Underneathalllegitimateauthorityhisconsentorhisvotemustbeapparent，while，inthehumblestcitizen，themostexaltedofpublicpowersmustrecognizeamemberoftheirownsovereignty。Noonemayalienateorlosethisportionofhissovereignty；itisinseparablefromhisperson，and，ondelegatingittoanother，hereservestohimselffullpossessionofit。—Theliberty，equalityandsovereigntyofthepeopleconstitutethefirstarticlesofthesocialcontract。
　　Thesearerigorouslydeducedfromaprimarydefinition；otherrightsofthecitizenaretobenolessrigorouslydeducedfromit，themainfeaturesoftheconstitution，themostimportantcivilandpoliticallaws，inshort，theorder，theformandthespiritofthenewstate。
　　II。NAIVECONVICTIONS
　　Thefirstresult。—Thetheoryeasilyapplied。—Confidenceinitduetobeliefinman’sinherentgoodnessandreasonableness。
　　Hence，twoconsequences。—Inthefirstplace，asocietythusorganizedistheonlyjustone；for，thereverseofallothers，itisnottheresultofablindsubjectiontotraditions，butofacontractconcludedamongequals，examinedinopendaylight，andassentedtoinfullfreedom。[5]Thesocialcontract，composedofdemonstratedtheorems，hastheauthorityofgeometry；henceanequalvalueatalltimes，ineveryplace，andforeverypeople；itisaccordinglyrightfullyestablished。Thosewhoputanobstacleinitswayareenemiesofthehumanrace；whetheragovernment，anaristocracyoraclergy，theymustbeoverthrown。Revoltissimplyjustdefense；inwithdrawingourselvesfromtheirhandsweonlyrecoverwhatiswrongfullyheldandwhichlegitimatelybelongstous。—Inthesecondplace，thissocialcode，asjustsetforth，oncepromulgated，isapplicablewithoutmisconceptionorresistance；foritisaspeciesofmoralgeometry，simplerthananyother，reducedtofirstprinciples，foundedontheclearestandmostpopularnotions，and，infoursteps，leadingtocapitaltruths。Thecomprehensionandapplicationofthesetruthsdemandnopreparatorystudyorprofoundreflection；Reasonisenough，andevencommonsense。Prejudiceandselfishnessalonemightimpairthetestimony；butneverwilltestimonybewantinginasoundbrainandinanuprightheart。Explaintherightsofmantoalaborerortoapeasantandatoncehebecomesanablepolitician；teachchildrenthecitizen’scatechismand，onleavingschool，theycomprehenddutiesandrightsaswellasthefourfundamentalprinciples。—Thereuponhopespreadsherwingstothefullestextent，allobstaclesseemremoved。Itisadmittedthat，ofitself，andthroughitsownforce，thetheoryengendersitsownapplication，andthatitsufficesformentodecreeoracceptthesocialcompacttoacquiresuddenlybythisactthecapacityforcomprehendingitandthedispositiontocarryitout。
　　Whatawonderfulconfidence，atfirstinexplicable，whichassumewithregardtomananideawhichwenolongerhold。Man，indeed，wasregardedasessentiallygoodandreasonable。—Rational，thatistosay，capableofassentingtoaplainobviousprinciple，offollowinganulteriorchainofargument，ofunderstandingandacceptingthefinalconclusion，ofextractingforhimself，ontheoccasioncallingforit，thevariedconsequencestowhichitleads:suchistheordinarymanintheeyesofthewritersoftheday；theyjudgedhimbythemselves。Tothemthehumanintellectistheirown，theclassicintellect。Forahundredandfiftyyearsitruledinliterature，inphilosophy，inscience，ineducation，inconversation，byvirtueoftradition，ofusageandofgoodtaste。Nootherwastoleratedandnootherwasimagined；andif，withinthisclosedcircle，astrangersucceedsinintroducinghimself，itisonconditionofadoptingtheoratoricalidiomwhichtheraisonraisonnanteimposesonallitsguests，onGreeks，Englishmen，barbarians，peasantsandsavages，howeverdifferentfromeachotherandhoweverdifferenttheymaybeamongstthemselves。InBuffon，thefirstman，onnarratingthefirsthoursofhisbeing，analyseshissensations，emotionsandimpulses，withasmuchsubtletyasCondillachimself。WithDiderot，OtoutheTahitian，withBernardindeSt。Pierre，asemi—savageHinduandanoldcolonistoftheIle—de—France，withRousseauacountryvicar，agardenerandajuggler，areallaccomplishedconversationalistsandmoralists。InMarmontelandinFlorian，inalltheliteratureofinferiorrankprecedingoraccompanyingtheRevolution，alsointhetragicorcomicdrama，thechieftalentofthepersonage，whoeverhemaybe，whetheranuncultivatedrustic，tattooedbarbarianornakedsavage，consistsinbeingabletoexplainhimself，inarguingandinfollowinganabstractdiscoursewithintelligenceandattention，intracingforhimself，orinthefootstepsofaguide，therectilinearpathwayofgeneralideas。Thus，tothespectatorsoftheeighteenthcentury，Reasoniseverywhereandshestandsaloneintheworld。A
　　formofintellectsouniversalnecessarilystrikesthemasnatural，theyresemblepeoplewho，speakingbutonelanguage，andonetheyhavealwaysspokenwithfacility，cannotimagineanotherlanguagebeingspoken，orthattheymaybesurroundedbythedeafandthedumb。Andsomuchthemoreinasmuchastheirtheoryauthorizesthisprejudice。
