XI。
　　[49]。DeTilly，I。24。
　　[50]。Necker，"Oeuvrescomplètes，"XV，259。
　　[51]。NarratedbyM。deBezenval，awitnessoftheduel。
　　[52]。Seeespecially:Saint—Aubin，"Lebalparé，""LeConcert；"—
　　Moreau，"LesElégants，""LaVied’unSeigneuràlamode，"thevignettesof"LanouvelleHéloise；"Beaudouin，"LaToilette，""LeCoucherdelaMariée；"Lawreince，"Qu’enditl’abbé？"—Watteau，thefirstindateandintalent，transposesthesecustomsanddepictsthemthebetterbymakingthemmorepoetic。—Oftherest，reread"Marianne，"byMarivaux；"LaVéritédanslevin，"byCollé；"Lecoindufeu，""Lanuitetlemoment，"byCrébillonfils；andtwolettersinthe"Correspondanceinédite"ofMme。duDeffant，onebytheAbbé
　　BarthélemyandtheotherbytheChevalierdeBoufflers，（I。258，341。）。
　　[53]。"CorrespondenceinéditedeMme。duDeffant，"publishedbyM。
　　deSaint—Aulaire，I。235，258，296，302，363。
　　[54]。Mme。deGenlis，"Dict。desEtiquettes，"II。38。"AdèleetThéodore，I，312，II，350，—GeorgeSand，"Histoiredemavie，"I。
　　228。—DeGoncourt，p。111。
　　[55]。GeorgeSand，I。59。
　　[56]。"Acomparativeview，"etc。，byJohnAndrews。
　　[57]。Mme。Vigée—Lebrun，I。15，154。
　　[58]。Chateaubriand，I。34。—"MémoiresdeMirabeau，"passim。—
　　GeorgeSand，I。59，76。
　　[59]。ComptesrendusdelasociétédeBerry（1863—1864）。
　　[60]。"HistoiredeTroyespendantlaRévolution，"byAlbertBabeau，I。46。
　　[61]。Foissets，"LePrésidentdesBrosses，"65，69，70，346。—
　　"LettresduPrésidentdesBrosses，"（ed。Coulomb），passim。—Pironbeinguneasyconcerninghis"OdeàPriape，"PresidentBouhier，amanofgreatandfineerudition，andtheleaststarchedoflearnedones，sentfortheyoungmanandsaidtohim，"Youareafoolishfellow。IfanyonepressesyoutoknowtheauthoroftheoffencetellhimthatI
　　am。"（Sainte—Beuve，"NouveauxLundis，"VII。414。）
　　[62]。Foisset，ibid……185。Sixaudiencesaweekandoftentwoadaybesideshislaborsasantiquarian，historian，linguist，geographer，editorandacademician。
　　[63]。"Souvenirs"，byPASQUIER（Etienne—Dennis，duc），chancelierdeFrance。inVIvolumes，LibrariePlon，Paris1893。
　　[64]。DeValfons，"Souvenirs，"60。
　　[65]。Montgaillard（aneye—witness）。"HistoiredeFrance，"II。246。
　　[66]。M。deConziéissurprisedatfouro’clockinthemorningbyhisrival，anofficerintheguards。"Makenonoise，"hesaidtohim，"adresslikeyourswillbebroughttomeandIwillhaveacockmadethenweshallbeonthesamelevel。"Avaletbringshimhisweapons。
　　Hedescendsintothegardenofthemansion，fightswiththeofficeranddisarmshim。（"Correspondance，"byMétra，XIV。May20，1783。）—
　　"LeComtedeClermont，"byJulesCousin，passim。—"JournaldeCollé，"III。232（July，1769）。
　　[67]。DeLoménie，"Beaumarchaisetsontemps，II。304。
　　[68]。DeLuynes，XVL161（September，1757）。ThevillagefestivalgiventoKingStanislas，byMme。deMauconseilatBagatelle。—
　　Bachaumont，III。247（September7，1767）。FestivalgivenbythePrincedeCondé。
　　[69]。"Correspondance，"byMétra，XIII。97（June15，1782），andV。
　　232（June24and25，1777）。—Mme。deGenlis"Mémoires，"chap。XIV。
　　[70]。Bachaumont，November17，1770。—"JournaldeCollé，"III。
　　136（April29，1767）。—DeMontlosier，"Mémoires，"I。43。"AttheresidenceoftheCommandant（atClermont）theywouldhavebeengladtoenlistmeinprivatetheatricals。"
　　[71]。"Correspondance。"byMétra，II。245（Nov。18。1775）。
　　[72]。Julien。"HistoireduThéatredeMadamedePompadour。"Theserepresentationslastsevenyearsandcostduringthewinteraloneof1749，300，000livres。—DeLuynes，X。45。—Mme。deHausset，230。
　　[73]。Mme。Campan，I。130。—Cf。withcaution，theMémoires，aresuspect，astheyhavebeengreatlymodifiedandarrangedbyFleury。—
　　DeGoncourt，114。
　　74。JulesCousin，"LeComtedeClermont，"p。21。—Mme。deGenlis，"Mémoires，"chap。3and11。—DeGoncourt，114。
　　[75]。Bachaumont，III。343（February23，1768）andIV。174，III。
　　232。—"JournaldCollé，"passim。—Collé，LaujonandPoisinetaretheprincipalpurveyorsforthesedisplays；theonlyoneofmeritis"LaVeritédansleVin。"Inthispieceinsteadof"Mylord。"therewasatfirstthe"bishopofAvranches，"andthepiecewasthusperformedatVillers—CotteretsinthehouseoftheDucd’Orléans。
　　[76]。Mme。d’Oberkirk，II。82。—Onthetoneofthebestsocietysee"Correspondance"byMétra，I。50，III。68，andBezenval（Ed。
　　Barrière）387to394。
　　[77]。Mme。deGenlis，"AdèleetThéodore，"II。362。
　　[78]。GeorgeSand，I。85。"Atmygrandmother’sIhavefoundboxesfullofcouplets，madrigalsandbitingsatires……IburnedsomeofthemsoobscenethatIwouldnotdarereadthemthrough，andthesewrittenbyabbésIhadknowntomyinfancyandbyamarquisofthebestblood。"Amongotherexamples，toneddown，thesongsontheBirdandtheShepherdess，maybereadin"Correspondance，"byMétra。
　　CHAPTERIII。DISADVANTAGESOFTHISDRAWINGROOMLIFE。
　　I。
　　ItsBarrennessandArtificiality。—ReturntoNatureandsentiment。
　　MEREpleasure，inthelongrun，ceasestogratify，andhoweveragreeablethisdrawingroomlifemaybe，itendsinacertainhollowness。Somethingislackingwithoutanyonebeingabletosaypreciselywhatthatsomethingis；thesoulbecomesrestless，andslowly，aidedbyauthorsandartists，itsetsaboutinvestigatingthecauseofitsuneasinessandtheobjectofitssecretlongings。
　　Barrennessandartificialityarethetwotraitsofthissociety，themoremarkedbecauseitismorecomplete，and，inthisone，pushedtoextreme，becauseithasattainedtosupremerefinement。Inthefirstplacenaturalnessisexcludedfromit；everythingisarrangedandadjusted，—decoration，dress，attitude，toneofvoice，words，ideasandevensentiments。"Agenuinesentimentissorare，"saidM。deV——
　　，"that，whenIleaveVersailles，Isometimesstandstillinthestreettoseeadoggnawabone。"[1]Man，inabandoninghimselfwhollytosociety，hadwithheldnoportionofhispersonalityforhimselfwhiledecorum，clingingtohimlikesomuchivy，hadabstractedfromhimthesubstanceofhisbeingandsubvertedeveryprincipleofactivity。
　　"Therewasthen，"saysonewhowaseducatedinthisstyle，[2]"acertainwayofwalking，ofsittingdown，ofsaluting，ofpickingupaglove，ofholdingafork，oftenderinganyarticle，inshort，acompletesetofgesturesandfacialexpressions，whichchildrenhadtobetaughtataveryearlyageinorderthathabitmightbecomeasecondnature，andthisconventionalityformedsoimportantaniteminthelifeofmenandwomeninaristocraticcirclesthattheactorsofthepresentday，withalltheirstudy，arescarcelyabletogiveusanideaofit。"
　　Notonlywastheoutwardfactitiousbut，again，theinward；therewasacertainprescribedmodeoffeelingandofthinking，oflivingandofdying。Itwasimpossibletoaddressamanwithoutplacingoneselfathisorders，orawomanwithoutcastingoneselfatherfeet，Fashion，’lebonton，’regulatedeveryimportantorpettyproceeding，themannerofmakingadeclarationtoawomanandofbreakinganengagement，ofenteringuponandmanagingaduel，oftreatinganequal，aninferiorandasuperior。Ifanyonefailedintheslightestdegreetoconformtothiscodeofuniversalcustom，heiscalled"aspecimen。"Amanofheartoroftalent，D’Argenson，forexample，boreasurnameof"simpleton，"becausehisoriginalitytranscendedtheconventionalstandard。"Thathasnoname，thereisnothinglikeit！"
　　embodiesthestrongestcensure。Inconductasinliterature，whateverdepartsfromacertaintypeisrejected。Thequantityofauthorizedactionsisasgreatasthenumberofauthorizedwords。Thesamesuper—
　　refinedtasteimpoverishestheinitiatoryactaswellastheinitiatoryexpression，peopleactingastheywrite，accordingtoacquiredformulasandwithinacircumscribedcircle。Undernoconsiderationcantheeccentric，theunforeseen，thespontaneous，vividinspirationbeaccepted。AmongtwentyinstancesIselecttheleaststrikingsinceitmerelyrelatestoasimplegesture，andisameasureofotherthings。Mademoisellede—obtains，throughfamilyinfluence，apensionforMarcel，afamousdancing—master，andrunsoff，delighted，tohisdomiciletoconveyhimthepatent。Marcelreceivesitandatonceflingsitonthefloor:"Mademoiselle，didI
