Suchisthecoursetobepursuedwithallthesciences，andespeciallywiththemoralandpoliticalsciences。Toconsiderinturneachdistinctprovinceofhumanactivity，todecomposetheleadingnotionsoutofwhichweformourconceptions，thoseofreligion，societyandgovernment，thoseofutility，wealthandexchange，thoseofjustice，rightandduty。Toreverttomanifestfacts，tofirstexperiences，tothesimplecircumstancesinwhichtheelementsofourideasareincluded；toextricatefromthesethepreciouslodewithoutomissionormixture；torecomposeourideawiththese，todefineitsmeaninganddetermineitsvalue；tosubstituteforthevagueandvulgarnotionwithwhichwestartedouttheprecisescientificdefinitionwearriveat，andfortheimpuremetalwereceivedtherefinedmetalwerecovered，constitutedtheprevalentmethodtaughtbythephilosophersunderthenameofanalysis，andwhichsumsupthewholeprogressofthecentury。—Uptothispoint，andnotfarther，theyareright；truth，everytruth，isfoundinobservablethings，andonlyfromthesecanitbederived；thereisnootherpathwayleadingtodiscovery。—Theoperation，undoubtedly，isproductiveonlywhentheveinisrich，andwepossessthemeansofextractingtheore。Toobtainajustnotionofgovernment，ofreligion，ofright，ofwealth，amanmustbeahistorianbeforehand，ajurisconsultandeconomist，andhavegatheredupmyriadoffacts；and，besidesallthis，hemustpossessavasterudition，anexperiencedandprofessionalperspicacity。Iftheseconditionsareonlypartiallycompliedwith，theresultwillonlybeahalffinishedproductoradoubtfulalloy，afewroughdraftsofthesciences，therudimentsofpedagogyaswithRousseau，ofpoliticaleconomywithQuesnay，Smith，andTurgot，oflinguisticswithDesBrosses，andofarithmeticalmoralsandcriminallegislationwithBentham。Finally，ifnoneoftheseconditionsarecompliedwith，thesameeffortswill，inthehandsofphilosophicalamateursandoratoricalcharlatans，undoubtedlyonlyproducemischievouscompoundsanddestructiveexplosions。—Neverthelessgoodprocedureremainsgoodevenwhenignorantandtheimpetuousmenmakeabaduseofit；andifweoftodayresumetheabortiveeffortoftheeighteenthcentury，itshouldbewithintheguidelinestheysetout。
　　Notes:
　　[1]。"Philosophi？naturalisprincipia，"1687；"Optics，"1704。
　　[2]SeeconcerningthisdevelopmentComte’s"PhilosophiePositive，"
　　vol。I。—Atthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury，mathematicalinstrumentsarecarriedtosuchperfectionastowarrantthebeliefthatallphysicalphenomenamaybeanalyzed，light，electricity，sound，crystallization，heat，elasticity，cohesionandothereffectsofmolecularforces。—See"Whewell’sHistoryoftheInductiveSciences。II。，III。
　　[3]ThetravelsofLaCondamineinPeruandofMaupertuisinLapland。
　　[4]Buffon，"Théoriedelaterre，"1749；"EpoquesdelaNature，"
　　1788。—"Cartegéologiquedel’Auvergne，"byDesmarets，1766。
　　[5]SeealecturebyM。Lacaze—DuthieronLamarck，"RevueScientifique，"III。276—311。
　　[6]Buffon，"HistoireNaturelle，II。340:"Alllivingbeingscontainavastquantityoflivingandactivemolecules。Vegetalandanimallifeseemtobeonlytheresultoftheactionsofallthesmalllivespeculiartoeachoftheactivemoleculeswhoselifeisprimitive。"Cf。Diderot，"Revued’Alembert。"
　　[8]"PhilosophiedeNewton，"1738，and"Physique，"byVoltaire。—
　　Cf。duBois—Raymond，"Voltairephysician，"（RevuedesCoursScientifique，V。539），andSaigey，"laPhysiquedeVoltaire，"—"HadVoltaire，"writesLordBrougham，"continuedtodevotehimselftoexperimentalphysicshewouldundoubtedlyhaveinscribedhisnameamongthoseofthegreatestdiscoverersofhisage。"
　　[9]Seehis"LanguedesCalculs，"andhis"ArtdeRaisonner。"
　　[10]ForapopularexpositionoftheseideasseeVoltaire，passim，andparticularlythe"Micromégas"and"LesOreillesduComtedeChesterfield。"
　　[11]Cf。Buffon，ibid……I。31:"Thosewhoimagineareplywithfinalcausesdonotreflectthattheytaketheeffectforthecause。
　　Therelationshipwhichthingsbeartoushavingnoinfluencewhateverontheirorigin，moralconveniencecanneverbecomeaphysicalexplanation。"—Voltaire，"Candide":"WhenHisHighMightinesssendsavesseltoEgyptisheinanyrespectembarrassedaboutthecomfortofthemicethathappentobeaboardofit？"
　　[12]Buffon，ibid……"Supplement，"II。513；IV。（"EpoquesdelaNature"），65，167。Accordingtohisexperimentswiththecoolingofacannonballhebasedthefollowingperiods:Fromtheglowingfluidmassoftheplanettothefallofrain35，000years。Fromthebeginningoflifetoitsactualcondition40，000years。Fromitsactualconditiontotheentirecongealingofitandtheextinctionoflife93，000years。Hegivesthesefiguressimplyastheminima。Wenowknowthattheyaremuchtoolimited。
　　[13]Buffon，HistoireNaturelle，ib。I。12:"Thefirsttruthderivedfromthispatientinvestigationofnatureis，perhaps，ahumiliatingtruthforman，thatoftakinghisplaceintheorderofanimals。"
　　[14]Voltaire，"Philosophie，Duprinciped’action:""Allbeings，withoutexception，aresubjecttoinvariablelaws。"
　　[15]Voltaire"EssaysurlesM？urs，"，chap。CXLVII。，thesummary；
　　"Theintelligentreaderreadilyperceivesthathemustbelieveonlyinthosegreateventswhichappearplausible，andviewwithpitythefableswithwhichfanaticism，romantictasteandcredulityhaveatalltimesfilledtheworld。"
　　[16]Notethisexpression，"exegeticalmethods"。（Chambersdefinesanexegetistasonewhointerpretsorexpounds。）TainereferstomethodswhichshouldallowtheJacobins，socialists，communists，andotherideologiststo，fromanirrefutableideaorexpression，todeduct，infer，concludeanddrawfirmand，tothem，irrefutableconclusions。（SR。）
　　[17]"TraitédeMetaphysique，"chap。I。"Havingfallenonthislittleheapofmud，andwithnomoreideaofmanthanmanhasoftheinhabitantsofMarsandJupiter，IsetfootontheshoreoftheoceanofthecountryofCaffrariaandatoncebegantosearchforaman。I
　　encountermonkeys，elephantsandNegroes，withgleamsofimperfectintelligence，etc"—Thenewmethodishereclearlyapparent。
　　[18]"Introductionàl’EssaysurlesM？urs:DesSauvages。"—
　　Buffon，in"Epoquesdelanature，"theseventhepoch，precedesDarwininhisideasonthemodificationsoftheusefulspeciesofanimals。
　　[19]Voltaire，"Remarquesdel’essaysurlesM？urs。""Wemayspeakofthispeopleinconnectionwiththeologybuttheyarenotentitledtoaprominentplaceinhistory。"—"EntretienentreA，B，C，"theseventh。
　　[20]Franklindefinedmanasamakeroftools。
　　[21]Condorcet，"Esquissed’untableauhistoriquedesprogrèsdel’esprithumain。"
　　[22]Montesquieu:"EspritdesLois，"preface。"I，atfirst，examinedmen，thinkingthat，inthisinfinitediversityoflawsandcustoms，theywerenotwhollygovernedbytheirfancies。IbroughtprinciplestobearandIfoundspecialcasesyieldingtothemasifnaturally，thehistoriesofallnationsbeingsimplytheresultofthese，eachspeciallawbeingconnectedwithanotherlawordependingonsomegenerallaw。"
　　[23]Pinel，（1791），Esquirol（1838），onmentaldiseases。—
　　Prochaska，Legallois（1812）andthenFlourensforvivisection。—
　　HartleyandJamesMillattheendoftheeighteenthcenturyfollowCondillaconthesamepsychologicalroad；allcontemporarypsychologistshaveentereduponit。（Wundt，Helmholz，Fechner，inGermany，Bain，StuartMill，HerbertSpencerandCarpenter，inEngland）。
　　[24]Condillac，passim，andespeciallyinhislasttwoworksthe"Logique，"andthe"LanguedesCalculs。"
　　CHAPTERII。THECLASSICSPIRIT，THESECONDELEMENT。
　　Thisgrandandmagnificentsystemofnewtruthsresemblesatowerofwhichthefirststory，quicklyfinished，atoncebecomesaccessibletothepublic。Thepublicascendsthestructureandisrequestedbyitsconstructorstolookabout，notattheskyandatsurroundingspace，butrightbeforeit，towardstheground，sothatitmayatlastbecomefamiliarwiththecountryinwhichitlives。Certainly，thepointofviewisgood，andtheadviceiswellthought—out。Theconclusionthatthepublicwillhaveanaccurateviewisnotwarranted，forthestateofitseyesmustbeexamined，toascertainwhetheritisnearorfar—sighted，oriftheretinanaturally，orthroughhabit，issensitivetocertaincolors。InthesamewaytheFrenchoftheeighteenthcenturymustbeconsidered，thestructureoftheirinwardvision，thatistosay，thefixedformoftheirintelligencewhichtheyarebringingwiththem，unknowinglyandunwillingly，upupontheirnewtower。