　　Accordingtothenewideologyallmindsarewithinreachofalltruths。Iftheminddoesnotgraspthemthefaultisoursinnotbeingproperlyprepared；itwillcomprehendifwetakethetroubletoguideitproperly。Forithassensesthesameasourown；andsensations，revived，combinedandnotedbysigns，sufficetoform"notonlyallourconceptionsbutagainallourfaculties。"[6]Anexactandconstantrelationshipofideasattachesoursimplestperceptionstothemostcomplexsciences，and，fromthelowesttothehighestdegree，ascaleispracticable；ifthescholarstopsonthewayitisowingtoourhavinglefttoogreatanintervalbetweentwodegreesofthescale；
　　letnointermediarydegreesbeomittedandhewillmounttothetopofit。Tothisexaltedideaofthefacultiesofmanisaddedanolessexaltedideaofhisheart。Rousseauhavingdeclaredthistobenaturallygood，therefinedclassplungeintothebeliefwithalltheexaggerationsoffashionandallthesentimentalityofthedrawing—
　　room。Theconvictioniswidespreadthatman，andespeciallythemanofthepeople，issensitiveandaffectionatebynature；thatheisimmediatelyimpressedbybenefactionsanddisposedtobegratefulforthem，thathesoftensattheslightestsignofinterestinhim，andthatheiscapableofeveryrefinement。Aseriesofengravingsrepresentstwochildreninadilapidatedcottage，[7]onefiveandtheotherthreeyearsold，bythesideofaninfirmgrandmother，onesupportingherheadandtheothergivingherdrink；thefatherandmotherenterand，onseeingthistouchingincident，"thesegoodpeoplefindthemselvessohappyinpossessingsuchchildrentheyforgettheyarepoor。""Oh，myfather，"criesashepherdyouthofthePyrénées，[8]
　　"acceptthisfaithfuldog，sotruetomeforsevenyears；infuturelethimfollowanddefendyou，thusservingmebetterthaninanyothermanner。"Itwouldrequiretoomuchspacetofollowintheliteratureoftheendofthecentury，fromMarmonteltoBernardindeSaint—Pierre，andfromFloriantoBerquinandBitaubé，theinterminablerepetitionofthesesweetinsipidities。Theillusionevenreachesstatesmen。"Sire，"saysTurgot，onpresentingthekingwithaplanofpoliticaleducation，[9]"Iventuretoassertthatintenyearsyournationwillnolongerberecognizable，andthroughenlightenmentandgoodmorals，inintelligentzealforyourserviceandforthecountry，itwillriseaboveallothernations。Childrenwhoarenowtenyearsofagewillthenbemenpreparedforthestate，lovingtheircountry，submissivetoauthority，notthroughfearbutthroughReason，aidingtheirfellow—citizens，andaccustomedtorecognizingandrespectingjustice。"—InthemonthsofJanuary，1789，[10]Necker，towhomM。deBouillépointedouttheimminentdangerarisingfromtheunswervingeffortsoftheThird—Estate，"coldlyreplied，turninghiseyesupward，’reliancemustbeplacedonthemoralvirtuesofman。’"
　　—Inthemain，ontheimaginationforminganyconceptionofhumansociety，thisconsistsofavague，semi—bucolic，semi—theatricalscene，somewhatresemblingthosedisplayedonthefrontispiecesofillustratedworksonmoralsandpolitics。Half—nakedmenwithothersclothedinskins，assembletogetherunderalargeoaktree；inthecenterofthegroupavenerableoldmanarisesandmakesanaddress，using"thelanguageofnatureandReason，"proposingthatallshouldbeunited，andexplaininghowmenareboundtogetherbymutualobligations；heshowsthemtheharmonyofprivateandofpublicinterests，andendsbymakingthemappreciateofthebeautyofvirtue。[11]Alluttershoutsofjoy，embraceeachother，gatherroundthespeakerandelecthimchiefmagistrate；dancingisgoingonunderthebranchesinthebackground，andhenceforthhappinessonearthisfullyestablished。—Thisisnoexaggeration。TheNationalAssemblyaddressesthenationinharanguesofthisstyle。FormanyyearsthegovernmentspeakstothepeopleasitwouldtooneofGessner’sshepherds。Thepeasantsareentreatednottoburncastlesbecauseitispainfulfortheirgoodkingtoseesuchsights。Theyareexhorted"tosurprisehimwiththeirvirtuesinorderthathemaybethesoonerrewardedforhisown。"[12]AttheheightoftheJacquerietumultsthesagesofthedayseemtothinktheyarelivinginastateofpastoralsimplicity，andthatwithanairontheflutetheymayrestoretoitsfoldthehowlingpackofbestialanimositiesandunchainedappetitesIII。OURTRUEHUMANNATURE。
　　Theinadequacyandfragilityofreasoninman。—Therarityandinadequacyofreasoninhumanity。—Subordinationofreasoninhumanconduct。—Brutalanddangerousforces。—Thenatureandutilityofgovernment。Governmentimpossibleunderthenewtheory。
　　Itisasadthingtofallasleepinasheep—shedand，onawakening，tofindthesheeptransformedintowolves；andyet，intheeventofarevolutionthatiswhatwemayexpect。WhatwecallreasoninManisnotaninnateendowment，basicandenduring，butatardyacquisitionandafragilecomposition。Theslightestphysiologicalknowledgewilltellusthatitisaprecariousactofbalance，dependentonthenolessgreaterinstabilityofthebrain，nerves，circulationanddigestion。Takewomenthatarehungryandmenthathavebeendrinking；placeathousandofthesetogether，andletthemexciteeachotherwiththeircries，theiranxieties，andthecontagiousreactionoftheirever—deepeningemotions；itwillnotbelongbeforeyoufindthemacrowdofdangerousmaniacs。Thisbecomesevident，andabundantlyso，after1789。—Now，consultpsychology。