　　teachyoutoofferanobjectinthatmanner？Pickupthatpaperandhandittomeasyououghtto。"Shepicksupthepatentandpresentsittohimwithallsuitablegrace。"That’sverywell，Mademoiselle，I
　　acceptit，althoughyourelbowwasnotquitesufficientlyrounded，andIthankyou。"[3]Somanygracesendinbecomingtiresome；afterhavingeatenrichfoodforyears，alittlemilkanddrybreadbecomeswelcome。
　　Amongallthesesocialflavoringsoneisespeciallyabused；onewhich，unremittinglyemployed，communicatestoalldishesitsfrigidandpiquantrelish，Imeaninsincerity（badinage）。Societydoesnottoleratepassion，andinthisitexercisesitsright。Onedoesnotentercompanytobeeithervehementorsomber；astrainedairoroneofconcentrationwouldappearinconsistent。Themistressofahouseisalwaysrightinremindingamanthathisemotionalconstraintbringsonsilence。"MonsieurSuch—a—one，youarenotamiabletoday。"Tobealwaysamiableis，accordingly，anobligation，and，throughthistraining，asensibilitythatisdiffusedthroughinnumerablelittlechannelsneverproducesabroadcurrent。"Onehasahundredfriends，andoutofthesehundredfriendstwoorthreemayhavesomechagrineveryday；butonecouldnotawardthemsympathyforanylengthoftimeas，inthatevent，onewouldbewantinginconsiderationfortheremainingninety—seven；"[4]onemightsighforaninstantwithsomeoneoftheninety—seven，andthatwouldbeall。MadameduDeffant，havinglostheroldestfriend，thePresidentHénault，thatverydaygoestosupinalargeassemblage:"Alas，"sheexclaimed，"hediedatsixo’clockthisevening；otherwiseyouwouldnotseemehere。"Underthisconstantrégimeofdistractionsanddiversionstherearenolongeranyprofoundsentiments；wehavenothingbutanepidermicexterior；loveitselfisreducedto"theexchangeoftwofantasies。"—
　　And，asonealwaysfallsonthesidetowhichoneinclines，levitybecomesdeliberateandamatterofelegance。[5]Indifferenceoftheheartisinfashion；onewouldbeashamedtoshowanygenuineemotion。
　　Onetakesprideinplayingwithlove，intreatingwomanasamechanicalpuppet，intouchingoneinwardspring，andthenanother，toforceout，atwill，herangerorherpity。Whatevershemaydo，thereisnodeviationfromthemostinsultingpoliteness；theveryexaggerationoffalserespectwhichislavishedonherisamockerybywhichindifferenceforherisfullymanifested。—Buttheygostillfurther，andinsoulsnaturallyunfeeling，gallantryturnsintowickedness。Throughennuiandthedemandforexcitement，throughvanity，andasaproofofdexterity，delightisfoundintormenting，inexcitingtears，indishonoringandinkillingwomenbyslowtorture。Atlast，asvanityisabottomlesspit，thereisnospeciesofblacknessofwhichthesepolishedexecutionersarenotcapable；thepersonagesofLaclosarederivedfromtheseoriginals。[6]—Monstersofthiskindare，undoubtedly，rare；butthereisnoneedofrevertingtothemtoascertainhowmuchegotismisharboredinthegallantryofsociety。Thewomenwhoerecteditintoanobligationarethefirsttorealizeitsdeceptiveness，and，amidstsomuchhomagewithoutheat，topineforthecommunicativewarmthofapowerfulsentiment。—Thecharacterofthecenturyobtainsitslasttraitand"themanoffeelingcomesonthestage。
　　II。RETURNTONATUREANDSENTIMENT。
　　Finaltraitofthecentury，anincreasedsensitivityinthebestcircles。—Dateofitsadvent。—Itssymptomsinartandinliterature。—Itsdominioninprivate。—Itsaffectations。—Itssincerity。—Itsdelicacy。
　　Itisnotthatthegroundworkofhabitsbecomesdifferent，fortheseremainequallyworldlyanddissipatedupthelast。Butfashionauthorizesanewaffectation，consistingofeffusions，reveries，andsensibilitiesasyetunknown。Thepointistoreturntonature，toadmirethecountry，todelightinthesimplicityofrusticmanners，tobeinterestedinvillagepeople，tobehuman，tohaveaheart，tofindpleasureinthesweetnessandtendernessofnaturalaffections，tobeahusbandandafather，andstillmore，topossessasoul，virtues，andreligiousemotions，tobelieveinProvidenceandimmortality，tobecapableofenthusiasm。Onewantstobeallthis，oratleastshowaninclinationthatway。Inanyevent，ifthedesiredoesexistitisonetheimpliedcondition，thatoneshallnotbetoomuchdisturbedinhisordinarypursuits，andthatthesensationsbelongingtotheneworderoflifeshallinnorespectinterferewiththeenjoymentsoftheoldone。Accordinglytheexaltationwhicharisesislittlemorethancerebralfermentation，andtheidyllistobealmostentirelyperformedinthedrawing—rooms。Behold，then，literature，thedrama，paintingandalltheartspursuingthesamesentimentalroadtosupplyheatedimaginationswithfactitiousnourishment。[7]Rousseau，inlaboredperiods，preachesthecharmsofanuncivilizedexistence，whileothermasters，betweentwomadrigals，fancythedelightofsleepingnakedintheprimevalforest。Theloversin"LaNouvelleHéloise"interchangepassagesoffinestylethroughfourvolumes，whereuponaperson"notmerelymethodicalbutprudent，"theComtessedeBlot，exclaims，atasocialgatheringattheDuchessedeChartres’，"awomantrulysensitive，unlessofextraordinaryvirtue，couldrefusenothingtothepassionofRousseau。"[8]PeoplecollectinadensecrowdintheExhibitionaround"L’AccordéedeVillage，""LaCrucheCassée，"andthe"Retourdenourrice，"withotherruralanddomesticidyllsbyGreuze；thevoluptuouselement，thetemptingundercurrentofsensualitymadeperceptibleinthefragilesimplicityofhisartlessmaidens，isadaintybitforthelibertinetasteswhicharekeptalivebeneathmoralaspirations。[9]Afterthese，Ducis，Thomas，Parny，Colardeau，Boucher，Delille，BernardindeSt。Pierre，Marmontel，Florian，themassoforators，authorsandpoliticians，themisanthropeChampfort，thelogicianLaHarpe，theministerNecker，theversifiersandtheimitatorsofGessnerandYoung，theBerquins，theBitaubés，nicelycombedandbedizened，holdingembroideredhandkerchiefstowipeawaytears，aretomarshalforththeuniversalecloguedowntotheacmeoftheRevolution。Marmontel’s"MoralTales"
　　appearinthecolumnsofthe"Mercure"for1791and1792，[10]whilethenumberfollowingthemassacresofSeptemberopenswithverses"tothemanesofmycanary—bird。"
　　Consequently，inallthedetailsofprivatelife，sensibilitydisplaysitsmagniloquence。AsmalltempletoFriendshipiserectedinapark。AlittlealtartoBenevolenceissetupinaprivatecloset。