　　I。THROUGHCOLOREDGLASSES。
　　Itssigns，durationandpower。—Itsoriginandpublicsupporters。
　　—Itsvocabulary，grammarandstyle。—Itsmethod，meritsanddefects。
　　Thisfixedintelligenceconsistsoftheclassicspirit，whichappliedtothescientificacquisitionsoftheperiod，producesthephilosophyofthecenturyandthedoctrinesoftheRevolution。Varioussignsdenoteitspresence，andnotablyitsoratorical，regularandcorrectstyle，whollyconsistingofready—madephrasesandcontiguousideas。Itlaststwocenturies，fromMalherbeandBalzactoDelilleanddeFontanes，andduringthislongperiod，nomanofintellect，savetwoorthree，andthenonlyinprivatememoirs，asinthecaseofSaint—Simon，alsoinfamiliarletterslikethoseofthemarquisandbaillydeMirabeau，eitherdaresorcanwithdrawhimselffromitsempire。Farfromdisappearingwiththeancientregimeitformsthematrixoutofwhicheverydiscourseanddocumentissues，eventhephrasesandvocabularyoftheRevolution。Now，whatismoreeffectivethanaready—mademold，enforced，accepted，inwhichbyvirtueofnaturaltendency，oftraditionandofeducation，everyonecanenclosetheirthinking？Thisone，accordingly，isahistoricforce，andofthehighestorder；tounderstanditletusconsiderhowitcameintobeing。——Itappearedtogetherwiththeregularmonarchyandpoliteconversation，anditaccompaniesthese，notaccidentally，butnaturallyandautomatically。Foritisproductofthenewsociety，ofthenewregimeanditscustoms:Imeanofanaristocracyleftidleduetheencroachingmonarchy，ofpeoplewellbornandwelleducatedwho，withdrawnfrompublicactivity，fallbackonconversationandpasstheirleisuresamplingthedifferentseriousorrefinedpleasuresoftheintellect。[1]Eventually，theyhavenootherrolenorinterestthantotalk，tolisten，toentertainthemselvesagreeablyandwithease，onallsubjects，graveorgay，whichmayinterestmenorevenwomenofsociety，that’stheirgreataffair。Intheseventeenthcenturytheyarecalled"leshonnêtesgens"[2]andfromnowonawriter，eventhemostabstract，addresseshimselftothem。"A
　　gentleman，"saysDescartes，"neednothavereadallbooksnorhavestudiouslyacquiredallthatistaughtintheschools；"andheentitleshislasttreatise，"AsearchforTruthaccordingtonaturallight，whichalone，withoutaidofReligionorPhilosophy，determinesthetruthsagentlemanshouldpossessonallmattersformingthesubjectsofhisthoughts。"[3]Inshort，fromoneendofhisphilosophytotheother，theonlyqualificationhedemandsofhisreadersis"naturalgoodsense"addedtothecommonstockofexperienceacquiredbycontactwiththeworld。—Asthesemakeuptheaudiencetheyarelikewisethejudges。"Onemuststudythetasteofthecourt，"saysMolière，[4]"forinnoplaceareverdictsmorejust……Withsimplecommonsenseandintercoursewithpeopleofrefinement，ahabitofmindisthereobtainedwhich，withoutcomparison，formsamoreaccurate，judgmentofthingsthantherustyattainmentsofthepedants。"Fromthistimeforth，itmaybesaidthatthearbiteroftruthandoftasteisnot，asbefore，aneruditeScaliger，butamanoftheworld，aLaRochefoucauld，oraTréville。[5]Thepedantand，afterhim，thesavant，thespecialist，issetaside。"Truehonestpeople，"saysNicoleafterPascal，"requirenosign。Theyneednotbedivined；theyjoinintheconversationgoingonastheyentertheroom。Theyarenotstyledeitherpoetsorsurveyors，buttheyarethejudgesofallthese。"[6]Intheeighteenthcenturytheyconstitutethesovereignauthority。Inthegreatcrowdofblockheadssprinkledwithpedants，thereis，saysVoltaire，"asmallgroupapartcalledgoodsociety，which，rich，educatedandpolished，forms，youmightsay，theflowerofhumanity；itisforthisgroupthatthegreatestmenhavelabored；itisthisgroupwhichaccordssocialrecognition。"[7]
　　Admiration，favor，importance，belongnottothosewhoareworthyofitbuttothosewhoaddressthemselvestothisgroup。"In1789，"saidtheAbbéMaury，"theFrenchAcademyaloneenjoyedanyesteeminFrance，anditreallybestowedastanding。ThatoftheSciencessignifiednothinginpublicopinion，anymorethanthatofInscriptions……Thelanguagesisconsideredascienceforfools。
　　D’AlembertwasashamedofbelongingtotheAcademyofSciences。Onlyahandfulofpeoplelistentoamathematician，achemist，etc。butthemanofletters，thelecturer，hastheworldathisfeet。"[8]—Undersuchastrongpressurethemindnecessarilyfollowsaliteraryandverbalrouteinconformitywiththeexigencies，theproprieties，thetastes，andthedegreeofattentionandofinstructionofitspublic。[9]Hencetheclassicmold，—formedoutofthehabitofspeaking，writingandthinkingforadrawingroomaudience。[10]
　　Thisisimmediatelyevidentinitsstyleandlanguage。BetweenAmyot，RabelaisandMontaigneontheonehand，andChateaubriand，VictorHugoandHonorédeBalzacontheother，classicFrenchcomesintobeinganddies。Fromtheveryfirstitisdescribedatthelanguageof"honestpeople。"Itisfashionednotmerelyforthem，butbythem，andVaugelas，[11]theirsecretary，devoteshimselfforthirtyyearstotheregistryofdecisionsaccordingtotheusagesonlyofgoodsociety。Hence，throughout，bothinvocabularyandingrammar，thelanguageisrefashionedoverandoveragain，accordingtothecastoftheirintellects，whichistheprevailingintellect。—
　　Inthefirstplacethevocabularyisdiminished:
　　*Mostofthewordsspeciallyemployedoneruditeandtechnicalsubjects，expressionsthataretooGreekortooLatin，termspeculiartotheschools，toscience，tooccupations，tothehousehold，areexcludedfromdiscourse；
　　*thosetoocloselydenotingaparticularoccupationorprofessionarenotconsideredproperingeneralconversation。
　　*Avastnumberofpicturesqueandexpressivewordsaredropped，allthatarecrude，gauloisornaifs，allthatarelocalandprovincial，orpersonalandmade—up，allfamiliarandproverbiallocutions，[12]manybrusque，familiarandfrankturnsofthought，everyhaphazard，tellingmetaphor，almosteverydescriptionofimpulsiveanddexterousutterancethrowingaflashoflightintotheimaginationandbringingintoviewtheprecise，coloredandcompleteform，butofwhichatoovividimpressionwouldruncountertotheproprietiesofpoliteconversation。
　　"Oneimproperword，"saidVaugelas，"isallthatisnecessarytobringapersoninsocietyintocontempt，"
　　and，ontheeveoftheRevolution，anobjectionabletermdenouncedbyMadamedeLuxembourgstillconsignsamantotherankof"espèces，"
　　becausecorrectexpressioniseveranelementofgoodmanners。—
　　Language，throughthisconstantscratching，isattenuatedandbecomescolorless:Vaugelasestimatesthatone—halfofthephrasesandtermsemployedbyAmyotaresetaside。[13]WiththeexceptionofLaFontaine，anisolatedandspontaneousgenius，whoreopenstheoldsources，andLaBruyère，aboldseeker，whoopensafreshsource，andVoltaireanincarnatedemonwho，inhisanonymousandpseudonymouswritings，givesthereintotheviolent，crudeexpressionsofhisinspiration，[14]thetermswhicharemostappropriatefallintodesuetude。Oneday，Gresset，inadiscourseattheAcademy，daresutterfourorfiveofthese，[15]relating，Ibelieve，tocarriagesandhead—dresses，whereuponmurmursatonceburstforth。Duringhislongretreathehadbecomeprovincialandlostthetouch。—Bydegrees，discoursesarecomposedof"generalexpressions"only。Theseareevenemployed，inaccordancewithBuffon’sprecept，todesignateconcreteobjects。Theyaremoreinconformitywiththepolishedcourtesywhichsmoothesover，appeases，andavoidsroughorfamiliarexpressions，towhichsomeviewsappeargrossorrudeunlesspartlyhiddenbyaveil。