　　Thesimplestmentaloperation，asensuousperception，isanactofmemory，theapplianceofaname，anordinaryactofjudgmentistheplayofcomplicatedmechanism，thejointandfinalresultofseveralmillionsofwheelswhich，likethoseofaclock，[13]turnandpropelblindly，eachforitself，eachthroughitsownforce，andeachkeptinplaceandinfunctionalactivitybyasystemofbalanceandcompensation。[14]Ifthehandsmarkthehourwithanydegreeofaccuracyitisduetoawonderfulifnotmiraculousconjunction，whilehallucination，deliriumandmonomania，everatthedoor，arealwaysreadytoenterit。ProperlyspeakingManismad，asthebodyissick，bynature；thehealthofourmind，likethehealthofourorgans，issimplyarepeatedachievementandahappyaccident。Ifsuchhappenstobethecasewiththecoarsewoofandcanvas，withthelargeandapproximatelystrongthreadsofourintellect，whatarethechancesfortheulteriorandsuperaddedembroidery，thesubtleandcomplicatednettingformingreasonproperlysocalled，andwhichiscomposedofgeneralideas？Formedbyaslowanddelicateprocessofweaving，throughalongsystemofsigns，amidsttheagitationofpride，ofenthusiasmandofdogmaticobstinacy，whatrisk，eveninthemostperfectbrain，fortheseideasonlyinadequatelytocorrespondwithoutwardreality！Allthatwerequireinthisconnectionistowitnesstheoperationoftheidyllinvoguewiththephilosophersandpoliticians。—Thesebeingthesuperiorminds，whatcanbesaidofthemassesofthepeople，oftheuncultivatedorsemi—cultivatedbrains？Accordingasreasoniscrippledinmansoisitrareinhumanity。Generalideasandaccuratereasoningarefoundonlyinaselectfew。Thecomprehensionofabstracttermsandthehabitofmakingaccuratedeductionsrequirespreviousandspecialpreparation，aprolongedmentalexerciseandsteadypractice，andbesidesthis，wherepoliticalmattersareconcerned，adegreeofcomposurewhich，affordingeveryfacilityforreflection，enablesamantodetachhimselfforamomentfromhimselffortheconsiderationofhisinterestsasadisinterestedobserver。Ifoneoftheseconditionsiswanting，reason，especiallyinrelationtopolitics，isabsent。—Inapeasantoravillager，inanymanbroughtupfrominfancytomanuallabor，notonlyisthenetworkofsuperiorconceptionsdefective，butagaintheinternalmachinerybywhichtheyarewovenisnotperfected。
　　Accustomedtotheopenair，totheexerciseofhislimbs，hisattentionflagsifhestandsinactiveforaquarterofanhour；
　　generalizedexpressionsfindtheirwayintohismindonlyassound；
　　thementalcombinationtheyoughttoexcitecannotbeproduced。Hebecomesdrowsyunlessapowerfulvibratingvoicecontagiouslyarousesinhimtheinstinctsoffleshandblood，thepersonalcravings，thesecretenmitieswhich，restrainedbyoutwarddiscipline，arealwaysreadytobesetfree。—Inthehalf—cultivatedmind，evenwiththemanwhothinkshimselfcultivatedandwhoreadsthenewspapers，principlesaregenerallydisproportionateguests；theyareabovehiscomprehension；hedoesnotmeasuretheirbearings，hedoesnotappreciatetheirlimitations，heisinsensibletotheirrestrictionsandhefalsifiestheirapplication。Theyarelikethosepreparationsofthelaboratorywhich，harmlessinthechemist’shands，becomedestructiveinthestreetunderthefeetofpassingpeople。—Toosoonwillthisbeapparentwhen，inthenameofpopularsovereignty，eachcommune，eachmob，shallregarditselfasthenationandactaccordingly；whenReason，inthehandsofitsnewinterpreters，shallinaugurateriotsinthestreetsandpeasantinsurrectionsinthefields。[15]
　　Thisisowingtothephilosophersoftheagehavingbeenmistakenintwoways。NotonlyisreasonnotnaturaltoMannoruniversalinhumanity，butagain，intheconductofManandofhumanity，itsinfluenceissmall。Exceptwithafewcoolandclearintellects，aFontenelle，aHume，aGibbon，withwhomitmayprevailbecauseitencountersnorivals，itisveryfarfromplayingaleadingpart；itbelongstootherforcesbornwithinus，andwhich，byvirtueofbeingthefirstcomers，remaininpossessionofthefield。Theplaceobtainedbyreasonisalwaysrestricted；theofficeitfulfillsisgenerallysecondary。Openlyorsecretly，itisonlyaconvenientsubaltern，adomesticadvocateconstantlysuborned，employedbytheproprietorstopleadintheirbehalf；iftheyyieldprecedenceinpublicitisonlythroughdecorum。Vainlydotheyproclaimittherecognizedsovereign；theygrantitonlyapassingauthority，and，underitsnominalcontrol，theyremaintheinwardmasters。ThesemastersofManconsistsofphysicaltemperament，bodilyneeds，animalinstinct，hereditaryprejudice，imagination，generallythedominantpassion，andmoreparticularlypersonalorfamilyinterest，alsothatofcasteorparty。Wearemakingabigmistakewereweassumementobenaturallygood，generous，pleasant，oratanyrategentle，pliable，andreadytosacrificethemselvestosocialinterestsortothoseofothers。Thereareseveral，andamongthemthestrongest，who，lefttothemselves，wouldonlywreakhavoc。—Inthefirstplace，ifthereisnocertaintyofManbeingaremotebloodcousinofthemonkey，itisatleastcertainthat，inhisstructure，heisananimalcloselyrelatedtothemonkey，providedwithcanineteeth，carnivorous，formerlycannibaland，therefore，ahunterandbellicose。Hencethereisinhimasteadysubstratumofbrutalityandferocity，andofviolentanddestructiveinstincts，towhichmustbeadded，ifheisFrench，gaiety，laughter，andastrangepropensitytogambolandactinsanelyinthehavochemakes；weshallseehimatwork。—Inthesecondplace，attheoutset，hisconditioncastshimnakedanddestituteonanungratefulsoil，onwhichsubsistenceisdifficult，where，attheriskofdeath，heisobligedtosaveandtoeconomize。