　　DressesàlaJean—Jacques—Rousseauareworn"analogoustotheprinciplesofthatauthor。"Head—dressesareselectedwith"puffsausentiment"inwhichonemayplacetheportraitofone’sdaughter，mother，canaryordog，thewhole"garnishedwiththehairofone’sfatherorintimatefriend。"[11]Peoplekeepintimatefriendsforwhom"theyexperiencesomethingsowarmandsotenderthatitnearlyamountstoapassion"andwhomtheycannotgothreehoursadaywithoutseeing。"Everytimefemalecompanionsinterchangetenderideasthevoicesuddenlychangesintoapureandlanguishingtone，eachfondlyregardingtheotherwithapproachingheadsandfrequentlyembracing，"andsuppressingayawnaquarterofanhourafter，withanapinconcert，becausetheyhavenomoretosay。Enthusiasmbecomesanobligation。Ontherevivalof"Lepèredefamille"thereareasmanyhandkerchiefscountedasspectators，andladiesfaintaway。"Itiscustomary，especiallyforyoungwomen，tobeexcited，toturnpale，tomeltintotearsand，generally，tobeseriouslyaffectedonencounteringM。deVoltaire；theyrushintohisarms，stammerandweep，theiragitationresemblingthatofthemostpassionatelove。"[12]—Whenasociety—authorreadshisworkinadrawing—room，fashionrequiresthatthecompanyshouldutterexclamationsandsob，andthatsomeprettyfaintingsubjectshouldbeunlaced。Mme。deGenlis，wholaughsattheseaffectations，isnolessaffectedthantherest。Suddenlysomeoneinthecompanyisheardtosaytotheyoungorphanwhomsheisexhibiting:"Pamela，showusHéloise，"whereuponPamela，looseningherhair，fallsonherkneesandturnshereyesuptoheavenwithanairofinspiration，tothegreatapplauseoftheassembly。[13]Sensibilitybecomesaninstitution。ThesameMadamedeGenlisfoundsanorderofPerseverancewhichsoonincludes"asmanyasninetychevaliersintheverybestsociety。"Tobecomeamemberitisnecessarytosolvesomeriddle，toansweramoralquestionandpronounceadiscourseonvirtue。Everyladyorchevalierwhodiscoversandpublishes"threewell—verifiedvirtuousactions"obtainsagoldmedal。Eachchevalierhashis"brotherinarms，"eachladyhasherbosomfriendandeachmemberhasadevice，andeachdevice，framedinalittlepicture，figuresinthe"TempleofHonor，"asortoftentgallantlydecorated，andwhichM。deLauzuncausestobeerectedinthemiddleofagarden。[14]—Thesentimentalparadeiscomplete，adrawingroommasqueradebeingvisibleeveninthisrevivalofchivalry。
　　Thefrothofenthusiasmandoffinewordsneverthelessleavesintheheartaresiduumofactivebenevolence，trustfulness，andevenhappiness，or，atleast，expansivenessandfreedom。Wives，forthefirsttime，areseenaccompanyingtheirhusbandsintogarrison；
　　mothersdesiretonursetheirinfants，andfathersbegintointerestthemselvesintheeducationoftheirchildren。Simplicityagainformsanelementofmanners。Hair—powderisnolongerputonlittleboys’
　　heads；manyoftheseigniorsabandonlaces，embroideries，redheelsandthesword，exceptwheninfulldress。Peopleappearinthestreets"dressedàlaFranklin，incoarsecloth，withaknottycaneandthickshoes。"[15]Thetastenolongerrunsoncascades，statuesandstiffandpompousdecorations；thepreferenceisfortheEnglishgarden。ThequeenarrangesavillageforherselfattheTrianon，where，"dressedinafrockofwhitecambricmuslinandagauzeneck—handkerchief，andwithastrawhat，"shefishesinthelakeandseeshercowsmilked。
　　Etiquettefallsawaylikethepaintscalingofffromtheskin，disclosingthebrighthueofnaturalemotions。MadameAdelaidetakesupaviolinandreplacesanabsentmusiciantoletthepeasantgirlsdance16TheDuchessedeBourbongoesoutearlyinthemorningincognitotobestowalms，and"toseethepoorintheirgarrets。"TheDauphinejumpsoutofhercarriagetoassistawoundedpost—boy，apeasantknockeddownbyastag。ThekingandtheComted’Artoishelpacartertoextracthiscartfromthemud。Peoplenolongerthinkaboutself—constraint，andself—adjustment，andofkeepinguptheirdignityunderallcircumstances，andofsubjectingtheweaknessesofhumannaturetotheexigenciesofrank。OnthedeathofthefirstDauphin，[17]whilstthepeopleintheroomplacethemselvesbeforethekingtopreventhimfromenteringit，thequeenfallsathisknees，andhesaystoher，weeping，"Ah，mywife，ourdearchildisdead，sincetheydonotwishmetoseehim。"Andthenarratoraddswithadmiration；"Ialwaysseemtoseeagoodfarmerandhisexcellentwifeapreytothedeepestdespairatthelossoftheirbelovedchild。"
　　Tearsarenolongerconcealed，asitisapointofhonortobeahumanbeing。Onebecomeshumanandfamiliarwithone’sinferiors。Aprince，onareview，saystothesoldiersonpresentingtheprincesstothem，"Myboys，hereismywife。"Thereisadispositiontomakepeoplehappyandtotakegreatdelightintheirgratitude。Tobekind，tobelovedistheobjectoftheheadofagovernment，ofamaninplace。
　　ThisgoessofarthatGodisprefiguredaccordingtothismodel。The"harmoniesofnature"areconstruedintothedelicateattentionsofProvidence；oninstitutingfilialaffectiontheCreator"deignedtochooseforourbestvirtueoursweetestpleasure。"[18]—Theidyllwhichisimaginedtotakeplaceinheavencorrespondswiththeidyllpracticedonearth。Fromthepublicuptotheprinces，andfromtheprincesdowntothepublic，inprose，inverse，incomplimentsatfestivities，inofficialreplies，inthestyleofroyaledictsdowntothesongsofthemarket—women，thereisaconstantinterchangeofgracesandofsympathies。Applauseburstsoutinthetheateratanyversecontaininganallusiontoprinces，and，amomentafter，atthespeechwhichexaltsthemeritsofthepeople，theprincesreturnthecomplimentbyapplaudingintheirturn。[19]—Onallsides，justasthissocietyisvanishing，amutualdeference，aspiritofkindlinessarises，likeasoftandbalmyautumnalbreeze，todissipatewhateverharshnessremainsofitsaridityandtominglewiththeradianceofitslasthourstheperfumeofdyingroses。Wenowencounteractsandwordsofinfinitegrace，uniqueoftheirkind，likealovely，exquisitelittlefigureonoldSèvresporcelain。Oneday，ontheComtesseAméliedeBoufflersspeakingsomewhatflippantlyofherhusband，hermother—in—lawinterposes，"Youforgetthatyouarespeakingofmyson。"—"True，mamma，IthoughtIwasonlyspeakingofyourson—in—law。"Itissheagainwho，onplaying"theboat，"andobligedtodecidebetweenthisbelovedmother—in—lawandherownmother，whomshescarcelyknew，replies，"Iwouldsavemymotheranddrownwithmymother—in—law。"[20]TheDuchessedeChoiseul，theDuchessedeLauzun，andothersbesides，areequallycharmingminiatures。Whentheheartandthemindcombinetheirconsiderationstheyproducemasterpieces，andthese，liketheart，therefinementsandthesocietywhichsurroundsthem，possessacharmunsurpassedbyanythingexcepttheirownfragility。
　　III。PersonalityDefects。
　　Thefailingsofcharacterthusformed。—Adaptedtoonesituationbutnottoacontrarysituation。—Defectsofintelligence。—Defectsofdisposition。—Suchacharacterisdisarmedbygood—breeding。
　　Thereasonisthat，thebetterpeoplehavebecomeadaptedtoacertainsituationthelesspreparedaretheyfortheoppositesituation。Thehabitsandfacultiesthatservetheminthepreviousconditionbecomeprejudicialtotheminthenewone。Inacquiringtalentsadaptedtotranquiltimestheylosethosesuitedtotimesofagitation，reachingtheextremeoffeeblenessatthesametimewiththeextremeofurbanity。Themorepolishedanaristocracybecomestheweakeritbecomes，andwhennolongerpossessingthepowertopleaseitnotlongerpossessesthestrengthtostruggle。Andyet，inthisworld，wemuststruggleifwewouldlive。Inhumanity，asinnature，empirebelongstoforce。Everycreaturethatlosestheartandenergyofself—defensebecomessomuchmorecertainlyapreyaccordingasitsbrilliancy，imprudenceandevengentlenessdeliveritoverinadvancetothegrossappetitesroamingaroundit。Wherefindresistanceincharactersformedbythehabitswehavejustdescribed？Todefendourselveswemust，firstofall，lookcarefullyaroundus，seeandforesee，andprovidefordanger。Howcouldtheydothislivingastheydid？Theircircleistoonarrowandtoocarefullyenclosed。Confinedtotheircastlesandmansionstheyseeonlythoseoftheirownsphere，theyhearonlytheechooftheirownideas，theyimaginethatthereisnothingbeyondthepublicseemstoconsistoftwohundredpersons。
　　Moreover，disagreeabletruthsarenotadmittedintoadrawing—room，especiallywhenofpersonalimport，anidlefancytherebecomingadogmabecauseitbecomesconventional。Here，accordingly，wefindthosewho，alreadydeceivedbythelimitationsoftheiraccustomedhorizon，fortifytheirdelusionstillmorebydelusionsabouttheirfellowmen。Theycomprehendnothingofthevastworld，whichenvelopstheirlittleworld；theyareincapableofenteringintothesentimentsofabourgeois，ofavillager；theyhavenoconceptionofthepeasantasheisbutastheywouldlikehimtobe。Theidyllisinfashion，andnoonedaresdisputeit；anyothersuppositionwouldbefalsebecauseitwouldbedisagreeable，andasthedrawingroomshavedecidedthatallwillgowell，allmustgowell。Neverwasadelusionmorecompleteandmorevoluntary。TheDucd’OrléansofferstowagerahundredlouisthattheStates—Generalwilldissolvewithoutaccomplishinganything，notevenabolishingthelettre—de—cachet……
