivingattheageofReasonhebelongstohimself。Weatlasthavebecomeadults，andwehaveonlytomakeuseofourrightstoreducethepretensionsofthisself—styledauthoritytotheirjustvalue。Ithaspoweronitssideandnothingmore。But"apistolinthehandofabrigandisalsopower，"butdoyouthinkthatIshouldbemorallyobligedtogivehimmypurse？——IobeyonlycompelledbyforceandIwillhavemypursebackassoonasIcantakehispistolawayfromhim。
　　VII:THELOSTCHILDREN。
　　Thelostchildrenofthephilosophicparty。—Naigeon，SylvainMaréchal，Mably，Morelly。—Theentirediscreditoftraditionsandinstitutionsderivedfromit。
　　Westophere。Itispointlesstofollowthelostchildrenoftheparty，NaigeonandSylvainMaréchal，MablyandMorelly，thefanaticsthatsetatheismupasanobligatorydogmaandasuperiorduty；thesocialistswho，tosuppressegoism，proposeacommunityofproperty，andwhofoundarepublicinwhichanymanthatproposestore—
　　establish"detestableownership"shallbedeclaredanenemyofhumanity，treatedasa"ragingmaniac"andshutupinadungeonforlife。Itissufficienttohavestudiedtheoperationsoflargearmiesandofgreatcampaigns。——Withdifferentgadgetsandoppositetactics，thevariousattackshaveallhadthesameresults，alltheinstitutionshavebeenunderminedfrombelow。Thegoverningideologyhaswithdrawnallauthorityfromcustom，fromreligion，fromtheState。Notonlyisitassumedthattraditioninitselfisfalse，butagainthatitisharmfulthroughitsworks，thatitbuildsupinjusticeonerror，andthatbyrenderingmanblinditleadshimtooppress。Henceforthitisoutlawed。Letthis"loathsomething"withitssupportersbecrushedout。Itisthegreatevilofthehumanspecies，and，whensuppressed，onlygoodnesswillremain。
　　"Thetimewillthencome[42]whenthesunwillshineonlyonfreemenrecognizingnoothermasterthanReason；whentyrantsandslaves，andpriestswiththeirsenselessorhypocriticalinstrumentswillexistonlyinhistoryandonthestage；whenattentionwillnolongerbebestowedonthemexcepttopitytheirvictimsandtheirdupes，keepingoneselfvigilantandusefulthroughhorroroftheirexcesses，andabletorecognizeandextinguishbytheforceofReasonthefirstgermsofsuperstitionandoftyranny，shouldtheyeverventuretoreappear。"
　　ThemillenniumisdawninganditisoncemoreReason，whichshouldsetitup。Inthiswayweshalloweeverythingtoitssalutaryauthority，thefoundationoftheneworderofthingsaswellasthedestructionoftheoldone。
　　NOTES:
　　[1]"DiscoursdelaMethode。"
　　[2]ThisisevidentwithDescartesinthesecondstephetakes。（Thetheoryofpurespirit，theideaofGod，theproofofhisexistence，theveracityofourintelligencedemonstratedtheveracityofGod，etc。）
　　[3]SeePascal，"Pensées"（ontheoriginofpropertyandrank）。The"Provinciales"（onhomicideandtherighttokill）。——Nicole，"Deuxièmetraitédelacharité，etdel’amour—propre"（onthenaturalmanandtheobjectofsociety）。Bossuet，"Politiquetiréedel’Ecrituresainte。"LaBruyère，"DesEspritsforts。"
　　[4]Cf。Sir。JohnLubbock，"OriginedelaCivilisation。"——
　　Gerand—Teulon，"LesOriginesdelafamille。"
　　[5]TheprincipleofcasteinIndia；weseethisinthecontrastbetweentheAryansandtheaborigines，theSoudrasandthePariahs。
　　[6]InaccordancewiththisprincipletheinhabitantsoftheSandwichIslandspassedalawforbiddingthesaleofliquortothenativesandallowingittoEuropeans。（DeVarigny，"QuatorzeansauxilesSandwich。"）