　　Henceaconstantpreoccupationandtherootedideaofacquiring，accumulating，andpossessing，rapacityandavarice，moreparticularlyintheclasswhich，tiedtotheglobe，fastsforsixtygenerationsinordertosupportotherclasses，andwhosecrookedfingersarealwaysoutstretchedtoclutchthesoilwhosefruitstheycausetogrow；—weshallseethisclassatwork。—Finally，hismoredelicatementalorganizationmakesofhimfromtheearliestdaysanimaginativebeinginwhichswarmingfanciesdevelopthemselvesintomonstrouschimerastoexpandhishopes，fearsanddesiresbeyondallbounds。Henceanexcessofsensibility，suddenoutburstsofemotion，contagiousagitation，irresistiblecurrentsofpassion，epidemicsofcredulityandsuspicion，inshort，enthusiasmandpanic，especiallyifheisFrench，thatistosay，excitableandcommunicative，easilythrownoffhisbalanceandprompttoacceptforeignimpulsion，deprivedofthenaturalballastwhichaphlegmatictemperamentandconcentrationoflonelymeditationssecuretohisGermanandLatinneighbors；andallthisweshallseeatwork。—Theseconstitutesomeofthebruteforcesthatcontrolhumanlife。Inordinarytimeswepaynoattentiontothem；beingsubordinatedtheydonotseemtousformidable。Wetakeitforgrantedthattheyareallayedandpacified；weflatterourselvesthatthedisciplineimposedonthemhasmadethemnatural，andthatbydintofflowingbetweendikestheyaresettleddownintotheiraccustomedbeds。Thetruthisthat，likeallbruteforces，likeastreamoratorrent，theyonlyremainintheseunderconstraint；itisthedikewhich，throughitsresistance，producesthismoderation。
　　Anotherforceequaltotheirforcehadtobeinstalledagainsttheiroutbreaksanddevastation，graduatedaccordingtotheirscale，allthefirmerastheyaremoremenacing，despoticifneedbeagainsttheirdespotism，inanyeventconstrainingandrepressive，attheoutsetatribalchief，lateranarmygeneral，allmodesconsistinginanelectiveorhereditaryman—at—arms，possessingvigilanteyesandvigorousarms，andwho，withblows，excitesfearand，throughfear，maintainsorder。Intheregulationandlimitationofhisblowsdiversinstrumentalitiesareemployed，apre—establishedconstitution，adivisionofpowers，acodeoflaws，tribunals，andlegalformalities。
　　Atthebottomofallthesewheelseverappearstheprincipallever，theefficaciousinstrument，namely，thepolicemanarmedagainstthesavage，brigandandmadmaneachofusharbors，inreposeormanacled，butalwaysliving，intherecessesofhisownbreast。[16]
　　Onthecontrary，inthenewtheory，everyprinciplepromulgated，everyprecautiontaken，everysuspicionawakedisaimedagainstthepoliceman。Inthenameofthesovereigntyofthepeopleallauthorityiswithdrawnfromthegovernment，everyprerogative，everyinitiative，itscontinuanceanditsforce。Thepeople，beingsovereignthegovernmentissimplyitsclerk，andlessthanitsclerk，merelyitsdomestic。—Betweenthem"nocontract"indefiniteoratleastenduring，"andwhichmaybecanceledonlybymutualconsentortheunfaithfulnessofoneofthetwoparties。Itisagainstthenatureofapoliticalbodyforthesovereigntoimposealawonhimselfwhichhecannotsetaside。"—Thereisnosacredandinviolablecharter"bindingapeopletotheformsofanestablishedconstitution。Therighttochangetheseisthefirstguaranteeofallrights。Thereisnot，andnevercanbe，anyfundamental，obligatorylawfortheentirebodyofapeople，noteventhesocialcontract。"—Itisthroughusurpationanddeceptionthataprince，anassembly，andabodyofmagistratesdeclarethemselvesrepresentativesofthepeople。
　　"Sovereigntyisnottoberepresentedforthesamereasonthatitisnottobeceded……Themomentapeoplegivesitselfrepresentativesitisnolongerfree，itexistsnomore……TheEnglishpeoplethinkthemselvesfreebuttheydeceivethemselves；theyarefreeonlyduringanelectionofmembersofparliament；ontheelectionofthesetheybecomeslavesandarenull……thedeputiesofthepeoplearenot，norcantheybe，itsrepresentatives；theyaresimplyitscommissionersandcansignnobindingfinalagreement。