　　Afterthedemolitionhasbegun，andyetagainafteritisfinished，theywillformopinionsnomoreaccurate。Theyhavenoideaofsocialarchitecture；theyknownothingaboutitsmaterials，itsproportions，oritsharmoniousbalance；theyhavehadnohandinit，theyhaveneverworkedatit。Theyareentirelyignorantoftheoldbuilding[21]
　　inwhichtheyoccupythefirststory。Theyarenotqualifiedtocalculateeitheritspressureoritsresistance。[[22]]Theyconclude，finally，thatitisbettertoletthethingtumblein，andthattherestorationoftheedificeintheirbehalfwillfollowitsowncourse，andthattheywillreturntotheirdrawing—room，expresslyrebuiltforthem，andfreshlygilded，tobeginoveragainthepleasantconversationwhichanaccident，sometumultinthestreet，hadinterrupted。[23]Clear—sightedinsociety，theyareobtuseinpolitics。Theyexamineeverythingbytheartificiallightofcandles；
　　theyaredisturbedandbewilderedinthepowerfullightofopenday。
　　Theeyelidhasgrownstiffthroughage。Theorgansolongbentonthepettydetailsofonerefinedlifenolongertakesinthepopularlifeofthemasses，and，inthenewsphereintowhichitissuddenlyplunged，itsrefinementbecomesthesourceofitsblindness。
　　Neverthelessactionisnecessary，fordangerisseizingthembythethroat。Butthedangerisofanignoblespecies，whiletheireducationhasprovidedthemwithnoarmssuitableforwardingitoff。Theyhavelearnedhowtofence，butnothowtobox。TheyarestillthesonsofthoseatFontenoy，who，insteadofbeingthefirsttofire，courteouslyraisedtheirhatsandaddressedtheirEnglishantagonists，"No，gentlemen，fireyourselves。"Beingtheslavesofgood—breedingtheyarenotfreeintheirmovements。Numerousacts，andthosethemostimportant，thoseofasudden，vigorousandrudestamp，areopposedtotherespectawell—bredmanentertainsforothers，oratleasttotherespectwhichheowestohimself。Theydonotconsidertheseallowableamongthemselves；theydonotdreamoftheirbeingallowed，and，thehighertheirpositionthemoretheirrankfettersthem。WhentheroyalfamilysetsoutforVarennestheaccumulateddelaysbywhichtheyarelostaretheresultofetiquette。MadamedeTouzelinsistsonherplaceinthecarriagetowhichsheisentitledasgovernessoftheChildrenofFrance。Theking，onarriving，isdesirousofconferringthemarshal’sbatononM。deBouillé，andafterrunningtoandfrotoobtainabatonheisobligedtoborrowthatoftheDucdeChoiseul。Thequeencannotdispensewithatravelingdressing—caseandonehastobemadelargeenoughtocontaineveryimaginableimplementfromawarming—pantoasilverporridge—dish，withotherdishesbesides；and，asiftherewerenoshiftstobehadinBrussels，therehadtobeacompleteoutfitinthislineforherselfandherchildren。[24]—Aferventdevotion，evenhumanness，thefrivolityofthesmallliteraryspirit，gracefulurbanity，profoundignorance，[25]thelackorrigidityofthecomprehensionanddeterminationarestillgreaterwiththeprincesthanwiththenobles。
　　—Allareimpotentagainstthewildandroaringoutbreak。Theyhavenotthephysicalsuperioritythatcanmasterit，thevulgarcharlatanismwhichcancharmitaway，thetricksofaScapintothrowitoffthescent，thebull’sneck，themountebank’sgestures，thestentor’slungs，inshort，theresourcesoftheenergetictemperamentandofanimalcunning，alonecapableofdivertingtherageoftheunchainedbrute。Tofindsuchfighters，theyseekthreeorfourmenofadifferentraceandeducation，menhavingsufferedandroamedabout，abrutalcommonerliketheabbéMaury，acolossalanddirtysatyrlikeMirabeau，aboldandpromptadventurerlikethatDumouriezwho，atCherbourg，when，throughthefeeblenessoftheDucdeBeuvron，thestoresofgrainweregivenupandtheriotbegan，hootedatandnearlycuttopieces，suddenlyseesthekeysofthestorehouseinthehandsofaDutchsailor，and，yellingtothemobthatitwasbetrayedthroughaforeignerhavinggotholdofthekeys，himselfjumpsdownfromtherailing，seizesthekeysandhandsthemtotheofficeroftheguard，sayingtothepeople，"Iamyourfather，Iamthemantoberesponsibleforthestorehouse！"[26]Toentrustoneselfwithportersandbrawlers，tobecollaredbyapoliticalclub，toimproviseonthehighways，tobarklouderthanthebarkers，tofightwiththefistsoracudgel，asmuchlaterwiththeyoungandrichgangs，againstbrutesandlunaticsincapableofemployingotherarguments，andwhomustbeansweredinthesamevein，tomountguardovertheAssembly，toactasvolunteerconstable，tospareneitherone’sownhidenorthatofothers，tobeoneofthepeopletofacethepeople，allthesearesimpleandeffectualproceedings，butsovulgarastoappeartothemdisgusting。Theideaofresortingtosuchmeansneverenterstheirhead；theyneitherknowhow，nordotheycaretomakeuseoftheirhandsinsuchbusiness。[27]Theyareskilledonlyinthedueland，almostimmediately，thebrutalityofopinion，bymeansofassaults，stopsthewaytopolitecombats。Theirarms，theshaftsofthedrawing—room，epigrams，witticisms，songs，parodies，andotherneedlethrustsareimpotentagainstthepopularbull。[28]Theirpersonalitylacksbothrootsandresources；throughsuper—refinementithasweakened；theirnature，impoverishedbyculture，isincapableofthetransformationsbywhichwearerenewedandsurvive。—Anall—powerfuleducationhasrepressed，mollified，andenfeebledtheirveryinstincts。Abouttodie，theyexperiencenoneofthereactionsofbloodandrage，theuniversalandsuddenrestorationoftheforces，themurderousspasm，theblindirresistibleneedofstrikingthosewhostrikethem。IfagentlemanisarrestedinhisownhousebyaJacobinweneverfindhimsplittinghisheadopen。[29]Theyallowthemselvestobetaken，goingquietlytoprison；tomakeanuproarwouldbebadtaste；itisnecessary，aboveallthings，toremainwhattheyare，well—bredpeopleofsociety。Inprisonbothmenandwomendressthemselveswithgreatcare，payeachothervisitsandkeepupadrawing—room；itmaybeattheendofacorridor，bythelightofthreeorfourcandles；butheretheycirculatejests，composemadrigals，singsongsandpridethemselvesonbeingasgallant，asgayandasgraciousasever:needpeoplebemoroseandill—behavedbecauseaccidenthasconsignedthemtoapoorinn？Theypreservetheirdignityandtheirsmilebeforetheirjudgesandonthecart；thewomen，especially，mountthescaffoldwiththeeaseandserenitycharacteristicofaneveningentertainment。Itisthesupremecharacteristicofgood—breeding，erectedintoanuniqueduty，andbecometothisaristocracyasecondnature，whichisfoundinitsvirtuesaswellasinitsvices，initsfacultiesaswellasinitsimpotencies，initsprosperityasatitsfall，andwhichadornsiteveninthedeathtowhichitconducts。
　　Notes:
　　[1]。Champfort，110。
　　[2]。GeorgeSand，V。59。"Iwasrebukedforeverything；Inevermadeamovementwhichwasnotcriticized。"
　　[3]。"Paris，Versailles，etlesprovinces，"I。162。—"ThekingofSwedenishere；bewearsrosettesonhisbreeches；allisover；heisridiculous，andaprovincialking。"（"LeGouvernementdeNormandie，"
　　byHippeau，IV。237，July4，1784。
　　[4]。Stendhal，"Rome，NaplesandFlorence，"379。StatedbyanEnglishlord。
　　[5]Marivaux，"LaPetit—Ma？trecorrigé。—Gresset，"LeMéchant。"
　　Crébillonfils，"LaNuitetleMoment，"（especiallythescenebetweenthescenebetweenCitandreandLucinde）。—Collé，"LaVeritédansleVin，"（thepartoftheabbéwiththewiththeprésidente）。—DeBezenval，79。（ThecomtedeFriseandMme。deBlot）。"VieprivéeduMaréchaldeRichelieu，"（sceneswithMme。Michelin）。—DeGoncourt，167to174。