　　Thismakesiteasierforthesuperficiallistener；prevailingtermsalonewillimmediatelyarousecurrentandcommonideas；theyareintelligibletoeverymanfromthesinglefactthathebelongstothedrawing—room；specialterms，onthecontrary，demandaneffortofthememoryoroftheimagination。Supposethat，inrelationtoFranksortosavages，Ishouldmention"abattle—ax，"whichwouldbeatonceunderstood；shouldImentiona"tomahawk，"ora"francisque，"[16]manywouldimaginethatIwasspeakingTeutonorIroquois。[17]Inthisrespectthemorefashionableandrefinedthestyle，themorepunctilioustheeffort。Everyappropriatetermisbanishedfrompoetry；ifonehappenstoentertheminditmustbeevadedorreplacedbyaparaphrase。Aneighteenthcenturypoetcanhardlypermithimselftoemploymorethanone—thirdofthedictionary，poeticlanguageatlastbecomessorestrictedastocompelamanwithanythingtosaynottoexpresshimselfinverse。[18]
　　Ontheotherhandthemoreyouprunethemoreyouthinout。ReducedtoaselectvocabularytheFrenchmandealswithfewersubjects，buthedescribesthemmoreagreeablyandmoreclearly。"Courtesy，accuracy"，（Urbanité，exactitude！），thesetwowords，bornatthesametimewiththeFrenchAcademy，describesinanutshellthereformofwhichitisthetool，andwhichthedrawing—room，byit，andalongsideofit，imposesonthepublic。Grandseigniorsinretirement，andunoccupiedfineladies，enjoytheexaminationofthesubtletiesofwordsforthepurposeofcomposingmaxims，definitionsandcharacters。Withadmirablescrupulousnessandinfinitelydelicatetact，writersandpeoplesocietyapplythemselvestoweighingeachwordandeachphraseinordertofixitssense，tomeasureitsforceandbearing，todetermineitsaffinities，useandconnectionsThisworkofprecisioniscarriedonfromtheearliestacademicians，Vaugelas，ChapelainandConrart，totheendoftheclassicepoch，intheSynonymesbyBauzéeandbyGirard，intheRemarquebyDuclos，intheCommentairebyVoltaireonCorneille，intheLycéebylaHarpe，[19]intheefforts，theexample，thepracticeandtheauthorityofthegreatandtheinferiorwritersofwhichallarecorrect。Neverdidarchitects，obligedtouseordinarybrokenhighwaystonesinbuilding，betterunderstandeachpiece，itsdimensions，itsshape，itsresistance，itspossibleconnectionsandsuitableposition。—Oncethiswaslearned，thetaskwastoconstructwiththeleasttroubleandwiththeutmostsolidity；thegrammarwasconsequentlychangedatthesametimeandinthesamewayasthedictionary。Hencenolongerpermittingthewordstoreflectthewayimpressionsandemotionswerefelt；theynowhadtoberegularlyandrigorouslyassignedaccordingtotheinvariablehierarchyofconcepts。Thewritermaynolongerbeginhistextwiththeleadingfigureorthemainpurposeofhisstory；thesettingisgivenandtheplacesassignedbeforehand。Eachpartofthediscoursehasitsownplace；noomissionortranspositionispermitted，aswasdoneinthesixteenthcentury[20]。Allpartsmustbeincluded，eachinitsdefiniteplace:atfirstthesubjectofthesentencewithitsappendices，thentheverb，thentheobjectdirect，and，finally，theindirectconnections。Inthiswaythesentenceformsagraduatedscaffolding，thesubstancecomingforemost，thenthequality，thenthemodesandvarietiesofthequality，justasagoodarchitectinthefirstplaceposeshisfoundation，thenthebuilding，thentheaccessories，economicallyandprudently，withaviewtoadapteachsectionoftheedificetothesupportofthesectionfollowingafterit。Nosentencedemandsanylessattentionthananother，noristhereanyinwhichonemaynotateverystepverifytheconnectionorincoherenceoftheparts。[21]—Theprocedureusedinarrangingasimplesentencealsogovernsthatoftheperiod，theparagraphandtheseriesofparagraphs；itformsthestyleasitformsthesyntax。Eachsmalledificeoccupiesadistinctposition，andbutone，inthegreattotaledifice。Asthediscourseadvances，eachsectionmustinturnfilein，neverbefore，neverafter，noparasiticmemberbeingallowedtointrude，andnoregularmemberbeingallowedtoencroachonitsneighbor，whileallthesemembersboundtogetherbytheirverypositionsmustmoveonward，combiningalltheirforcesononesinglepoint。Finally，wehaveforthefirsttimeinawriting，naturalanddistinctgroups，completeandcompactharmonies，noneofwhichinfringeontheothersorallowotherstoinfringeonthem。Itisnolongerallowabletowritehaphazard，accordingtothecapriceofone’sinspiration，todischargeone’sideasinbulk，toletoneselfbeinterruptedbyparentheses，tostringalonginterminablerowsofcitationsandenumerations。Anendisproposed；sometruthistobedemonstrated，somedefinitiontobeascertained，someconvictiontobebroughtabout；todothiswemustmarch，andeverdirectlyonward。
　　Order，sequence，progress，propertransitions，constantdevelopmentconstitutethecharacteristicsofthisstyle。Tosuchanextentisthispushed，thatfromtheveryfirst，personalcorrespondence，romances，humorouspieces，andallironicalandgallanteffusions，consistofmorselsofsystematiceloquence。[22]AttheH？telRambouillet，theexplanatoryperiodisdisplayedwithasmuchfullnessandasrigorouslyaswithDescarteshimself。OneofthewordsmostfrequentlyoccurringwithMme。deScudéryistheconjunctionfor（inFrenchcar）。Passionisworkedoutthroughclose—knitarguments。
　　Drawingroomcomplimentsstretchalonginsentencesasfinishedasthoseofanacademicaldissertation。Scarcelycompleted，theinstrumentalreadydisclosesitsaptitudes。Weareawareofitsbeingmadetoexplain，todemonstrate，topersuadeandtopopularize。
　　Condillac，acenturylater，isjustifiedinsayingthatitisinitselfasystematicmeansofdecompositionandofrecomposition，ascientificmethodanalogoustoarithmeticandalgebra。Attheveryleastitpossessestheincontestableadvantageofstartingwithafewordinaryterms，andofleadingthereaderalongwithfacilityandpromptness，byaseriesofsimplecombinations，uptotheloftiest。[23]Byvirtueofthis，in1789，theFrenchtongueranksaboveeveryother。TheBerlinAcademypromisesaprizetoforanyonewhobestcanexplainitspre—eminence。ItisspokenthroughoutEurope。
　　Nootherlanguageisusedindiplomacy。AsformerlywithLatin，itisinternational，andappearsthat，fromnowon，itistobethepreferredtoolwhenevermenaretoreason。
　　Itistheorganonlyofacertainkindofreasoning，laraisonraisonnante，thatrequiringtheleastpreparationforthought，givingitselfaslittletroubleaspossible，contentwithitsacquisitions，takingnopainstoincreaseorrenewthem，incapableof，orunwillingtoembracetheplenitudeandcomplexityofthefactsofreallife。Initspurism，initsdisdainoftermssuitedtotheoccasion，initsavoidanceoflivelysallies，intheextremeregularityofitsdevelopments，theclassicstyleispowerlesstofullyportrayortorecordtheinfiniteandvarieddetailsofexperience。Itrejectsanydescriptionoftheoutwardappearanceofreality，theimmediateimpressionsoftheeyewitness，theheightsanddepthsofpassion，thephysiognomy，atoncesocompositeyetabsolutepersonal，ofthebreathingindividual，inshort，thatuniqueharmonyofcountlesstraits，blendedtogetherandanimated，whichcomposenothumancharacteringeneralbutoneparticularpersonality，andwhichaSaint—Simon，aBalzac，oraShakespearehimselfcouldnotrenderiftherichlanguagetheyused，andwhichwasenhancedbytheirtemerities，didnotcontributeitssubtletiestothemultiplieddetailsoftheirobservation。[24]NeithertheBible，norHomer，norDante，norShakespeare[25]couldbetranslatedwiththisstyle。ReadHamlet’smonologueinVoltaireandseewhatremainsofit，anabstractpieceofdeclamation，withaboutasmuchoftheoriginalinitasthereisofOthelloinhisOrosmane。LookatHomerandthenatFenelonintheislandofCalypso；thewild，rockyisland，where"gullsandothersea—birdswithlongwings，"buildtheirnests，becomesinpureFrenchproseanorderlyparkarranged"forthepleasureoftheeye。"
　　Intheeighteenthcentury，contemporarynovelists，themselvesbelongingtotheclassicepoch，Fielding，Swift，Defoe，SterneandRichardson，areadmittedintoFranceonlyafterexcisionsandmuchweakening；theirexpressionsaretoofreeandtheirscenesaretoimpressive；theirfreedom，theircoarseness，theirpeculiarities，wouldformblemishes；thetranslatorabbreviates，softens，andsometimes，inhispreface，apologizesforwhatheretains。Roomisfound，inthislanguage，onlyforapartiallifelikeness，forsomeofthetruth，ascantyportion，andwhichconstantrefiningdailyrendersstillmorescanty。Consideredinitself，theclassicstyleisalwaystemptedtoacceptslight，insubstantialcommonplacesforitssubjectmaterials。Itspinsthemout，minglesandweavesthemtogether；onlyafragilefiligree，however，issuesfromitslogicalapparatus；wemayadmiretheelegantworkmanship；butinpractice，theworkisoflittle，none，ornegativeservice。