　　Everylawnotratifiedbythepeoplethemselvesisnullandisnolaw。"[17]——"AbodyoflawssanctionedbyanassemblyofthepeoplethroughafixedconstitutionoftheStatedoesnotsuffice；otherfixedandperiodicalassembliesarenecessarywhichcannotbeabolishedorextended，soarrangedthatonagivendaythepeoplemaybelegitimatelyconvokedbythelaw，nootherformalconvictionbeingrequisite……Themomentthepeoplearethusassembledthejurisdictionofthegovernmentistocease，andtheexecutivepoweristobesuspended，"societycommencinganew，whilecitizens，restoredtotheirprimitiveindependence，mayreconstituteatwill，foranyperiodtheydetermine，theprovisionalcontracttowhichtheyhaveassentedonlyforadeterminedtime。"Theopeningoftheseassemblies，whosesoleobjectistomaintainthesocialcompact，shouldalwaystakeplacewithtwopropositions，neversuppressed，andwhicharetobevotedonseparately；thefirstone，whetherthesovereign（people）iswillingtomaintaintheactualformofthegovernment；thesecond，whetherthepeoplearewillingtoleaveitsadministrationinthehandsofthoseactuallyperformingitsduties。"—Thus，"theactbywhichapeopleissubjecttoitschiefsisabsolutelyonlyacommission，aserviceinwhich，assimpleofficersoftheirsovereign，theyexerciseinhisnamethepowerofwhichhehasmadethemdepositories，andwhichhemaymodify，limitandresumeatpleasure。"[18]Notonlydoesitalwaysreservetoitself"thelegislativepowerwhichbelongstoitandwhichcanbelongonlytoit，"butagain，itdelegatesandwithdrawstheexecutivepoweraccordingtoitsfancy。Thosewhoexerciseitareitsemployees。"Itmayestablishanddeposethemwhenitpleases。"Inrelationtoittheyhavenorights。"Itisnotamatterofcontractwiththembutoneofobedience；"theyhave"noconditions"toprescribe；theycannotdemandofitthefulfillmentofanyengagement。—Itisuselesstoraisetheobjectionthat，accordingtothis，everymanofspiritorofculturewilldeclineouroffices，andthatourchiefswillbearthecharacteroflackeys。Wewillnotleavethemthefreedomofacceptingordecliningoffice；weimposeitonthemauthoritatively。"Ineverytruedemocracythemagistratureisnotanadvantagebutanonerousburden，nottobeassignedtoonemorethantoanother。"Wecanlayhandsonourmagistrates，takethembythecollarandsetthemontheirbenchesinspiteofthemselves。Byfairmeansorfoultheyaretheworkingsubjects（corvéables）oftheState，inalowerconditionthanavaletoramechanic，sincethemechanicdoeshisworkaccordingtoacceptableconditions，andthedischargedvaletcanclaimhiseightdays’noticetoquit。Assoonasthegovernmentthrowsoffthishumbleattitudeitusurps，whileconstitutionsaretoproclaimthat，insuchanevent，insurrectionisnotonlythemostsacredrightbutthemostimperativeduty。—Thenewtheoryisnowputintopractice，andthedogmaofthesovereigntyofthepeople，interpretedbythecrowd，istoresultinacompleteanarchy，uptothemomentwhen，interpretedbyitsleaders，itproducesperfectdespotism。
　　IV。BIRTHOFSOCIALISTTHEORY，ITSTWOSIDES。
　　Thesecondresult。—Thenewtheoryleadstodespotism。—
　　Precedentsforthistheory。—Administrativecentralization。—TheUtopiaoftheEconomists。—Invalidityofprecedingrights。—
　　Collateralassociationsnottolerated。—Completealienationoftheindividualfromthecommunity。—RightsoftheStateinrelationtoproperty，educationandreligion。—TheStateaSpartanconvent。
　　Forthistheoryhastwoaspects；whereasonesideleadstowardstheperpetualdemolitionofgovernment，theotherresultsintheunlimiteddictatorshipoftheState。Thenewsocialcontractisnotahistoricpact，liketheEnglishDeclarationofRightsin1688，ortheDutchfederationin1579，enteredintobyactualandlivingindividuals，admittingacquiredsituations，groupsalreadyformed，establishedpositions，anddrawnuptorecognize，define，guaranteeandcompleteanteriorrights。Antecedenttothesocialcontractnoveritablerightexist；forveritablerightsarebornsolelyoutofthesocialcontract，theonlyvalidone，sinceitistheonlyoneagreeduponbetweenbeingsperfectlyequalandperfectlyfree，somanyabstractcreatures，somanyspeciesofmathematicalunits，allofthesamevalue，allplayingthesamepartandwhoseinequalityorconstraintneverdisturbsthecommonunderstanding。Henceatthemomentofitscompletion，allotherfactsarenullified。Property，family，church，noancientinstitutionmayinvokeanyrightagainstthenewState。Theareaonwhichitisbuiltupmustbeconsideredvacant；ifoldstructuresarepartlyallowedtoremainitisonlyinitsnameandforitsbenefit，tobeenclosedwithinitsbarriersandappropriatedtoitsuse；theentiresoilofhumanityisitsproperty。
　　Ontheotherhanditisnot，accordingtotheAmericandoctrine，anassociationformutualprotection，asocietylikeothersocieties，circumscribedinitspurpose，restrictedtoitsoffice，limitedinitspowers，andbywhichindividualsreservingtothemselvesthebetterportionoftheirpropertyandpersons，assesseachotherforthemaintenanceofanarmy，apolice，tribunals，highways，schools，inshort，themajorinstrumentsofpublicsafetyandutility，atthesametimewithholdingtheremainderoflocal，general，spiritualandmaterialservicesinfavorofprivateinitiativeandofspontaneousassociationsthatmayariseasoccasionornecessitycallsforthem。