　　[6]。Laclos，"LesLiaisonsDangereuses。"Mme。deMerteuilwascopiedafteraMarquisedeGrenoble。—RemarkthedifferencebetweenLovelaceandValmont，onebeingstimulatedbyprideandtheotherbyvanity。
　　[7]。Thegrowthofsensibilityisindicatedbythefollowingdates:
　　Rousseau，"Surl’influencedeslettresetdesarts，"1749；"Surl’inégalité，"1753；"NouvelleHéloise，"1759。Greuze，"LePéredeFamillelisantlaBible，"1755；"L’AccordéedeVillage，"1761。
　　Diderot，"Lefilsnatural，"1757；"LePéredeFamille，"1758。
　　[8]。Mme。deGenlis，"Mémoires，"chap。XVII。—GeorgeSand，I。72。
　　TheyoungMme。deFrancueil，onseeingRousseauforthefirsttime，burstintotears。
　　[9]。ThispointhasbeenbroughtoutwithasmuchskillasaccuracybyMessieursdeGoncourtin"L’Artaudix—huitièmesiècle，"I。433—
　　438。
　　[10]。ThenumberforAugust，1792，contains"LesRivauxd’eux—
　　mêmes。"—Aboutthesametimeotherpiecesareinsertedinthe"Mercure，"suchas"ThefederalunionofHymenandCupid，""LesJaloux，""APastoralRomance，""OdeAnacréontiqueàMlle。S。D……
　　"etc。
　　[11]。Mme。deGenlis，"AdéleetThéodore，"I。312。—DeGoncourt，"LaFemmeandixhuitièmesiècle，"318。—Mme。d’Oberkirk，I。56。—
　　DescriptionofthepuffausentimentoftheDuchessedeChartres（deGoncourt，311）:"Inthebackgroundisawomanseatedinachairandholdinganinfant，whichrepresentstheDucdeValoisandhisnurse。
　　Ontherightisaparrotpeckingatacherry，andontheleftalittleNegro，theduchess’stwopets:thewholeisintermingledwithlocksofhairofalltherelationsofMme。deChartres，thehairofherhusband，fatherandfather—in—law。"
　　[12]。Mme。deGenlis，"LesDangersduMonde。"I，scèneVII；II，scèneIV；—"AdèleetThéodore，"I。312；—"SouvenirsdeFélicie，"
　　199；—Bachaumont，IV，320。
　　[13]。Mme。delaRochejacquelein，"Mémoires。"
　　[14]。Mme。deGenlis，"Mémoires，"chap。XX。—DeLauzun，270。
　　[15]。Mme。d’Oberkirk，II。35（1783—1784）。Mme。Campan，III。371。—
　　Mercier，"TableaudeParis，"passim。
　　[16]。"Correspondance"byMétra，XVII。55，（1784）。——Mme。
　　d’Oberkirk，II。234。—"MarieAntoinette，"byd’ArnethandGeffroy，II。63，29。
　　[17]。"LeGouvernementdeNormandie，"byHippeau，IV。387（LettersofJune4，1789，byaneye—witness）。
　　[18]。Florian，"Ruth"。
　　[19]。Hippeau，IV。86（June23，1773），ontherepresentationof"LeSiegedeCalais，"attheComédieFran？aise，atthemomentwhenMlle。
　　Vestrishaspronouncedthesewords:
　　LeFran？aisdanssonprinceaimeàtrouverunfrèreQui，néfilsdel’Etat，endeviennelepère。
　　"LonganduniversalplauditsgreetedtheactresswhohadturnedinthedirectionoftheDauphin。"Inanotherplacetheseversesrecur:
　　Quellele？onpourvous，superbespotentats！
　　Veillezsurvossujetsdanslerangleplusbas，Tel，loindevosregards，danslamisèreexpire，Quiquelquejourpeut—être，e？tsauvévotreempire。
　　"TheDauphinandtheDauphineinturnapplaudedthespeech。Thisdemonstrationoftheirsensibilitywaswelcomedwithnewexpressionsofaffectionandgratitude。"
　　[20]。MadamedeGenlis，"SouvenirsdeFélicie，"76，161。
　　[21]。M。deMontlosier；intheConstituentAssembly，isabouttheonlypersonfamiliarwithfeudallaws。
　　[22]。"AcompetentandimpartialmanwhowouldestimatethechancesofthesuccessoftheRévolutionwouldfindthattherearemoreagainstitthanagainstthefivewinningnumbersinalottery；
　　butthisispossible，andunfortunately，thistime，theyallcameout"
　　（DucdeLévis，"Souvenirs，"328。）
　　[23]。"Corinne，"byMadamedeSta？l，thecharacteroftheComted’Erfeuil。—Malonet，"Mémoires，"II。297（amemorableinstanceofpoliticalstupidity）。
　　[24]。Mme。Campan，II。140，313。—DucdeChoiseul，"Mémoires。"
　　[25]。JournalofDumontd’Urville，commanderofthevesselwhichtransportedCharlesX。intoexilein1830。—Seenote4attheendofthevolume。
　　[26]。Dumouriez，"Mémoires，"III。chap。III。（July21，1789）。
　　[27]。1"Allthesefineladiesandgentlemenwhoknewsowellhowtobowandcourtesyandwalkoveracarpet，couldnottakethreestepsonGod’searthwithoutgettingdreadfullyfatigued。Theycouldnotevenopenorshutadoor；theyhadnotevenstrengthenoughtoliftalogtoputitonthefire；theyhadtocallaservanttodrawupachairforthem；theycouldnotcomeinorgooutbythemselves。whatcouldtheyhavedonewiththeirgraces，withouttheirvaletstosupplytheplaceofhandsandfeet？"（GeorgeSand，V。61。）
　　[28]。WhenMadamedeF—hadexpressedacleverthingshefeltquiteproudofit。M—remarkedthatonutteringsomethingcleveraboutanemeticshewasquitesurprisedthatshewasnotpurged。Champfort，107。
　　[29]。Thefollowingisanexampleofwhatarmedresistancecanaccomplishforamaninhisownhouse。"AgentlemanofMarseilles，proscribedandlivinginhiscountrydomicile，hasprovidedhimselfwithgun，pistolsandsaber，andnevergoesoutwithoutthisarmament，declaringthathewillnotbetakenalive。Nobodydaredtoexecutetheorderofarrest。（AnnePlumptree，"AResidenceofthreeyearsinFrance，"（1802—1805），II。115。
　　BOOKTHIRD。THESPIRITANDTHEDOCTRINE。
　　CHAPTERI。SCIENTIFICACQUISITION。
　　Thecompositionoftherevolutionaryspirit。——Scientificacquisitionitsfirstelement。
　　Onseeingamanwithasomewhatfeebleconstitution，buthealthyinappearanceandofsteadyhabits，greedilyswallowsomenewkindofcordialandthensuddenlyfalltotheground，foamatthemouth，actdeliriouslyandwritheinconvulsions，weatoncesurmisethatthisagreeablebeveragecontainedsomedangeroussubstance；butadelicateanalysisisnecessarytodetectanddecomposethepoison。Thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcenturycontainedpoison，andofakindaspotentasitwaspeculiar；for，notonlyisitalonghistoricelaboration，thefinalandcondensedessenceofthetendencyofthethoughtofthecentury，butagainitstwoprincipalingredientshavethispeculiarity，that，separate，theyaresalutary，andincombinationtheyformavenomouscompound。
　　I。SCIENTIFICPROGRESS。
　　Theaccumulationandprogressofdiscoveriesinscienceandinnature。—Theyserveasastarting—pointforthenewphilosophers。
　　Thefirstisscientificdiscovery，admirableonallsides，andbeneficentinitsnature；itismadeupofmassesoffactsslowlyaccumulatedandthensummarilypresented，orinrapidsuccession。Forthefirsttimeinhistorythesciencesexpandandaffirmeachothertotheextentofproviding，not，asformerly，underGalileoandDescartes，constructivefragments，orprovisionalscaffolding，butadefiniteanddemonstratedsystemoftheuniverse，thatofNewton。[1]
　　Aroundthiscapitalfact，almostallthediscoveriesofthecentury，eitherascomplementaryorasprolongations，rangethemselves。InpuremathematicswehavetheInfinitesimalCalculusdiscoveredsimultaneouslybyLeibnitzandNewton，mechanicsreducedbyd’Alemberttoasingletheorem，andthatsuperbcollectionoftheorieswhich，elaboratedbytheBernouillis，Euler，Clairaut，d’Alembert，TaylorandMaclaurin，isfinallycompletedattheendofthecenturybyMonge，Lagrange，andLaplace。[2]Inastronomy，theseriesofcalculationsandobservationswhich，fromNewtontoLaplace，transformsscienceintoaproblemofmechanics，explainsandpredictsthemovementsoftheplanetsandoftheirsatellites，indicatingtheoriginandformationofoursolarsystem，and，extendingbeyondthis，throughthediscoveriesofHerschel，affordinganinsightintothedistributionofthestellararchipelagos，andofthegrandoutlinesofcelestialarchitecture。