　　[7]Cf。LePlay，"Del’Organizationdelafamille，"（thehistoryofadomaininthePyrenees。）
　　[8]See，especially，inBrahminliteraturethegreatmetaphysicalpoemsandthePuranas。
　　[9]Montaigne（1533—92）apparentlyalsohad’sympatheticimagination’whenhewrote:"Iammosttenderlysymphathetictowardstheafflictionsofothers，"（"OnCruelty"）。（SR。）
　　[10]Voltaire，"Dic。Phil。"thearticleonPunishments。
　　[11]"Resumédescahiers，"byPrud’homme，preface，1789。
　　[12]Voltaire，Dialogues，EntretiensentreA。B。C。
　　[13]Voltaire，"Dict。Phil。，"thearticleonReligion。"Ifthereisahamlettobegoverneditmusthaveareligion。"
　　[14]"Lerêveded’Alembert，"byDiderot，passim。
　　[15]"Ifamisanthrope（ahaterofmankind）hadproposedtohimselftoinjurehumanitywhatcouldhehaveinventedbetterthanfaithinanincomprehensiblebeing，aboutwhichmennevercouldcometoanyagreement，andtowhichtheywouldattachmoreimportancethantotheirownexistence？"Diderot，"Entretiend’unphilosopheaveclaMaréchalede……"（AndthatisjustwhatourMarxistsociologist，psychologistsetchavedoneininventingahumanbeingbereftofthoseemotionswhichinotheranimalsforcethemtogiveintotheirmaternal，paternalandleadershipinstinctstherebymakingthemhappyintheprocess……SR。）
　　[16]Cf。"CatéchismeUniversel，"bySaint—Lambert，andthe"LoinaturelleouCatéchismeducitoyenfran？ais，"byVolney。
　　[17]"SupplémentauvoyagedeBougainville。"
　　[18]Cf。"MémoiresdeMm。D’Epinay，"aconversationwithDuclosandSaint—LambertatthehouseofMlle。Quinault。—Rousseau’s"Confessions，"partI，bookV。ThesearethesameprinciplestaughtbyM。delaTaveltoMme。DeWarens。
　　[19]"Suitedurêveded’Alembert。""EntretienentreMlls。deLespinasseetBordeu。"—"MémoiresdeDiderot，"alettertoMlle。
　　Volant，III。66。
　　[20]Cf。hisadmirabletales，"Entretiensd’unpèreavecsesenfants，"and"LeneveudeRameau。"
　　[21]Volney，ibid。"Thenaturallaw……consistswhollyofeventswhoserepetitionmaybeobservedthroughthesensesandwhichcreateascienceaspreciseandaccurateasgeometryandmathematics。"
　　[22]Helvétius，"Del’Esprit。"passim。
　　[23]Volney，ibid。Chap。III。Saint—Lambert，ibid。Thefirstdialogue。
　　[24]D’Holbach，"SystemedelaNature，"II。408493。
　　[25]D’Holbach，"Systèmedelanature，"I。347。
　　[26]Diderot，"SupplémentauvoyagedeBougainville。"
　　[27]Diderot，"LesEleuthéromanes。"
　　Etsesmains，ourdissantlesentraillesduprêtre，Enferaientuncordonpourledernierdesrois。
　　Brissot:"Necessitybeingthesoletitletopropertytheresultisthatwhenawantissatisfiedmanisnolongerapropertyowner……
　　Twoprimenecessitiesareduetotheanimalconstitution，foodandwaste……Maymennourishthemselvesontheirfallencreatures？
　　（Yesfor）allbeingsmayjustlynourishthemselvesonanymaterialcalculatedtosupplytheirwants……Manofnature，fulfillyourdesire，giveheedtoyourcravings，yoursolemastersandyouronlyguide。Doyoufeelyourveinsthrobbingwithinwardfiresatthesightofacharmingcreature？Sheisyours，yourcaressesareinnocentandyourkissespure。Lovealoneentitlestoenjoymentashungeristhewarrantforproperty。"（Anessaypublishedin1780，andreprintedin1782inthe"BibliothèqueduLégislateur，"quotedbyRouxandBuchez"Histoireparlementaire，"XIII，431。
　　[28]ThewordsofRousseauhimself（"RousseaujugedeJan—Jacques，"
　　thirddialogue，p193）:Fromwhencemaythepainterandapologistofnature，nowsodisfiguredandsocalumniated，derivehismodelifnotfromhisownheart？"