　　OurStateisnottobeasimpleutilitarianmachine，aconvenient，handyimplement，ofwhichtheworkmanavailshimselfwithoutabandoningthefreeuseofhishand，orthesimultaneoususeofotherimplements。Beingelderborn，theonlysonandsolerepresentativeofReasonitmust，toensureitssway，leavenothingbeyonditsgrasp。—
　　Inthisrespecttheoldrégimepavesthewayforthenewone，whiletheestablishedsysteminclinesmindsbeforehandtothebuddingtheory。ThroughadministrativecentralizationtheStatealready，foralongtime，hasitshandseverywhere。[19]
　　"Youmustknow，"saysLawtotheMarquisd’Argenson，"thatthekingdomofFranceisgovernedbythirtyintendants。Youhaveneitherparliaments，assembliesorgovernors，simplythirtymastersofrequests，provincialclerks，onwhomdependsthehappinessormisery，thefruitfulnessorsterilityoftheseprovinces。"
　　Theking，infact，sovereign，father，anduniversalguardian，manageslocalaffairsthroughhisdelegates，andintervenesinprivateaffairsthroughhisfavorsorlettres—de—cachet（royalordersofimprisonment）。Suchanexampleandsuchacoursefollowedforfiftyyearsexcitestheimagination。Nootherinstrumentismoreusefulforcarryinglargereformsoutatonetime。Hence，farfromrestrictingthecentralpowertheeconomistsaredesirousofextendingitsaction。
　　Insteadofsettingupnewdikesagainstittheyinterestthemselvesonlyindestroyingwhatisleftoftheolddikesstillinterferingwithit。"Thesystemofcounter—forcesinagovernment，"saysQuesnayandhisdisciples，"isafatalidea……Thespeculationsonwhichthesystemofcounter—balanceisfoundedarechimerical……Letthegovernmenthaveafullcomprehensionofitsdutiesandbeleftfree……TheStatemustgovernaccordingtotheessentiallawsoforder，andinthiscaseunlimitedpowerisrequisite。"OntheapproachoftheRevolutionthesamedoctrinereappears，exceptinthesubstitutionofonetermforanotherterm。Intheplaceofthesovereigntyofthekingthe"Contratsocial"substitutesthesovereigntyofthepeople。Thelatter，however，ismuchmoreabsolutethantheformer，and，inthedemocraticconventwhichRousseauconstructs，onSpartanandRomanmodel，theindividualisnothingandtheStateeverything。
　　Ineffect，"theclausesofthesocialcontractreducethemselvestoone，namely，thetotaltransferofeachassociatewithallhisrightstothecommunity。"[20]Everyonesurrendershimselfentirely，"justashestands，heandallhisforces，ofwhichhispropertyformsaportion。"Thereisnoexceptionnorreservation；whateverhemayhavebeenpreviouslyandwhatevermayhavebelongedtohimisnolongerhisown。Henceforthwhateverhebecomesorwhateverhemaypossessdevolvesonhimonlythroughthedelegationofthesocialbody，theuniversalproprietorandabsolutemaster。AllrightsmustbevestedintheStateandnoneintheindividual；otherwisetherewouldbelitigationbetweenthem，and，"asthereisnocommonsuperiortodecidebetweenthem"theirlitigationwouldneverend。Onethecontrary，throughthecompletedonationwhicheachonemakesofhimself，"theunityisasperfectaspossible；"havingrenouncedhimself"hehasnofurtherclaimtomake。"
　　Thisbeingadmittedletustracetheconsequences。—
　　Inthefirstplace，Ienjoymypropertyonlythroughtoleranceandatsecond—hand；for，accordingtothesocialcontract，Ihavesurrenderedit；[21]"itnowformsaportionofthenationalestate；"
　　IfIretaintheuseofitsforthetimebeingitisthroughaconcessionoftheStatewhichmakesmea"depositary"ofit。Andthisfavormustnotbeconsideredasrestitution。"Farfromacceptingthepropertyofindividualssocietydespoilsthemofit，simplyconvertingtheusurpationintoaveritableright，theenjoymentofitintoproprietorship。"PrevioustothesocialcontractIwaspossessornotbyrightbutinfactandevenunjustlyifIhadlargepossessions；
　　for，"everymanhasnaturallyarighttowhateverheneeds，"andI
　　haverobbedothermenofallthatIpossessedbeyondmysubsistence。
　　Hence，sofarfromtheStatebeingunderobligationtome，Iamunderobligationtoit，thepropertywhichitreturnstomenotbeingminebutthatwithwhichtheStatefavorsme。Itfollows，accordingly，thattheStatemayimposeconditionsonitsgift，limittheuseImaymakeofit，accordingtoitsfancy，restrictandregulatemydispositionofit，myrighttobequeathit。"Accordingtonature，[22]therightofpropertydoesnotextendbeyondthelifeofitsowner；themomenthedieshispossessionsarenolongerhisown。Thus，toprescribetheconditionsonwhichhemaydisposeofitisreallylesstochangehisrightinappearancethantoextenditineffect。"Inanyeventasmytitleisaneffectofthesocialcontractitisprecariouslikethecontractitself；anewstipulationsufficestolimititortodestroyit。"Thesovereign[23]maylegitimatelyappropriatetohimselfallproperty，aswasdoneinSpartainthetimeofLycurgus。"Inourlayconventwhatevereachmonkpossessesisonlyarevocablegiftbytheconvent。
　　Inthesecondplace，thisconventisaseminary。Ihavenorighttobringupmychildreninmyownhouseandinmyownway。