Inphysics，thedecompositionoflightandtheprinciplesofopticsdiscoveredbyNewton，thevelocityofsound，theformofitsundulations，andfromSauveurtoChladni，fromNewtontoBernouilliandLagrange，theexperimentallawsandleadingtheoremsofAcoustics，theprimarylawsoftheradiationofheatbyNewton，KraftandLambert，thetheoryoflatentheatbyBlack，theproportionsofcaloricbyLavoisierandLaplace，thefirsttrueconceptionsofthesourceoffireandheat，theexperiments，laws，andmeansbywhichDufay，Nollet，Franklin，andespeciallyCoulombexplain，manipulateand，forthefirsttime，utilizeelectricity。—InChemistry，allthefoundationsofthescience:isolatedoxygen，nitrogenandhydrogen，thecompositionofwater，thetheoryofcombustion，chemicalnomenclature，quantitativeanalysis，theindestructibilityofmatter，inshort，thediscoveriesofScheele，Priestley，CavendishandStahl，crownedwiththeclearandconcisetheoryofLavoisier。—InMineralogy，thegoniometer，theconstancyofanglesandtheprimarylawsofderivationbyRomédeLisle，andnextthediscoveryoftypesandthemathematicaldeductionofsecondaryformsbyHaüy。—InGeology，theverificationandresultsofNewton’stheory，theexactformoftheearth，thedepressionofthepoles，theexpansionoftheequator，[3]thecauseandthelawofthetides，theprimitivefluidityoftheplanet，theconstancyofitsinternalheat，andthen，withBuffon，Desmarets，HuttonandWerner，theaqueousorigneousoriginofrocks，thestratificationsoftheearth，thestructureofbedsoffossils，theprolongedandrepeatedsubmersionofcontinents，theslowgrowthofanimalandvegetabledeposits，thevastantiquityoflife，thestripping，fracturingandgradualtransformationoftheterrestrialsurface，[4]and，finallythegrandpictureinwhichBuffondescribesinapproximatemannertheentirehistoryofourglobe，fromthemomentitformedamassofglowinglavadowntothetimewhenourspecies，aftersomanylostorsurvivingspecies，wasabletoinhabitit。—Uponthisscienceofinorganicmatterweseearisingatthesametimethescienceoforganicmatter。Grew，andthenVaillanthadjustdemonstratedthesexualsystemanddescribedthefecundatingofplants；Linnaeusinventsbotanicalnomenclatureandthefirstcompleteclassifications；theJussieusdiscoverthesubordinationofcharacteristicsandnaturalclassification。DigestionisexplainedbyRéaumurandSpallanzani，respirationbyLavoisier；Prochaskaverifiesthemechanismofreflexactions；HallerandSpallanzaniexperimentonanddescribetheconditionsandphasesofgeneration。Scientistspenetratetotheloweststagesofanimallife。RéaumurpublisheshisadmirableobservationsoninsectsandLyonnetdevotestwentyyearstoportrayingthewillow—caterpillar；Spallanzaniresuscitateshisrotifers，Tremblaydissectshisfresh—waterpolyps，andNeedhamrevealshisinfusoria。Theexperimentalconceptionoflifeisdeducedfromthesevariousresearches。Buffonalready，andespeciallyLamarck，intheirgreatandincompletesketches，outlinewithpenetratingdivinationtheleadingfeaturesofmodernphysiologyandzoology。
　　Organicmoleculeseverywherediffusedoreverywheregrowing，speciesofglobulesconstantlyincourseofdecayandrestoration，which，throughtheblindandspontaneousdevelopment，transformthemselves，multiplyandcombine，andwhich，withouteitherforeigndirectionoranypreconceivedend，solelythroughtheeffectoftheirstructureandsurroundings，unitetogethertoformthosemasterlyorganismswhichwecallplantsandanimals:inthebeginning，thesimplestforms，andnextaslow，gradual，complexandperfectedorganization；theorgancreatedthroughhabits，necessityandsurroundingmedium；hereditytransmittingacquiredmodifications，[5]alldenotinginadvance，inastateofconjectureandapproximation，thecellulartheoryoflaterphysiologists[6]andtheconclusionsofDarwin。[7]Inthepicturewhichthehumanminddrawsofnature，thegeneraloutlineismarkedbythescienceoftheeighteenthcentury，thearrangementofitsplanandoftheprincipalmassesbeingsocorrectlymarked，thattodaytheleadinglinesremainintact。Withtheexceptionofafewpartialcorrectionswehavenothingtoefface。
　　Thisvastsupplyofpositiveorprobablefacts，eitherdemonstratedoranticipated，furnishesfood，substanceandimpulsetotheintellectoftheeighteenthcentury。Considertheleadersofpublicopinion，thepromotersofthenewphilosophy:theyareall，invariousdegrees，versedinthephysicalandnaturalsciences。Notonlyaretheyfamiliarwiththeoriesandauthorities，butagaintheyhaveapersonalknowledgeoffactsandthings。Voltaire[8]isamongthefirsttoexplaintheopticalandastronomicaltheoriesofNewton，andagaintomakecalculations，observationsandexperimentsofhisown。HewritesmemoirsfortheAcademyofSciences"OntheMeasureofMotiveForces，"
　　and"OntheNatureandDiffusionofHeat。"HehandlesRéamur’sthermometer，Newton’sprism，andMuschenbrock’spyrometer。InhislaboratoryatCireyhehasalltheknownapparatusforphysicsandchemistry。Heexperimentswithhisownhandonthereflectionoflightinspace，ontheincreaseofweightincalcifiedmetals，ontherenewalofamputatedpartsofanimals，andinthespiritofatruesavant，persistently，withconstantrepetitions，eventothebeheadingoffortysnailsandslugs，toverifyanassertionmadebySpallanzani。
　　—Thesamecuriosityandthesamepreparationprevailswithallimbuedwiththesamespirit。Intheothercamp，amongtheCartesians，abouttodisappear，Fontenelleisanexcellentmathematician，thecompetentbiographerofalleminentmenofscience，theofficialsecretaryandtruerepresentativeoftheAcademyofSciences。Inotherplaces，intheAcademyofBordeaux，Montesquieureadsdiscoursesonthemechanismoftheecho，andontheuseoftherenalglands；hedissectsfrogs，teststheeffectofheatandcoldonanimatedtissues，andpublishesobservationsonplantsandinsects。—Rousseau，theleastinstructedofall，attendsthelecturesofthechemistRouelle，botanizingandappropriatingtohimselfalltheelementsofhumanknowledgewithwhichtowritehis"Emile。"—Diderottaughtmathematicsanddevouredeveryscienceandarteventothetechnicalprocessesofallindustries。D’Alembertstandsinthefirstrankofmathematicians。BuffontranslatedNewton’stheoryofflux，andtheVegetableStaticsofHales；heisinturnametallurgist，optician，geographer，geologistand，lastofall，ananatomist。Condillac，toexplaintheuseofsignsandtherelationofideas，writesabridgmentsofarithmetic，algebra，mechanicsandastronomy。[9]Maupertuis，CondorcetandLalandearemathematicians，physicistsandastronomers；
　　d’Holbach，LamettrieandCabanisarechemists，naturalistsphysiologistsandphysicians。—Prophetsofasuperiororinferiorkind，mastersorpupils，specialistsorsimpleamateurs，alldrawdirectlyorindirectlyfromthelivingsourcethathasjustburstforth。ThisistheirbasiswhentheybegintoteachaboutMan，whatheis，fromwhencehecame，whereheisgoing，whathemaybecomeandwhatheshouldbe。Anewpointofdepartureleadstonewpointsofview；sothattheidea，whichwasthenentertainedofthehumanbeingwillbecomecompletelytransformed。
　　II。SCIENCEDETACHEDFROMTHEOLOGY。
　　Changeofthepointofviewinthescienceofman。—Itisdetachedfromtheologyandisunitedwiththenaturalsciences。
　　Letussupposeamindthoroughlyimbuedwiththesenewtruths，tobeplacedontheorbitofSaturn，andlethimobserve[10]。Amidstthisvastandoverwhelmingspaceandintheseboundlesssolararchipelagoes，howsmallisourownsphere，andtheearth，whatagrainofsand！Whatmultitudesofworldsbeyondourown，and，iflifeexistsinthem，whatcombinationsarepossibleotherthanthoseofwhichwearetheresult！Whatislife，whatisorganicsubstanceinthemonstrousuniversebutanindifferentmass，apassingaccident，thecorruptionofafewepidermicparticles？Andifthisbelife，whatisthathumanitywhichissosmallafragmentofit？—SuchisManinnature，anatom，andanephemeralparticle；letthisnotbelostsightofinourtheoriesconcerninghisorigin，hisimportance，andhisdestiny。