　　Fromthesecharacteristicsofstylewedivinethoseofthemindforwhichitservesasatool。—Twoprincipaloperationsconstitutetheactivityofthehumanunderstanding。——Observingthingsandevents，itreceivesamoreorlesscomplete，profoundandexactimpressionofthese；andafterthis，turningawayfromthem，itanalysesitsimpressions，andclassifies，distributes，andmoreorlessskillfullyexpressestheideasderivedfromthem。—Inthesecondoftheseoperationstheclassicistissuperior。Obligedtoadapthimselftohisaudience，thatistosay，topeopleofsocietywhoarenotspecialistsandyetcritical，henecessarilycarriestoperfectiontheartofexcitingattentionandofmakinghimselfheard；thatistosay，theartofcompositionandofwriting。—Withpatientindustry，andmultipliedprecautions，hecarriesthereaderalongwithhimbyaseriesofeasyrectilinearconceptions，stepbystep，omittingnone，beginningwiththelowestandthusascendingtothehighest，alwaysprogressingwithsteadyandmeasuredpeace，securelyandagreeablyasonapromenade。Nointerruptionordiversionispossible:oneitherside，alongtheroad，balustradeskeephimwithinbounds，eachideaextendingintothefollowingonebysuchaninsensibletransition，thatheinvoluntarilyadvances，withoutstoppingorturningaside，untilbroughttothefinaltruthwhereheistobeseated。Classicliteraturethroughoutbearstheimprintofthistalent；thereisnobranchofitintowhichthequalitiesofagooddiscoursedonotenterandformapart。—Theydominatethosesortofworkswhich，inthemselves，areonlyhalf—literary，butwhich，byitshelp，becomefullyso，transformingmanuscriptsintofineworksofartwhichtheirsubject—matterwouldhaveclassifiedasscientificworks，asreportsofaction，ashistoricaldocuments，asphilosophicaltreatises，asdoctrinalexpositions，assermons，polemics，dissertationsanddemonstrations。IttransformsevendictionariesandoperatesfromDescartestoCondillac，fromBossuettoBuffonandVoltaire，fromPascaltoRousseauandBeaumarchais，inshort，becomingprosealmostentirely，eveninofficialdispatches，diplomaticandprivatecorrespondence，fromMadamedeSévignétoMadameduDeffant；includingsomanyperfectlettersflowingfromthepensofwomenwhowereunawareofit。—Suchproseisparamountinthoseworkswhich，inthemselves，areliterary，butwhichderivefromitanoratoricalturn。
　　Notonlydoesitimposearigidplan，aregulardistributionofparts[26]indramaticworks，accurateproportions，suppressionsandconnections，asequenceandprogress，asinapassageofeloquence，butagainittoleratesonlythemostperfectdiscourse。Thereisnocharacterthatisnotanaccomplishedorator；withCorneilleandRacine，withMolièrehimself，theconfidant，thebarbarianking，theyoungcavalier，thedrawingroomcoquette，thevalet，allshowthemselvesadeptsintheuseoflanguage。Neverhaveweencounteredsuchadroitintroductions，suchwell—arrangedevidence，suchjustreflections，suchdelicatetransitions，suchconclusivesummingups。
　　Neverhavedialoguesbornesuchastrongresemblancetoverbalsparringmatches。Eachnarration，eachportrait，eachdetailofaction，mightbedetachedandserveasagoodexampleforschoolboys，alongwiththemasterpiecesoftheancienttribune。Sostrongisthistendencythat，ontheapproachofthefinalmoment，intheagonyofdeath，aloneandwithoutwitnesses，thecharacterfindsthemeanstopleadhisownfrenzyanddieeloquently。
　　II。ITSORIGINALDEFICIENCY。
　　Itsoriginaldeficiency。—Signsofthisinthe17thcentury。—Itgrowswithtimeandsuccess。—Proofsofthisgrowthinthe18thcentury。—Seriouspoetry，thedrama，historyandromances。—Short—
　　sightedviewsofmanandofhumanexistence。
　　Thisexcessindicatesadeficiency。Inthetwooperationswhichthehumanmindperforms，theclassicistismoresuccessfulinthesecondthaninthefirst。Thesecond，indeed，standsinthewayofthefirst，theobligationofalwaysspeakingcorrectlymakeshimrefrainfromsayingallthatoughttobesaid。Withhimtheformismoreimportantthanabundantcontents，thefirsthandobservationswhichserveasalivingsourcelosing，intheregulatedchannelstowhichtheyareconfined，theirforce，depthandimpetuosity。Realpoetry，abletoconveydreamandillusion，cannotbebroughtforth。Lyricpoetryprovesabortive，andlikewisetheepicpoem。[27]Nothingsproutsonthesedistantfields，remoteandsublime，wherespeechuniteswithmusicandpainting。Neverdoweheartheinvoluntaryscreamofintensetorment，thelonelyconfessionofadistraughtsoul，[28]pouringouthishearttorelievehimself。Whenacreationofcharactersisimperative，asindramaticpoetry，theclassicmoldfashionsbutonekind，thatwhichthrougheducation，birth，orimpersonation，alwaysspeakcorrectly，inotherwords，likesomanypeopleofhighsociety。
　　Noothersareportrayedonthestageorelsewhere，fromCorneilleandRacinetoMarivauxandBeaumarchais。SostrongisthehabitthatitimposesitselfevenonLaFontaine’sanimals，ontheservantsofMolière，onMontesquieu’sPersians，andontheBabylonians，theIndiansandtheMicromégasofVoltaire。—Itmustbestated，furthermore，thatthesecharactersareonlypartlyreal。Inrealpersonstwokindsofcharacteristicsmaybenoted；thefirst，fewinnumber，whichheorsheshareswithothersoftheirkindandwhichanyreaderreadilymayidentify；andtheotherkind，ofwhichthereareagreatmany，describingonlyoneparticularpersonandthesearemuchmoredifficulttodiscover。Classicartconcernsitselfonlywiththeformer；itpurposelyeffaces，neglectsorsubordinatesthelatter。Itdoesnotbuildindividualpersonsbutgeneralizedcharacters，aking，aqueen，ayoungprince，aconfidant，ahigh—priest，acaptainoftheguards，seizedbysomepassion，habitorinclination，suchaslove，ambition，fidelityorperfidy，adespoticorayieldingtemper，somespeciesofwickednessorofnativegoodness。Astothecircumstancesoftimeandplace，which，amongstothers，exerciseamostpowerfulinfluenceinshapinganddiversifyingman，ithardlynotesthem，evensettingthemaside。Inatragedythesceneisseteverywhereandanytime，thecontrary，thattheactiontakesplacenowhereinnospecificepoch，isequallyvalid。Itmaytakeplaceinanypalaceorinanytemple，[29]inwhich，togetridofallhistoricorpersonalimpressions，habitsandcostumesareintroducedconventionally，beingneitherFrenchnorforeign，norancient，normodern。Inthisabstractworldtheaddressisalways"you"（asopposedtothefamiliarthou），[30]
　　"Seigneur"and"Madame，"thenoblestylealwaysclothingthemostdifferentcharactersinthesamedress。WhenCorneilleandRacine，throughthestatelinessandeleganceoftheirverse，affordusaglimpseofcontemporaryfigurestheydoitunconsciously，imaginingthattheyareportrayingmaninhimself；and，ifweofthepresenttimerecognizeintheirpieceseitherthegentleman，theduelists，thebullies，thepoliticiansortheheroinesoftheFronde，orthecourtiers，princesandbishops，theladiesandgentlemeninwaitingoftheregularmonarchy，itisbecausetheyhaveinadvertentlydippedtheirbrushintheirownexperience，someofitscolorhavingfallenaccidentallyonthebareidealoutlinewhichtheywishedtotrace。Wehavesimplyacontour，ageneralsketch，filledupwiththeharmoniousgraytoneofcorrectdiction。—Evenincomedy，necessarilyemployingcurrenthabits，evenwithMolière，sofrankandsobold，themodelisunfinished，allindividualpeculiaritiesbeingsuppressed，thefacebecomingforamomentatheatricalmask，andthepersonage，especiallywhentalkinginverse，sometimeslosingitsanimationinbecomingthemouth—pieceforamonologueoradissertation。[31]Thestampofrank，conditionorfortune，whethergentlemanorbourgeois，provincialorParisian，isfrequentlyoverlooked。[32]Wearerarelymadetoappreciatephysicalexternals，asinShakespeare，thetemperament，thestateofthenervoussystem，thebluffordrawlingtone，theimpulsiveorrestrainedaction，theemaciationorobesityofacharacter。[33]