　　"Asthereasonofeachman[24]mustnotbethesolearbiterofhisrights，somuchlessshouldtheeducationofchildren，whichisofmoreconsequencetotheStatethantofathers，belefttotheintelligenceandprejudiceoftheirfathers。""Ifpublicauthority，bytakingtheplaceoffathers，byassumingthisimportantfunction，thenacquirestheirrightsthroughfulfillingtheirduties，theyhavesomuchthelessreasontocomplaininasmuchastheymerelyundergoachangeofname，and，underthetitleofcitizens，exerciseincommonthesameauthorityovertheirchildrenthattheyhaveseparatelyexercisedunderthetitleoffathers。"
　　Inotherwordsyouceasetobeafather，but，inexchange，becomeaschoolinspector；oneisasgoodastheother，andwhatcomplainthaveyoutomake？SuchwasthecaseinthatperpetualarmycalledSparta；
　　there，thechildren，genuineregimentalchildren，equallyobeyedallproperlyformedmen。
　　"Thuspubliceducation，withinlawsprescribedbythegovernmentandundermagistratesappointedbysovereignwill，isoneofthefundamentalmaximsofpopularorlegitimategovernment。"
　　ThroughthisthecitizenisformedinAdvance。
　　"Thegovernmentgivesthenationalformtosouls。[25]Nations，inthelongrun，arewhatthegovernmentmakesthem—soldiers，citizens，menwhensodisposed，apopulace，canailleifitpleases，"beingfashionedbytheireducation。"Wouldyouobtainanideaofpubliceducation？ReadPlato’s’Republic。’[26]……Thebestsocialinstitutionsarethosethebestqualifiedtochangeman’snature，todestroyhisabsolutebeing，togivehimarelativebeing，andtoconvertselfintothecommonunity，sothateachindividualmaynotregardhimselfasonebyhimself，butapartoftheunity，andnolongersensitivebutthroughthewhole。Aninfant，onopeningitseyes，mustbeholdthecommonpatrimonyand，tothedayofitsdeath，beholdthatonly……HeshouldbedisciplinedsoasnevertocontemplatetheindividualexceptinhisrelationswiththebodyoftheState。"
　　SuchwasthepracticeofSparta，andthesoleaimofthe"greatLycurgus。"—
　　"Allbeingequalthroughthelaw，theymustbebroughtuptogetherandinthesamemanner。""Thelawmustregulatethesubjects，theorderandtheformoftheirstudies。"Theymust，attheveryleast，takepartinpublicexercises，inhorse—races，inthegamesofstrengthandofagilityinstituted"toaccustomthemtolaw，equality，fraternity，andcompetition；"toteachthemhow"toliveundertheeyesoftheirfellow—citizensandtocravepublicapplause。"
　　Throughthesegamestheybecomedemocratsfromtheirearlyyouth，since，theprizesbeingawarded，notthroughthearbitrarinessofmasters，butthroughthecheersofspectators，theyaccustomthemselvestorecognizingassovereignthelegitimatesovereignty，consistingoftheverdictoftheassembledpeople。TheforemostinterestoftheStateis，always，toformthewillsofthosebywhichitlasts，topreparethevotesthataretomaintainit，touprootpassionsinthesoulthatmightbeopposedtoit，toimplantpassionsthatwillprovefavorabletoit，tofixfirmlywiththebreastsofitsfuturecitizensthesentimentsandprejudicesitwillatsometimeneed。[27]Ifitdoesnotsecurethechildrenitwillnotpossesstheadults，Novicesinaconventmustbeasmonks，otherwise，whentheygrowup，theconventwillnolongerexist。
　　Finally，ourlayconventhasitsownreligion，alayreligion。IfI
　　possessanyotheritisthroughitscondescensionandunderrestrictions。Itis，bynature，hostiletootherassociationsthanitsown；theyarerivals，theyannoyit，theyabsorbthewillandpervertthevotesofitsmembers。
　　"ToensureafulldeclarationofthegeneralwillitisanimportantmatternottoallowanyspecialsocietyintheState，andthateachcitizenshouldpronounceaccordingtoitalone。"[28]
　　"Whateverbreaksupsocialunityisworthless，"anditwouldbebetterfortheStateiftherewerenoChurch。—
　　Notonlyiseverychurchsuspiciousbut，ifIamaChristian，mybeliefisregardedunfavorably。Accordingtothisnewlegislator"nothingismoreopposedtothesocialspiritsthanChristianity……AsocietyoftrueChristianswouldnolongerformasocietyofmen。"
　　For，"theChristianpatrimonyisnotofthisworld。"ItcannotzealouslyservetheState，beingboundbyitsconsciencetosupporttyrants。Itslaw"preachesonlyservitudeanddependence……itismadeforaslave，"andneverwillacitizenbemadeoutofaslave。
　　"ChristianRepublic，eachofthesetwowordsexcludestheother。"
　　Therefore，ifthefutureRepublicassentstomyprofessionofChristianity，itisontheunderstoodconditionthatmydoctrineshallbeshutupinmymind，withoutevenaffectingmyheart。IfIamaCatholic，（andtwenty—fiveoutoftwenty—sixmillionFrenchmenarelikeme），myconditionisworse。Forthesocialpactdoesnottolerateanintolerantreligion；anysectthatcondemnsothersectsisapublicenemy；"whoeverpresumestosaythatthereisnosalvationoutsidethechurch，mustbedrivenoutoftheState。"
　　ShouldIbe，finally，afree—thinker，apositivistorskeptic，mysituationislittlebetter。
　　"Thereisacivilreligion，"acatechism，"aprofessionoffaith，ofwhichthesovereignhastherighttodictatethearticles，notexactlyasreligiousdogmasbutassentimentsofsocialimportwithoutwhichwecannotbeagoodcitizenoraloyalsubject。"Thesearticlesembrace"theexistenceofapowerful，intelligent，beneficent，foreseeingandprovidentdivinity，thefuturelife，thehappinessoftherighteous，thepunishmentofthewicked，thesacrednessofthesocialcontractandofthelaws。[29]Withoutforcinganyonetobelieveinthiscreed，whoeverdoesnotbelieveinitmustbeexpelledfromtheState；itisnecessarytobanishsuchpersonsnotonaccountofimpiety，butasunsociablebeings，incapableofsincerelylovinglawandjusticeand，ifneedbe，ofgivinguplifeforduty。"