　　"Amitethatwouldconsideritselfasthecenterofallthingswouldbegrotesque，andthereforeitisessentialthataninsectalmostinfinitelysmallshouldnotshowconceitalmostinfinitelygreat。"[11]—
　　Howslowhasbeentheevolutionoftheglobeitself！Whatmyriadsofagesbetweenthefirstcoolingofitsmassandthebeginningsoflife！[12]Ofwhatconsequenceistheturmoilofourant—hillcomparedtothegeologicaltragedyinwhichwehavebornnopart，thestrifebetweenfireandwater，thethickeningoftheearth’scrust，formationoftheuniversalsea，theconstructionandseparationofcontinents！
　　Previoustoourhistoricalrecordwhatalonghistoryofvegetableandanimalexistence！Whatasuccessionoffloraandfauna！Whatgenerationsofmarineorganismsinformingthestrataofsediment！
　　Whatgenerationsofplansinformingthedepositsofcoal！Whattransformationsofclimatetodrivethepachydermataawayfromthepole！—AndnowcomesMan，thelatestofall，heisliketheuppermostbudonthetopofatallancienttree，flourishingthereforawhile，but，likethetree，destinedtoperishafterafewseasons，whentheincreasingandforetoldcongelationallowingthetreetoliveshallforcethetreetodie。Heisnotaloneonthebranch；beneathhim，aroundhim，onalevelwithhim，otherbudsshootforth，bornofthesamesap；buthemustnotforget，ifhewouldcomprehendhisownbeing，that，alongwithhimself，otherlivesexistinhisvicinity，graduateduptohimandissuingfromthesametrunk。Ifheisuniqueheisnotisolated，beingananimalamongotheranimals；[13]inhimandwiththem，substance，organizationandbirth，theformationandrenewalofthefunctions，sensesandappetites，aresimilar，whilehissuperiorintelligence，liketheirrudimentaryintelligence，hasforanindispensableorgananervousmatterwhosestructureisthesamewithhimaswiththem。—Thussurrounded，broughtforthandbornealongbynature，isittobesupposedthatinnatureheisanempirewithinanempire？Heisthereasthepartofawhole，byvirtueofbeingaphysicalbody，achemicalcomposition，ananimatedorganism，asociableanimal，amongotherbodies，othercompositions，othersocialanimals，allanalogoustohim；andbyvirtueoftheseclassifications，heis，likethem，subjecttolaws。—For，ifthefirstcauseisunknowntous，andwedisputeamongourselvestoknowwhatitis，whetherinnateorexternal，weaffirmwithcertaintythemodeofitsaction，andthatitoperatesonlyaccordingtofixedandgenerallaws。
　　Everycircumstance，whateveritmaybe，isconditioned，and，itsconditionsbeinggiven，itneverfailstoconformtothem。Oftwolinksformingachain，thefirstalwaysdrawsonthesecond。Therearelaws:
　　*fornumbers，forms，andmotions，*fortherevolutionoftheplanetsandthefallofbodies，*forthediffusionoflightandtheradiationofheat，*fortheattractionsandrepulsionofelectricity，*forchemicalcombinations，and*forthebirth，equilibriumanddissolutionoforganicbodies。
　　Theyexistforthebirth，maintenance，anddevelopmentofhumansocieties，fortheformation，conflict，anddirectionofideas，passionsanddeterminationsofhumanindividuals。[14]Inallthis，Manisboundupwithnature；hence，ifwewouldcomprehendhim，wemustobservehiminher，afterher，andlikeher，withthesameindependence，thesameprecautions，andinthesamespirit。Throughthisremarkalonethemethodofthemoralsciencesisfixed。Inhistory，inpsychology，inmorals，inpolitics，thethinkersoftheprecedingcentury，Pascal，Bossuet，Descartes，Fenelon，Malebrance，andLaBruyère，allbasedtheirthoughtsondogma；Itisplaintoeveryonequalifiedtoreadthemthattheirbaseispredetermined。
　　Religionprovidedthemwithacompletetheoryofthemoralorderofthings；accordingtothistheory，latentorexposed，theydescribedManandaccommodatedtheirobservationstothepreconceivedmodel。Thewritersoftheeighteenthcenturyrejectedthismethod:theydwellonMan，ontheobservableMan，andonhissurroundings；intheireyes，conclusionsaboutthesoul，itsorigin，anditsdestiny，mustcomeafterwardsanddependwholly，notonthatwhichtheRevelationprovided，butonthatwhichobservationdoesandwillprovide。Themoralsciencesarenowdivorcedfromtheologyandattachthemselves，asifaprolongationofthem，tothephysicalsciences。
　　III。THETRANSFORMATIONOFHISTORY。
　　Voltaire。—Criticismandconceptionsofunity。—Montesquieu。—Anoutlineofsociallaws。
　　Throughtheseparationfromtheologyandtheattachmenttonaturalsciencethehumanitiesbecomescience。Inhistory，everyfoundationonwhichwenowbuild，islaid。CompareBossuet’s"Discourssurl’histoireuniverselle，"withVoltaire’s"Essaisurlesm？urs，"andweatonceseehownewandprofoundthesefoundationswere。—Thecriticsofreligiousdogmahereestablishtheirfundamentalprinciple:
　　inviewofthefactthatthelawsofnatureareuniversalandpermanentitfollowsthat，inthemoralworld，asinthephysicalworld，therecanbenoexceptionfromthem，andthatnoarbitraryorforeignforceintervenestodisturbtheregularscientificprocedures，whichwillprovideasuremeansofdiscerningmythfromtruth。[15]
　　Biblicalexegesisisbornoutofthismaxim，andnotalonethatofVoltaire，butalsothecriticalexplanatorymethodsofthefuture。
　　[16]Meanwhiletheyskepticallyexaminetheannalsofallpeople，carelesslycuttingawayandsuppressing；toohastily，extravagantly，especiallywheretheancientsareconcerned，becausetheirhistoricalexpeditionissimplyascoutingtrip；butneverthelesswithsuchanoverallinsightthatwemaystillapprovealmostalltheoutlinesoftheirsummarychart。The（newlydiscovered）primitiveManwasnotasuperiorbeing，enlightenedfromabove，butacoarsesavage，nakedandmiserable，slowofgrowth，sluggishinprogress，themostdestituteandmostneedyofallanimals，and，onthisaccount，sociable，endowedlikethebeeandthebeaverwithaninstinctforlivingingroups，andmoreoveranimitatorlikethemonkey，butmoreintelligent，capableofpassingbydegreesfromthelanguageofgesticulationtothatofarticulation，beginningwithamonosyllabicidiomwhichgraduallyincreasesinrichness，precisionandsubtlety。[17]Howmanycenturiesarerequisitetoattaintothisprimitivelanguage！Howmanycenturiesmoretothediscoveryofthemostnecessaryarts，theuseoffire，thefabricationof"hatchesofsilexandjade"，themeltingandrefiningofmetals，thedomesticationofanimals，theproductionandmodificationofedibleplants，theformationofearlycivilizedanddurablecommunities，thediscoveryofwriting，figuresandastronomicalperiods。[18]OnlyafteradawnofvastandinfinitelengthdoweseeinChaldeaandinChinathecommencementofanaccuratechronologicalhistory。Therearefiveorsixofthesegreatindependentcentersofspontaneouscivilization，China，Babylon，ancientPersia，India，Egypt，Phoenicia，andthetwoAmericanempires。
　　Oncollectingthesefragmentstogether，onreadingsuchoftheirbooksashavebeenpreserved，andwhichtravelersbringtous，thefiveKingsoftheChinese，theVedasoftheHindus，theZoroastriansoftheancientPersians，wefindthatallcontainreligions，moraltheories，philosophiesandinstitutions，asworthyofstudyasourown。Threeofthesecodes，thoseofIndia，ChinaandtheMuslims，stillatthepresenttimegoverncountriesasvastasourEurope，andnationsofequalimportance。Wemustnot，likeBossuet，"overlooktheuniverseinauniversalhistory，"andsubordinatehumanitytoasmallpopulationconfinedtoadesolateregionaroundtheDeadSea。[19]Humanhistoryisathingofnaturalgrowthliketherest；itsdirectionisduetoitsownelements；noexternalforceguidesit，buttheinwardforcesthatcreateit；itisnottendingtoanyprescribedendbutdevelopingaresult。Andthechiefresultistheprogressofthehumanmind。