　　Frequentlynotroubleistakentofindasuitablename，thisbeingeitherChrysale，Orgon，Damis，Dorante，orValère。Thenamedesignatesonlyasimplequality，thatofafather，ayouth，avalet，agrumbler，agallant，and，likeanordinarycloak，fittingindifferentlyallformsalike，asitpassesfromthewardrobeofMolièretothatofRegnard，Destouche，LesageorMarivaux。[34]Thecharacterlacksthepersonalbadge，theunique，authenticappellationservingastheprimarystampofanindividual。Allthesedetailsandcircumstances，alltheseaidsandaccompanimentsofaman，remainoutsideoftheclassictheory。TosecuretheadmissionofsomeofthemrequiredthegeniusofMolière，thefullnessofhisconception，thewealthofhisobservation，theextremefreedomofhispen。Itisequallytrueagainthatheoftenomitsthem，andthat，inothercases，heintroducesonlyasmallnumberofthem，becauseheavoidsgivingtothesegeneralcharactersarichnessandcomplexitythatmightinterferewiththestory。Thesimplerthethemethecleareritsdevelopment，thefirstdutyoftheauthorthroughoutthisliteraturebeingtoclearlydeveloptherestrictedthemeofwhichhemakesaselection。
　　Thereis，accordingly，aradicaldefectintheclassicspirit，thedefectofitsqualities，andwhich，atfirstkeptwithinproperbounds，contributestowardstheproductionofitspurestmaster—
　　pieces，butwhich，inaccordancewiththeuniversallaw，goesonincreasingandturnsintoavicethroughthenaturaleffectofage，use，andsuccess。Contractedatthestart，itistobecomeyetmoreso。Intheeighteenthcenturythedescriptionofreallife，ofaspecificperson，justasheisinnatureandinhistory，thatistosay，anundefinedunit，arichplexus，acompleteorganismofpeculiaritiesandtraits，superposed，entangledandco—ordinated，isimproper。Thecapacitytoreceiveandcontainalltheseiswanting。
　　Whatevercanbediscardediscastaside，andtosuchanextentthatnothingisleftatlastbutacondensedextract，anevaporatedresiduum，analmostemptyname，inshort，whatiscalledahollowabstraction。Theonlycharactersintheeighteenthcenturyexhibitinganylifearetheoff—handsketches，madeinpassingandasifcontraband，byVoltaire，BarondeThundertentronkandMilordWatthen，thelesserfiguresinhisstories，andfiveorsixportraitsofsecondaryrank，Turcaret，GilBlas，Marianne，ManonLescaut，Rameau，andFigaro，twoorthreeoftheroughsketchesofCrébillontheyoungerandofCollé，allsomanyworksinwhichsapflowsthroughafamiliarknowledgeofthings，comparablewiththoseoftheminormastersinpainting，Watteau，Fragonard，Saint—Aubin，Moreau，Lancret，Pater，andBeaudouin，andwhich，acceptedwithdifficulty，orasasurprise，bytheofficialdrawingroomarestilltosubsistafterthegranderandsoberercanvasesshallhavebecomemoldythroughtheirwearisomeexhalations。Everywhereelsethesapdriesup，and，insteadofbloomingplants，weencounteronlyflowersofpaintedpaper。Whatarealltheseriouspoems，fromthe"laHenriade"ofVoltairetothe"Mois"byRoucherorthe"l’Imagination"byDelille，butsomanypiecesofrhetoricgarnishedwithrhymes？ExaminetheinnumerabletragediesandcomediesofwhichGrimmandCollégivesusmortuaryextracts，eventhemeritoriousworksofVoltaireandCrébillon，andlater，thoseofauthorsofrepute，DuBelloy，Laharpe，Ducis，andMarieChénier？Eloquence，art，situations，correctverse，allexistintheseexcepthumannature；thepersonagesaresimplywell—taughtpuppets，andgenerallymeremouthpiecesbywhichtheauthormakeshisdeclamationpublic；Greeks，Romans，Medievalknights，Turks，Arabs，Peruvians，Giaours，orByzantines，theyhaveallthesamedeclamatorymechanisms。Thepublic，meanwhile，betraysnosurprise。Itisnotawareofhistory。Itassumesthathumanityiseverywherethesame。Itestablishesthesuccessalikeofthe"Incas"byMarmontel，andof"Gonsalve"andthe"Nouvelles"byFlorian；alsoofthepeasants，mechanics，Negroes，Brazilians，Parsees，andMalabaritesthatappearbeforeitchurningouttheirexaggerations。Manissimplyregardedasareasoningbeing，alikeinallagesandalikeinallplaces；
　　BernardindeSaint—Pierreendowshispariahwiththishabit，likeDiderot，inhisTahitians。Theonerecognizedprincipleisthateveryhumanbeingmustthinkandtalklikeabook。—Andhowinadequatetheirhistoricalbackground！Withtheexceptionof"CharlesXII。，"acontemporaryonwhomVoltaire，thankstoeyeeye—witnesses，bestowsfreshlife，alsohisspiritedsketchesofEnglishmen，Frenchmen，Spaniards，ItaliansandGermans，scatteredthroughhisstories，wherearerealpersonstobefound？WithHume，GibbonandRobertson，belongingtotheFrenchschool，andwhoareatonceadoptedinFrance，intheresearchesintoourmiddleagesofDubosandofMably，inthe"LouisXI"ofDuclos，inthe"Anarcharsis"ofBarthélemy，eveninthe"EssaisurlesMoeurs，"andinthe"SiecledeLouisXIV"ofVoltaire，eveninthe"GrandeurdesRomains，"andthe"EspritdesLois"ofMontesquieu，whatpeculiardeficiency！Erudition，criticism，commonsense，analmostexactexpositionofdogmasandofinstitutions，philosophicviewsoftherelationshipsbetweeneventsandonthegeneralrunofthese，nothingislackingbutthepeople！Onreadingtheseitseemsasiftheclimates，institutionsandcivilizationswhichsocompletelymodifiesthehumanintellect，aresimplysomanyoutworks，somanyfortuitousexteriors，which，farfromreflectingitsdepthsscarcelypenetratebeneathitssurface。Thevastdifferencesseparatingthemenoftwocenturies，oroftwopeoples，escapethementirely。[35]TheancientGreek，theearlyChristian，theconqueringTeuton，thefeudalman，theArabofMahomet，theGerman，theRenaissanceEnglishman，thepuritan，appearintheirbooksasinengravingsandfrontispieces，withsomedifferenceincostume，butthesamebodies，thesamefaces，thesamecountenances，toneddown，obliterated，proper，adaptedtotheconventionalitiesofgoodmanners。
　　Thatsympatheticimaginationbywhichthewriterentersintothemindofanother，andreproducesinhimselfasystemofhabitsandfeelingssodifferentfromhisown，isthetalentthemostabsentintheeighteenthcentury。WiththeexceptionofDiderot，whousesitbadlyandcapriciously，italmostentirelydisappearsinthelasthalfofthecentury。Considerinturn，duringthesameperiod，inFranceandinEngland，whereitismostextensivelyused，theromance，asortofmirroreverywheretransportable，thebestadaptedtoreflectallphrasesofnatureandoflife。AfterreadingtheseriesofEnglishnovelists，Defoe，Richardson，Fielding，Smollett，Sterne，andGoldsmithdowntoMissBurneyandMissAusten，IhavebecomefamiliarwithEnglandintheeighteenthcentury；Ihaveencounteredclergymen，countrygentlemen，farmers，innkeepers，sailors，peopleofeveryconditioninlife，highandlow；Iknowthedetailsoffortunesandofcareers，howmuchisearned，howmuchisexpended，howjourneysaremadeandhowpeopleeatanddrink:Ihaveaccumulatedformyselfafileofprecisebiographicalevents，acompletepictureinathousandscenesofanentirecommunity，theampleststockofinformationtoguidemeshouldIwishtoframeahistoryofthisvanishedworld。OnreadingacorrespondinglistofFrenchnovelists，theyoungerCrébillon，Rousseau，Marmontel，Laclos，RestifdelaBreton，Louvet，MadamedeSta？l，MadamedeGenlisandtherest，includingMercierandevenMme。Cottin，Iscarcelytakeanynotes；allpreciseandinstructivelittlefactsareleftout；Ifindcivilities，politeacts，gallantries，mischief—making，socialdissertationsandnothingelse。
　　Theycarefullyabstainfrommentioningmoney，fromgivingmefigures，fromdescribingawedding，atrial，theadministrationofapieceofproperty；Iamignorantofthesituationofacurate，ofarusticnoble，ofaresidentprior，ofasteward，ofanintendant。Whateverrelatestoaprovinceortotheruraldistricts，tothebourgeoisieortotheshop，[36]tothearmyortoasoldier，totheclergyortoconvents，tojusticeortothepolice，tobusinessortohousekeepingremainsvaguelyinmymindorisfalsified；toclearupanypointIamobligedtorecurtothatmarvelousVoltairewho，onlayingasidethegreatclassiccoat，findsplentyofelbowroomandtellsall。Ontheorgansofsocietyofvitalimportance，onthepracticesandregulationsthatprovokerevolutions，onfeudalrightsandseigniorialjustice，onthemodeofrecruitingandgoverningmonasticbodies，ontherevenuemeasuresoftheprovinces，ofcorporationsandoftrade—