　　[29]"Confessions，"BookI。p。1，andtheendofthefifthbook。——
　　FirstlettertoM。deMalesherbes:"Iknowmygreatfaults，andamprofoundlysensibleofmyvices。EvensoIshalldiewiththeconvictionthatofallthemenIhaveencounterednoonewasbetterthanmyself"。——ToMadameB———，March16，1770，hewrites:"Youhaveawardedmeesteemformywritings；youresteemwouldbeyetgreaterformylifeifitwereopentoyouinspection，andstillgreaterformyheartifitwereexposedtoyourview。Neverwasthereabetterone，aheartmoretenderormorejust……Mymisfortunesareallduetomyvirtues。"——ToMadamedelaTour，"Whoeverisnotenthusiasticinmybehalfinunworthyofme。"
　　[30]LettertoM。deBeaumont。p。24。—RousseaujugedeJean—
　　Jacques，troisièmeentretien，193。
　　[31]"Emile，"bookI，andthelettertoM。deBeaumont，passim。
　　[32]ArticleI。"AllFrenchmenshallbevirtuous。"ArticleII。"AllFrenchmenshallbehappy。"DraftofaconstitutionfoundamongthepapersofSismondi，atthattimeinschool。（MyFrenchdictionarywrites:"SISMONDI，（JeanCharlesLéonardSimondede）Genève，1773—
　　id。1842，SwisshistorianandeconomistofItalianorigin。HewasaforerunnerofdirigismeandhadinfluencedMarxwithhisbook:
　　"Nouveauxprincipesd’économiepolitique。1819。SR。）
　　[33]"Confessions，"part2，bookIX。368。"Icannotcomprehendhowanyonecanconverseinacircle……Istammeroutafewwords，withnomeaninginthem，asquicklyasIcan，verygladiftheyconveynosense……IshouldbeasfondofsocietyasanybodyifIwerenotcertainofappearingnotmerelytodisadvantagebutwhollydifferentfromwhatIreallyam。"——Cf。inthe"NouvelleHéloise，"
　　2ndpart，theletterofSaint—PreuxonParis。Alsoin"Emilie，"theendofbookIV。
　　[34]"Confessions，"part2，IX。361。"Iwassowearyofdrawing—
　　rooms，ofjetsofwater，ofbowers，offlower—bedsandofthosethatshowedthemtome；Iwassooverwhelmedwithpamphlets，harpsichords，games，knots，stupidwitticisms，simperinglooks，pettystory—tellersandheavysuppers，thatwhenIspiedoutacornerinahedge，abush，abarn，ameadow，orwhen，onpassingthroughahamlet，Icaughtthesmellofagoodparsleyomelet……Isenttothedevilalltherouge，frills，flouncesandperfumery，and，regrettingaplaindinnerandcommonwine，IwouldgladlyhaveclosedthemouthofboththeheadcookandthebutlerwhoforcedmetodinewhenIgenerallysup，andtosupwhenagenerallygotobed，but，especiallythelackeysthatenviedmeeverymorselIateandwho，attheriskofmydyingwiththirst，soldmethedruggedwineoftheirmasterattentimesthepriceIwouldhavetopayforabetterwineatatavern。"
　　[35]"Discourssurl’influencedessciencesetdesarts"——Thelettertod’Alembertontheatricalperformances。
　　[36]DoesitnotreadlikeadeclarationofintentforformingaKibbutz？（SR。）
　　[37]"Thehighsociety（Lasocieté）isasnaturaltothehumanspeciesasdecrepitudetotheindividual。Thepeoplerequirearts，laws，andgovernments，asoldmenrequirecrutches。"SeetheletterM。
　　Philopolis，p。248。
　　[38]Seethediscourseonthe"Originedel’Inégalite，"passim。
　　[39]"Emile，"bookIV。Rousseau’snarrative。P。13。
　　[40]"Discourssurl’économiepolitique，"326。
　　[41]"Discourssurl’Originedel’Inégalité，"178，"ContratSocial，"I。ch。IV。
　　[42]Condorcet，"Tableaudesprogrèsdel’esprithumain，"thetenthepoch。
　　CHAPTERIV。ORGANIZINGTHEFUTURESOCIETY。
　　I。LIBERTY，EQUALITYANDSOVEREIGNTYOFTHEPEOPLE。