　　"Amidstsomanyravagesandsomuchdestruction，weseealoveofordersecretlyanimatingthehumanspecies，andforestallingitsutterruin。Itisoneofthespringsofnatureeverrecoveringitsenergy；
　　itisthesourceoftheformationofthecodesofnations；itcausesthelawandtheministersofthelawtoberespectedinTinquinandintheislandsofFormosaaswellasinRome。"Manthuspossesses，saidVoltaire，a"principleofReason，"namely，a"aninstinctforengineering"suggestingtohimusefulimplements；[20]alsoaninstinctofrightsuggestingtohimhismoralconceptions。Thesetwoinstinctsformapartofhismakeup；hehasthemfromhisbirth，"asbirdshavetheirfeathers，andbearstheirhair。Henceheisperfectiblethroughnature，andmerelyconformstonatureinimprovinghismindandinbetteringhiscondition。ExtendtheideafartheralongwithTurgotandCondorcet，[21]and，withallitsexaggerations，weseearising，beforetheendofthecentury，ourmoderntheoryofprogress，thatwhichfoundsallouraspirationsontheboundlessadvanceofthesciences，ontheincreaseofcomfortswhichtheirapplieddiscoveriesconstantlybringtothehumancondition，andontheincreaseofgoodsensewhichtheirdiscoveries，popularized，slowlydepositinthehumanbrain。
　　Asecondprinciplehastobeestablishedtocompletethefoundationsofhistory。DiscoveredbyMontesquieuitstillto—dayservesasaconstructivesupport，and，ifweresumethework，asifonthesubstructureofthemaster’sedifice，itissimplyowingtoaccumulatederuditionplacingatourdisposalmoresubstantialandmoreabundantmaterials。Inhumansocietyallpartsareinterdependent；nomodificationofonecantakeplacewithouteffectingproportionatechangesintheothers。Institutions，lawsandcustomsarenotmingledtogether，asinaheap，throughchanceorcaprice，butconnectedonewiththeotherthroughconvenienceornecessity，asinaharmony。[22]Accordingasauthorityisinall，inseveralorinonehand，accordingasthesovereignadmitsorrejectslawssuperiortohimself，withintermediarypowersbelowhim，everythingchangesortendstodifferinmeaningandinimportance:
　　*publicintelligence，*education，*theformofjudgments，*thenatureandorderofpenalties，*theconditionofwomen，*militaryorganization*andthenatureandtheextentoftaxation。
　　Amultitudeofsubordinatewheelsdependonthegreatcentralwheel。Foriftheclockruns，itisowingtotheharmonyofitsvariousparts，fromwhichitfollowsthat，onthisharmonyceasing，theclockgetsoutoforder。But，besidestheprincipalspring，thereareotherswhich，actingonorincombinationwithit，givetoeachclockaspecialcharacterandapeculiarmovement。Such，inthefirstplace，isclimate，thatistosay，thedegreeofheatorcold，humidityordryness，withitsinfiniteeffectsonman’sphysicalandmoralattributes，followedbyitsinfluenceonpolitical，civilanddomesticservitudeorfreedom。Likewisethesoil，accordingtoitsfertility，itspositionanditsextent。Likewisethephysicalrégime，accordingasapeopleiscomposedofhunters，shepherdsoragriculturists。Likewisethefecundityoftherace，andtheconsequentsloworrapidincreaseofpopulation，andalsotheexcessinnumber，nowofmalesandnowoffemales。Andfinally，likewise，arenationalcharacterandreligion。—Allthesecauses，eachaddedtotheother，oreachlimitedbytheother，contributetogethertoformatotalresult，namelysociety。Simpleorcomplex，stableorunstable，barbarousorcivilized，thissocietycontainswithinitselfitsexplanationsofitsbeing。Strangeasasocialstructuremaybe，itcanbeexplained；alsoitsinstitutions，howevercontradictory。
　　Neitherprosperity，nordecline，nordespotism，norfreedom，istheresultofathrowofthedice，ofluckoranunexpectedturnofeventscausedbyrashmen。Theyareconditionswemustlivewith。Inanyevent，itisusefultounderstandthem，eithertoimproveoursituationorbearitpatiently，sometimestocarryoutappropriatereforms，sometimestorenounceimpracticablereforms，nowtoassumetheauthoritynecessaryforsuccess，andnowtheprudencemakingusabstain。
　　IV。THENEWPSYCHOLOGY。
　　Thetransformationofpsychology。—Condillac。—Thetheoryofsensationandofsigns。
　　Wenowreachthecoreofmoralscience；thehumanbeingingeneral。Thenaturalhistoryofthemindmustbedealtwith，andthismustbedoneaswehavedonetheothers，bydiscardingallprejudiceandadheringtofacts，takinganalogyforourguide，beginningwithoriginsandfollowing，stepbystep，thedevelopmentbywhichtheinfant，thesavage，theuncultivatedprimitiveman，isconvertedintotherationalandcultivatedman。Letusconsiderlifeattheoutset，theanimalatthelowestdegreeonthescale，thehumanbeingassoonasitisborn。Thefirstthingwefindisperception，agreeableordisagreeable，andnextawant，propensityordesire，andthereforeatlast，bymeansofaphysiologicalmechanism，voluntaryorinvoluntarymovements，moreorlessaccurateandmoreorlessappropriateandcoordinated。Andthiselementaryfactisnotmerelyprimitive；itis，again，constantanduniversal，sinceweencounteritateachmomentofeachlife，andinthemostcomplicatedaswellasinthesimplest。Letusaccordinglyascertainwhetheritisnotthethreadwithwhichallourmentalclothiswoven，andwhetheritsspontaneousunfolding，andtheknottingofmeshaftermesh，isnotfinallytoproducetheentirenetworkofourthoughtandpassion。—Condillac（1715—1780）providesusherewithanincomparableclarityandprecisionwiththeanswerstoallourquestions，which，howevertherevivaloftheologicalprejudiceandGermanmetaphysicswastobringintodiscreditinthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury，butwhichfreshobservation，theestablishmentofmentalpathology，anddissectionhavenow（in1875）broughtback，justifiedandcompleted。[23]Lockehadalreadystatedthatourideasalloriginateinoutwardorinwardexperience。Condillacshowsfurtherthattheactualelementsofperception，memory，idea，imagination，judgment，reasoning，knowledgearesensations，properlysocalled，orrevivedsensations；ourloftiestideasarederivedfromnoothermaterial，fortheycanbereducedtosignswhicharethemselvessensationsofacertainkind。Sensationsaccordinglyformthesubstanceofhumanorofanimalintelligence；buttheformerinfinitelysurpassesthelatterinthis，that，throughthecreationofsigns，itsucceedsinisolating，abstractingandnotingfragmentsofsensations，thatistosay，informing，combiningandemployinggeneralconceptions。—Thisbeinggranted，weareabletoverifyallourideas，for，throughreflection，wecanreviveandreconstructtheideaswehadformedwithoutanyreflection。Noabstractdefinitionsexistattheoutset；abstractionisulteriorandderivative；foremostineachsciencemustbeplacedexamples，experiences，evidentfacts；
　　fromthesewederiveourgeneralidea。Inthesamewaywederivefromseveralgeneralideasofthesamedegreeanothergeneralidea，andsoonsuccessively，stepbystep，alwaysproceedingaccordingtothenaturalorderofthings，byconstantanalysis，usingexpressivesigns，aswithmathematiciansinpassingfromcalculationbythefingerstocalculationbynumerals，andfromthistocalculationbyletters，andwho，callingupontheeyestoaidReason，depicttheinwardanalogyofquantitiesbytheoutwardanalogyofsymbols。Inthiswaysciencebecomescompletebymeansofaproperlyorganizedlanguage。[24]—
　　Throughthisreversaloftheusualmethodwesummarilydisposeofdisputesaboutwords，escapetheillusionsofhumanspeech，simplifystudy，remodeleducation，enhancediscoveries，subjecteveryassertiontocontrol，andbringalltruthswithinreachofallunderstandings。
　　V。THEANALYTICALMETHOD。
　　Theanalyticalmethod。—Itsprinciple。—Theconditionsrequisitetomakeitproductive。—Theseconditionswantingorinadequateinthe18thcentury。—Thetruthandsurvivaloftheprinciple。