　　unions，onthetithesandthecorvées，[37]literatureprovidesmewithscarcelyanyinformation。Drawing—roomsandmenoflettersareapparentlyitssolematerial。Therestisnullandvoid。OutsidethegoodsocietythatisabletoconverseFranceappearsperfectlyempty。
　　—OntheapproachoftheRevolutiontheeliminationincreases。Lookthroughtheharanguesoftheclubsandofthetribune，throughreports，legislativebillsandpamphlets，andthroughthemassofwritingspromptedbypassingandexcitingevents；innoneofthemdoweseeanysignofthehumancreatureasweseehiminthefieldsandinthestreet；heisalwaysregardedasasimplerobot，awellknownmechanism。Amongwritershewasamomentagoadispenserofcommonplaces，amongpoliticiansheisnowapliablevoter；touchhimintheproperplaceandherespondsinthedesiredmanner。Factsareneverapparent；onlyabstractions，longarraysofsentencesonnature，Reason，andthepeople，ontyrantsandliberty，likeinflatedballoons，uselesslyconflictingwitheachotherinspace。Werewenotawarethatallthiswouldterminateinterriblepracticaleffectsthenwecouldregarditascompetitioninlogic，asschoolexercises，academicparades，orideologicalcompositions。Itis，infact，Ideology，thelastproductofthecentury，whichwillstamptheclassicspiritwithitsfinalformulaandlastword。
　　III。THEMATHEMATICALMETHOD。
　　ThephilosophicmethodinconformitywiththeClassicSprit。—
　　Ideology。—Abuseofthemathematicalprocess。—Condillac，Rousseau，Mably，Condorcet，Volney，Sieyès，Cabanis，anddeTracy。—Excessesofsimplificationandboldnessoforganization。
　　Thenaturalprocessoftheclassicspiritistopursueineveryresearch，withtheutmostconfidence，withouteitherreserveorprecaution，themathematicalmethod:toderive，limitandisolateafewofthesimplestgeneralizednotionsandthen，settingexperienceaside，comparingthem，combiningthem，and，fromtheartificialcompoundthusobtained，bypurereasoning，deducealltheconsequencestheyinvolve。Itissodeeplyimplantedastobeequallyencounteredinbothcenturies，aswellwithDescartes，Malebranche[38]andthepartisansofinnateideasaswiththepartisansofsensation，ofphysicalneedsandofprimaryinstinct，Condillac，Rousseau，Helvétius，andlater，Condorcet，Volney，Sieyès，CabanisandDestuttdeTracy。InvaindothelatterassertthattheyarethefollowersofBaconandreject（thetheoryof）innateideas；withanotherstartingpointthantheCartesianstheypursuethesamepath，and，aswiththeCartesians，afterborrowingalittle，theyleaveexperiencebehindthem。Inthisvastmoralandsocialworld，theyonlyremovethesuperficialbarkfromthehumantreewithitsinnumerablerootsandbranches；theyareunabletopenetratetoorgraspatanythingbeyondit；theirhandscannotcontainmore。Theyhavenosuspicionofanythingoutsideofit；theclassicspirit，withlimitedcomprehension，isnotfar—reaching。Tothemthebarkistheentiretree，and，theoperationoncecompleted，theyretire，bearingalongwiththemthedry，deadepidermis，neverreturningtothetrunkitself。Throughintellectualincapacityandliterarypridetheyomitthecharacteristicdetail，theanimatingfact，thespecificcircumstance，thesignificant，convincingandcompleteexample。
　　Scarcelyoneoftheseisfoundinthe"Logique"andinthe"TraitédesSensations"byCondillac，inthe"Idéologie"byDestuttdeTracy，orinthe"RapportsduPhysiqueetduMorale"byCabanis。[39]Never，withthem，areweonthesolidandvisiblegroundofpersonalobservationandnarration，butalwaysintheair，intheemptyspaceofpuregeneralities。Condillacdeclaresthatthearithmeticalmethodisadaptedtopsychologyandthattheelementsofourideascanbedefinedbyaprocessanalogous"totheruleofthree。"Sieyèsholdshistoryinprofoundcontempt，andbelievesthathehad"perfectedthescienceofpolitics"[40]atonestroke，throughaneffortofthebrain，inthestyleofDescartes，whothusdiscoversanalyticgeometry。DestuttdeTracy，inundertakingtocommentonMontesquieu，findsthatthegreathistorianhastooservilelyconfinedhimselftohistory，andattemptstodotheworkoveragainbyorganizingsocietyasitshouldbe，insteadofstudyingsocietyasitis。—Neverweresuchsystematicandsuperficialinstitutionsbuiltupwithsuchamoderateextractofhumannature。[41]Condillac，employingsensation，animatesastatue，andthen，byaprocessofpurereasoning，followingupitseffects，ashesupposes，onsmell，taste，hearing，sightandtouch，fashionsacompletehumansoul。Rousseau，bymeansofacontract，foundspoliticalassociation，and，withthisgivenidea，pullsdowntheconstitution，governmentandlawsofeverybalancedsocialsystem。Inabookwhichservesasthephilosophicaltestamentofthecentury，[42]Condorcetdeclaresthatthismethodisthe"finalstepofphilosophy，thatwhichplacesasortofeternalbarrierbetweenhumanityanditsancientinfantileerrors。""Byapplyingittomorals，politicsandpoliticaleconomythemoralscienceshaveprogressednearlyasmuchasthenaturalsciences。Withitshelpwehavebeenabletodiscovertherightsofman。"Asinmathematics，theyhavebeendeducedfromoneprimordialstatementonly，whichstatement，similartoafirstprincipleinmathematics，becomesafactofdailyexperience，seenbyallandthereforeself—evident。—ThisschoolofthoughtistoendurethroughouttheRevolution，theEmpireandevenintotheRestoration，[43]togetherwiththetragedyofwhichitisthesister，withtheclassicspirittheircommonparent，aprimordial，sovereignpower，asdangerousasitisuseful，asdestructiveasitiscreative，ascapableofpropagatingerrorastruth，asastonishingintherigidityofitscode，thenarrow—mindednessofitsyokeandintheuniformityofitsworksasinthedurationofitsreignandtheuniversalityofitsascendancy。[44]
　　Notes:
　　[1]Voltaire，"Dict。Phil。，"seethearticlesonLanguage。"OfallthelanguagesinEuropetheFrenchismostgenerallyusedbecauseitisthebestadaptedtoconversation。Itscharacterisderivedfromthatofthepeoplewhospeakit。Formorethanahundredandfiftyyearspast，theFrenchhavebeenthemostfamiliarwith（good）societyandthefirsttoavoidallembarrassment……Itisabettercurrencythananyother，evenifitshouldlackweight。"
　　[2]HIST:honnêtehommemeansgentleman。（SR。）
　　[3]Descartes，ed。Cousin，XI。333，I。121，……Descartesdepreciates"simpleknowledgeacquiredwithouttheaidofreflection，suchaslanguages，history，geography，and，generally，whateverisnotbasedonexperience……ItisnomorethedutyofanhonestmantoknowGreekorLatinthantoknowtheSwissorBretonlanguages，northehistoryoftheRomano—GermanicempireanymorethanofthesmallestcountryinEurope。"
　　[4]Molière，"LesFemmesSavantes，"and"LaCritiquedel’écoledesfemmes。"ThepartsofDorantewithLycidasandofClitandrewithTrissotin。
　　[5]ThelearnedHuet，（1630—1721），truetothetasteofthesixteenthcentury，describesthischangeverywellfromhispointofview。"WhenIenteredtheworldoflettersthesewerestillflourishing；greatreputationsmaintainedtheirsupremacy。Ihaveseenlettersdeclineandfinallyreachanalmostentiredecay。ForIscarcelyknowapersonofthepresenttimethatonecantrulycallasavant。"ThefewBenedictineslikeDucangeandMabillon，andlater，theacademicianFréret，thepresidentBouhierofDijon，inshort，theveritableeruditesexercisenoinfluence。
　　[6]Nicole，"Oeuvresmorales，"inthesecondessayonCharityandSelf—love，142。
　　[7]Voltaire，"Dialogues，""L’intendantdesmenusetl’abbéGrizel，"
　　129。
　　[8]Mauryaddswithhisaccustomedcoarseness，"We，intheFrenchAcademy，lookeduponthemembersoftheAcademyofSciencesasourvalets。"—ThesevaletsatthattimeconsistedofLavoisier，Fourcroy，Lagrange，Laplace，etc。（AnarrativebyJosephdeMaistre，quotebySainte—Beuve，"Causeriesdulundi，"IV。283。）