　　Themathematicalmethod。—Definitionofmanintheabstract。—Thesocialcontract。—Independenceandequalityofthecontractors。—Allequalbeforethelawandeachsharinginthesovereignty。
　　Considerfuturesocietyasitappearsatthismomenttoourlegislatorsintheirstudy，andbearinmindthatitwillsoonappearunderthesameaspecttothelegislatorsoftheAssembly。—Intheireyesthedecisivemomenthascome。Henceforthtwohistoriesaretoexist；[1]one，thatofthepast，theother，thatofthefuture，formerlyahistoryofManstilldeprivedofhisreason，andatpresentthehistoryoftherationalhumanbeing。Theruleofrightisatlasttobegin。Ofallthatthepastgenerationshavefoundedandtransmittednothingislegitimate。OverlayingthenaturalMantheycreatedanartificialMan，eitherecclesiasticorlaic，nobleorcommoner，sovereignorsubject，proprietororproletary，ignorantorcultivated，peasantorcitizen，slaveormaster，allbeingphonyqualitieswhichwearenottoheed，astheiroriginistaintedwithviolenceandrobbery。Stripoffthesesuperfluousgarments；letustakeManinhimself，thesameunderallconditions，inallsituations，inallcountries，inallages，andstrivetoascertainwhatsortofassociationisthebestadaptedtohim。Theproblemthusstated，therestfollows。—Inaccordancewiththecustomsoftheclassicmentality，andwiththepreceptsoftheprevailingideology，apoliticalsystemisnowconstructedafteramathematicalmodel。[2]A
　　simplestatementisselected，andsetapart，verygeneral，familiar，readilyapparent，andeasilyunderstoodbythemostignorantandinattentiveschoolboy。Rejecteverydifference，whichseparatesonemanfromothermen；retainofhimonlytheportioncommontohimandtoothers。TheremainderconstitutesManingeneral，orinotherwords，"asensitiveandrationalbeingwho，thusendowed，avoidspainandseekspleasure，"andthereforeaspiringtohappiness，namely，astableconditioninwhichoneenjoysgreaterpleasurethanpain，"[3]or，again，"asensitivebeingcapableofformingrationalopinionsandofacquiringmoralideas。"[4]
　　Anyone（theysay）maybyhimselfexperiencethiselementaryidea，andcanverifyitatthefirstglance。Suchisthesocialunit；letseveralofthesebecombined，athousand，ahundredthousand，amillion，twenty—sixmillions，andyouhavetheFrenchpeople。Menbornattwenty—oneyearsofage，withoutrelations，withoutapast，withouttraditions，withoutacountry，aresupposedtobeassembledforthefirsttimeand，forthefirsttime，totreatwitheachother。Inthisposition，atthemomentofcontractingtogether，allareequal:for，asthedefinitionstates，theextrinsicandspuriousqualitiesthroughwhichalonealldifferhavebeenrejected。Allarefree；for，accordingtothedefinition，theunjustthralldomimposedonallbybruteforceandbyhereditaryprejudicehasbeensuppressed。—Butifallmenareequal，noreasonexistswhy，inthiscontract，anyspecialadvantageshouldbeconcededtoonemorethantoanother。Accordinglyallshallbeequalbeforethelaw；noperson，orfamily，orclass，shallbeallowedanyprivilege；nooneshallclaimarightofwhichanothermightbedeprived；nooneshallbesubjecttoanydutyfromanotherisexempt。—Ontheotherhand，allbeingfree，eachenterswithafreewillalongwiththegroupofwillsconstitutethenewcommunity；itisnecessarythatinthecommonresolutionsheshouldfullyconcur。Onlyontheseconditionsdoeshebindhimself；heisboundtorespectlawsonlybecausehehasassistedinmakingthem，andtoobeymagistratesonlybecausehehasaidedinelectingthem。