　　[9]Thisdescriptionmakesmethinkofthecontemporaryattitudespejorativelycalled"politicallycorrectness。"Thusthedrawings—roomaudienceofthe18thcenturyhavetodaybeenreplacedbythe"politicalcorrect"eliteholdingswayinteachertrainingschools，schoolsofjournalism，themediaandhenceamongthetelevisionpublic。Thesamemechanismwhichmovedtheupperclassinthe18thcenturymovesitinthe20thcentury……（S。R。）
　　[10]Todayin1999wemayspeakoftheTVmoldforcedbythemeasuredpopularityor"ratings"oftheprograms。（SR。
　　[11]Vaugelas，"Remarquessurlalanguefran？aise:""Itisthemodeofspeechofthemostsensibleportionofthecourt，aswellasthemodeofwritingofthemostsensibleauthorsoftheday。ItisbettertoconsultwomenandthosewhohavenotstudiedthanthosewhoareverylearnedinGreekandinLatin。"
　　[12]OneofthecausesofthefallanddiscreditoftheMarquisd’Argensonintheeighteenthcentury，washishabitofusingthese。
　　[13]Vaugelas，ibid……"Althoughwemayhaveeliminatedone—halfofhisphrasesandtermsweneverthelessobtainintheotherhalfalltherichesofwhichweboastandofwhichwemakeadisplay。"—Comparetogetheralexiconoftwoorthreewritersofthesixteenthcenturyandoneoftwoorthreewritersoftheseventeenth。Abriefstatementoftheresultsofthecomparisonisheregiven。Letanyone，withpeninhand，notethedifferencesonahundredpagesofanyofthesetexts，andhewillbesurprisedatit。Take，forexamples，twowritersofthesamecategory，andofsecondarygrade，CharronandNicole。
　　[14]Forinstance，inthearticle"Ignorance，"inthe"Dict。
　　Philosophique。"
　　[15]LaHarpe，"CoursdeLittérature，"ed。Didot。II。142。
　　[16]Abattle—axeusedbytheFranks。—TR。
　　[17]Iciteanexamplehaphazardfromthe"Optimiste"（1788），byColind’Harleville。Inacertaindescription，"Thescenerepresentsabosquetfilledwithodoriferoustrees。"—Theclassicspiritrebelsagainststatingthespeciesoftree，whetherlilacs，lindensorhawthorns。—Inpaintingsoflandscapesofthiserawehavethesamething，thetreesbeinggeneralized，—ofnoknownspecies。
　　[18]Thisevolutionisseentodayaswell，televisionhavingthesameeffectuponitsactorsasthe18thcenturydrawing—room。（SR。）
　　[19]Seeinthe"Lycée，"bylaHarpe，aftertheanalysisofeachpiece，hisremarksondetailinstyle。
　　[20]Theomissionofthepronouns，I，he，we，you，they，thearticlethe，andoftheverb，especiallytheverbtobe。——AnypageofRabelais，AmyotorMontaigne，sufficestoshowhownumerousandvariouswerethetranspositions。
　　[21]Vaugelas，ibid。"Nolanguageismoreinimicaltoambiguitiesandeveryspeciesofobscurity。"
　　[22]Seetheprincipalromancesoftheseventeenthcentury，the"RomanBourgeois，"byFuretière，the"PrincessdeClèves，"byMadamedeLafayette，the"Clélie，"byMme。deScudéry，andevenScarron’s"RomanComique。"—SeeBalzac’sletters，andthoseofVoitureandtheircorrespondents，the"Récitdesgrandsjoursd’Auvergne，"byFléchier，etc。Ontheoratoricalpeculiaritiesofthisstylecf。
　　Sainte—Beuve，"Port—Royal，"2nded。I。515。
　　[23]Voltaire，’Esaysurlepoèmeépique’，"Ournation，regardedbystrangersassuperficialis，withthepeninitshand，thewisestofall。Methodisthedominantqualityofallourwriters。"
　　[24]Milton’sworksarebuiltupwith8，000。"Shakespeare，whodisplayedagreatervarietyofexpressionthanprobablyanywriterinanylanguage，producedallhisplayswithabout15，000wordsandtheOldTestamentsaysallithastosaywith5，642words。"（MaxMüller，"LecturesontheScienceoflanguage，"I。309。）—ItwouldbeinterestingtoplacealongsideofthisRacine’srestrictedvocabulary。
　　ThatofMme。deScuderyisextremelylimited。InthebestromanceoftheXVIIthcentury，the"PrincessedeClèves，"thenumberofwordsisreducedtotheminimum。TheDictionaryoftheoldFrenchAcademycontains29，712words；theGreekThesaurus，byH。Estienne，containsabout150，000。
　　[25]ComparetogetherthetranslationsoftheBiblemadebydeSacyandLuther；thoseofHomerbyDacier，BitaubéandLecomtedeLisle；
　　thoseofHerodotus，byLarcherandCourrier，thepopulartalesofPerraultandthosebyGrimm，etc。
　　[26]Seethe"Discoursacadémique，"byRacine，onthereceptionofThomasCorneille:"InthischaosofdramaticpoetryyourillustriousbrotherbroughtReasononthestage，butReasonassociatedwithallthepompandtheornamentationourlanguageiscapableof。"
　　[27]Voltaire，"Essaysurlepoèmeépique，"290。"ItmustbeadmittedthataFrenchmanhasmoredifficultyinwritinganepicpoemthananybodyelse……DareIconfessit？Ourownistheleastpoeticofallpolishednations。TheworksinversethemosthighlyesteemedinFrancearethoseofthedrama，whichmustbewritteninafamiliarstyleapproachingconversation。"
　　[28]Exceptin"Pensées，"byPascal，afewnotesdotteddownbyamorbidlyexaltedChristian，andwhichcertainly，intheperfectwork，wouldnothavebeenallowedtoremainastheyare。
　　[29]SeeintheCabinetofEngravingsthetheatricalcostumesofthemiddleoftheXVIIIthcentury。—NothingcouldbemoreopposedtothespiritoftheclassicdramathanthepartsofEstherandBrittannicus，astheyareplayednowadays，intheaccuratecostumesandwithsceneryderivedfromlatediscoveriesatPompeiiorNineveh。
　　[30]TheformalitywhichthisindicateswillbeunderstoodbythosefamiliarwiththeuseofthepronounthouinFrance，denotingintimacyandfreedomfromrestraintincontrastwithceremoniousandformalintercourse。—Tr。
　　[31]SeethepartsofthemoralizersandreasonerslikeCléantein"Tartuffe，"Aristein"LesFemmesSavantes，"Chrysalein"L’EcoledesFemmes，"etc。Seethediscussionbetweenthetwobrothersin"LeFestindePierre，"III。5；thediscourseofErgastein"L’EcoledesMaris"；thatofEliante，imitatedfromLucretiusinthe"Misanthrope，"
　　II。5；theportraiture，byDorinein"Tartuffe，"I。1。—Theportraitofthehypocrite，byDonJuanin"LeFestindePierre，"V。2。
　　[32]ForinstancethepartsofHarpagonandArnolphe。
　　[33]WeseethisinTartuffe，butonlythroughanexpressionofDorine，andnotdirectly。Cf。inShakespeare，thepartsofCoriolanus，Hotspur，Falstaff，Othello，Cleopatra，etc。
　　[34]Balzacpassedentiredaysinreadingthe"Almanachdescentmilleadresses，"alsoinacabinthestreetsduringtheafternoons，examiningsignsforthepurposeoffindingsuitablenamesforhischaracters。Thislittlecircumstanceshowsthedifferencebetweentwodiverseconceptionsofmankind。
　　[35]"Atthepresentday，whatevermaybesaid，thereisnosuchthingasFrenchmen，Germans，Spaniards，andEnglishmen，forallareEuropeans。Allhavethesametastes，thesamepassions，thesamehabits，nonehavingobtainedanationalformthroughanyspecificinstitution。"Rousseau，"SurlegouvernementdePologne，"170。
　　[36]Previousto1750wefindsomethingaboutthesein"Gil—Blas，"
　　andin"Marianne，"（Mme。Dufourthesempstressandhershop）。—
　　UnfortunatelytheSpanishtravestypreventsthenovelsofLesagefrombeingasinstructiveastheymightbe。
　　[37]InterestingdetailsarefoundinthelittlestoriesbyDiderotas，forinstance，"LesdeuxamisdeBourbonne。"Butelsewhereheisapartisan，especiallyinthe"Religieuse，"andconveysafalseimpressionofthings。
　　[38]"Toattaintothetruthwehaveonlytofixourattentionontheideaswhicheachonefindswithinhisownmind。"（Malebranche，"RecherchedelaVérité，"bookI。ch。1。）—"Thoselongchainsofreasoning，allsimpleandeasy，whichgeometersusetoarriveattheirmostdifficultdemonstrations，suggestedtomethatallthingswhichcomewithinhumanknowledgemustfolloweachotherinasimilarchain。"（Descartes，"DiscoursdelaMethode，"I。142）。—IntheseventeenthcenturyInthe17thcenturyconstructionsaprioriwerebasedonideas，inthe18thcenturyonsensations，butalwaysfollowingthesamemathematicalmethodfullydisplayedinthe"Ethics"
　　ofSpinoza。
　　[39]Seeespeciallyhismemoir:"Del’influenceduclimatsurleshabitudesmorales，"vague，andwhollybarrenofillustrationsexceptingonecitationfromHippocrates。
　　[40]TheseareSieyèsownwords。—Headdselsewhere，"Thereisnomorerealityinassumedhistoricaltruthsthaninassumedreligioustruths。"（"PapiersdeSieyès，"theyear1772，accordingtoSainte—
　　Beuve，"Causeriesdulundi，"V。194）。—DescartesandMalebranchealreadyexpressedthiscontemptforhistory。
　　[41]Today，in1998，weknowthatTainewasright。Theresearchonanimalandhumanbehavior，onanimalandhumanbraincircuitry，andthebehaviorofthecruelhumananimalduringthe20thcentury，confirmedhisviews。Stillmankindpersistsinpreferringsimplesolutionsandideastocomplexones。Thisisthewayourbrainsandournatureasgregariousanimalsmakeusthinkandfeel。Thisourbasichumannaturemakeambitiousmenabletoappealtoanddominatethecrowd。（SR。）
　　[42]Condorcet，"Esquissed’untableauhistoriquedel’esprithumain，"ninthepoch。
　　[43]Seethe"Tableauhistorique，"presentedtotheInstitutebyChénierin1808，showingbyitsstatementsthattheclassicspiritstillprevailsinallbranchesofliterature。—Cabanisdiedin1818，Volneyin1820，deTracyandSieyèsin1836，Daunouin1840。InMay，1845，SapharyandValettearestillprofessorsofCondillac’sphilosophyinthetwolycéesinParis。
　　[44]TheworlddidnotheedTaine’swarnings。TheleadersandthemassesoftheWesternworldweretobeseducedbytheterriblenewideologiesofthe20thcentury。Theideologyofsocialismpersistsmakinggooduseoftherevised20thcenturyeditionsoftheRightsofMan，enlargedtocoverthephysicalwell—beingandstandardoflivingofman，woman，childandanimalandinthismannerallowingthestatetoreplaceallindividualresponsibilityandauthority，thus，asTainesaw，dealingadeathblowtothefamily，toindividualresponsibilityandenterpriseandtoeffectivelocalgovernment。（SR。）。
　　CHAPTERIII。COMBINATIONOFTHETWOELEMENTS。
　　I。BIRTHOFADOCTRINE，AREVELATION。
　　Thedoctrine，itspretensions，anditscharacter。—AnewauthorityforReasonintheregulationofhumanaffairs。—Governmentthusfartraditional。
　　OUTofthescientificacquisitionsthussetforth，elaboratedbythespiritwehavejustdescribed，isbornadoctrine，seeminglyarevelation，andwhich，underthistitle，wastoclaimthegovernmentofhumanaffairs。Ontheapproachof1789itisgenerallyadmittedthatmanislivingin"acenturyoflight，"in"theageofReason；"
　　that，previously，thehumanspecieswasinitsinfancyandthatnowithasattainedtoits"majority。"Truth，finally，ismademanifestand，forthefirsttime，itsreignonearthisapparent。Therightissupremebecauseitistruthitself。Itmustdirectallthingsbecausethroughitsnatureitisuniversal。Thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcentury，inthesetwoarticlesoffaith，resemblesareligion，thePuritanismoftheseventeenthcentury，andIslamintheseventhcentury。Weseethesameoutburstoffaith，hopeandenthusiasm，thesamespiritofpropagandaandofdominion，thesamerigidityandintolerance，thesameambitiontorecastmanandtoremodelhumanlifeaccordingtoapreconceivedtype。Thenewdoctrineisalsotohaveitsscholars，itsdogmas，itspopularcatechism，itsfanatics，itsinquisitorsanditsmartyrs。Itistospeakasloudlyasthoseprecedingit，asalegitimateauthoritytowhichdictatorshipbelongsbyrightofbirth，andagainstwhichrebellioniscriminalorinsane。
　　Itdiffers，however，fromtheprecedingreligionsinthisrespect，thatinsteadofimposingitselfinthenameofGod，itimposesitselfinthenameofReason。
　　Theauthority，indeed，wasanewone。Uptothistime，inthecontrolofhumanactionsandopinions，Reasonhadplayedbutasmallandsubordinatepart。Boththemotiveanditsdirectionwereobtainedelsewhere；faithandobediencewereaninheritance；amanwasaChristianandasubjectbecausehewasbornChristianandsubject。——
　　SurroundingthenascentphilosophyandtheReasonwhichentersuponitsgreatinvestigation，isasystemofrecognizedlaws，anestablishedpower，areigningreligion；allthestonesofthisstructureholdtogetherandeachstoryissupportedbyaprecedingstory。Butwhatdoesthecommoncementconsistof，andwhereisthebasicfoundation？——Whosanctionsallthesecivilregulationswhichcontrolmarriages，testaments，inheritances，contracts，propertyandpersons，thesefancifulandoftencontradictoryregulations？Inthefirstplaceimmemorialcustom，varyingaccordingtotheprovince，accordingtothetitletothesoil，accordingtothequalityandconditionoftheperson；andnext，thewillofthekingwhocausedthecustomtobeinscribedandwhosanctionedit。——Whoauthorizesthiswill，thissovereigntyoftheprince，thisfirstofpublicobligations？Inthefirstplace，eightcenturiesofpossession，ahereditaryrightsimilartothatbywhicheachoneenjoyshisownfieldanddomain，apropertyestablishedinafamilyandtransmittedfromoneeldestsontoanother，fromthefirstfounderoftheStatetohislastlivingsuccessor；and，inadditiontothis，areligiondirectingmentosubmittotheconstitutedpowers。——Andwho，finally，authorizesthisreligion？Atfirst，eighteencenturiesoftradition，theimmenseseriesofanteriorandconcordantproofs，thesteadybeliefofsixtyprecedinggenerations；andafterthis，atthebeginningofit，thepresenceandteachingsofChrist，then，fartherback，thecreationoftheworld，thecommandandthevoiceofGod。——
　　Thus，throughoutthemoralandsocialorderofthingsthepastjustifiesthepresent；antiquityprovidesitstitle，andifbeneathallthesesupportswhichagehasconsolidated，thedeepprimitiverockissoughtforinsubterraneandepths，wefinditinthedivinewill。
　　——Duringthewholeoftheseventeenthcenturythistheorystillabsorbsallsoulsintheshapeofafixedhabitandofinwardrespect；
　　itisnotopentoquestion。Itisregardedinthesamelightastheheartofthelivingbody；whoeverwouldlayhishanduponitwouldinstantlydrawback，movedbyavaguesentimentofitsceasingtobeatincaseitweretouched。Themostindependent，withDescartesatthehead，"wouldbegrieved"atbeingconfoundedwiththosechimericalspeculatorswho，insteadofpursuingthebeatentrackofcustom，dartblindlyforward"inadirectlineacrossmountainsandoverprecipices。"Insubjectingtheirbelieftosystematicinvestigationnotonlydotheyleaveoutandsetapart"thetruthsoffaith，"[1]butagainthedogmatheythinktheyhavethrownoutremainsintheirmindlatentandactive，toguidethemonunconsciouslyandtoconverttheirphilosophyintoapreparationfor，oraconfirmationof，Christianity。[2]——Summingitallup，faith，theperformanceofreligiousduties，withreligiousandpoliticalinstitutions，areatbaseofallthoughtoftheseventeenthcentury。Reason，whethersheadmitsitorisignorantofit，isonlyasubaltern，anoratoricalagency，asetter—in—motion，forcedbyreligionandthemonarchytolaborintheirbehalf。WiththeexceptionofLaFontaine，whomI
　　regardasuniqueinthisasinothermatters，thegreatestandmostindependent，Pascal，Descartes，Bossuet，LaBruyère，borrowsfromtheestablishedsocietytheirbasicconceptsofnature，man，society，lawandgovernment。[3]SolongasReasonislimitedtothisfunctionitsworkisthatofacouncilorofState，anextrapreacherdispatchedbyitssuperiorsonamissionarytourinthedepartmentsofphilosophyandofliterature。Farfromprovingdestructiveitconsolidates；infact，evendowntotheRegency，itschiefemploymentistoproducegoodChristiansandloyalsubjects。
　　Butnowtherolesarereversed；traditiondescendsfromtheuppertothelowerranks，whileReasonascendsfromthelattertotheformer。——Ontheonehandreligionandmonarchy，throughtheirexcessesandmisdeedsunderLouisXIV，andtheirlaxityandincompetenceunderLouisXV，demolishpiecebypiecethebasisofhereditaryreverenceandfilialobediencesolongservingthemasafoundation，andwhichmaintainedthemaloftabovealldisputeandfreeofinvestigation；hencetheauthorityoftraditioninsensiblydeclinesanddisappears。Ontheotherhandscience，throughitsimposingandmultiplieddiscoveries，erectspiecebypieceabasisofuniversaltrustanddeference，raisingitselfupfromaninterestingsubjectofcuriositytotherankofapublicpower；hencetheauthorityofReasonaugmentsandoccupiesitsplace。——Atimecomeswhen，thelatterauthorityhavingdispossessedtheformer，thefundamentalideastraditionhadreservedtoitselffallintothegraspofReason。
　　Investigationpenetratesintotheforbiddensanctuary。Insteadofdeferencethereisverification，andreligion，thestate，thelaw，custom，alltheorgans，inshort，ofmoralandpracticallife，becomesubjecttoanalysis，tobepreserved，restoredorreplaced，accordingtotheprescriptionsofthenewdoctrine。