　　Takeheedthatthisprofessionoffaithbenotavainone，foranewinquisitionistotestitssincerity。
　　"Shouldanyperson，afterhavingpubliclyrecognizedthesedogmas，actasanunbeliever，lethimbepunishedwithdeath。Hehascommittedthegreatestofcrimes:hehasliedbeforethelaw。"
　　Truly，asIsaidabove，weareinaconventV。SOCIALCONTRACT，SUMMARY。
　　Completetriumphandlastexcessesofclassicreason。—Howitbecomesmonomania。—Whyitsworkisnotenduring。
　　Thesearticlesareallinevitableconsequencesofthesocialcontract。ThemomentIenterthecorporationIabandonmyownpersonality；Iabandon，bythisact，mypossessions，mychildren，mychurch，andmyopinions。Iceasetobeproprietor，father，Christianandphilosopher。Thestateismysubstituteinallthesefunctions。Inplaceofmywill，thereishenceforththepublicwill，thatistosay，intheory，themutableabsolutismofamajoritycountedbyheads，whileinfact，itistherigidabsolutismoftheassembly，thefaction，theindividualwhoiscustodianofthepublicauthority。—
　　Onthisprincipleanoutburstofboundlessconceittakesplace。TheveryfirstyearGrégoirestatesinthetribuneoftheConstituentAssembly，"wemightchangereligionifwepleased，butwehavenosuchdesire。"Alittlelaterthedesirecomes，anditistobecarriedout；
　　thatofHolbachisproposed，thenthatofRousseau，andtheydaregomuchfarther。InthenameofReason，ofwhichtheStatealoneistherepresentativeandinterpreter，theyundertaketounmakeandmakeover，inconformitywithReasonandwithReasononly，allcustoms，festivals，ceremonies，andcostumes，theera，thecalendar，weightsandmeasures，thenamesoftheseasons，months，weeksanddays，ofplacesandmonuments，familyandbaptismalnames，complimentarytitles，thetoneofdiscourse，themodeofsalutation，ofgreeting，ofspeakingandofwriting，insuchafashion，thattheFrenchman，asformerlywiththepuritanortheQuaker，remodeledeveninhisinwardsubstance，exposes，throughthesmallestdetailsofhisconductandexterior，thedominanceoftheall—powerfulprinciplewhichrefashionshisbeingandtheinflexiblelogicwhichcontrolshisthoughts。Thisconstitutesthefinalresultandcompletetriumphoftheclassicspirit。Installedinnarrowbrains，incapableofentertainingtworelatedideas，itistobecomeacoldorfuriousmonomania，fiercelyandunrelentinglydestroyingapastitcurses，andattemptingtoestablishamillennium，andallinthenameofanillusorycontract，atonceanarchicalanddespotic，whichunfettersinsurrectionandjustifiesdictatorship；alltoendinaconflictingsocialorderresemblingsometimesadrunkenorgyofdemons，andsometimesaSpartanconvent；allaimedatreplacingtherealhumanbeing，slowlyformedbyhispastwithanimprovisedrobot，who，throughitsowndebility，willcollapsewhentheexternalandmechanicalforcethatkeepsitupwillnolongersustainit。
　　Notes:
　　[1]Barrère，"Pointdujour，"No。1，（June15，1789）。"Youaresummonedtogivehistoryafreshstart。"
　　[2]Condorcet，ibid。，"Tableaudesprogrèsdel’esprithumain，"thetenthepoch。"Themethodsofthemathematicalsciences，appliedtonewobjects，haveopenednewroadstothemoralandpoliticalsciences。"—
　　Cf。Rousseau，inthe"ContratSocial，"themathematicalcalculationofthefractionofsovereigntytowhicheachindividualisentitled。
　　[3]Saint—Lambert，"Catéchismeuniversel，"thefirstdialogue，p。
　　17。
　　[4]Condorcet，ibid。，ninthepoch。"Fromthissingletruththepublicistshavebeenabletoderivetherightsofman。"
　　[5]RousseaustillentertainedadmirationforMontesquieubut，atthesametime，withsomereservation；afterwards，however，thetheorydevelopeditself，everyhistoricalrightbeingrejected。"Then，"saysCondorcet，（ibid。，ninthepoch），"theyfoundthemselvesobligedabandonafalseandcraftypolicywhich，forgetfulofmenderivingequalrightsthroughtheirnature，attemptedatonetimetoestimatethoseallowedtothemaccordingtoextentofterritory，thetemperatureoftheclimate，thenationalcharacter，thewealthofthepopulation，thedegreeofperfectionoftheircommerceandindustries，andagaintoapportionthesamerightsunequallyamongdiverseclassesofmen，bestowingthemonbirth，richesandprofessions，andthuscreatingopposinginterestsandopposingpowers，forthepurposeofsubsequentlyestablishinganequilibriumalonerenderednecessarybytheseinstitutionsthemselvesandwhichthedangeroftheirtendenciesbynomeanscorrects。"
　　[6]Condillac，"Logique。"
　　[7]"HistoiredeFranceparEstampes，"1789。（Inthecollectionofengravings，BibliothequeNationaledeParis。）
　　[8]Mme。deGenlis，"SouvenirsdeFélicie，"371—391。
　　[9]DeTocqueville，"L’Ancienrégime，"237。—Cf。"L’an2440，"byMercier，III。vols。Oneoftheselovelydaydreamsinallitsdetailmaybefoundhere。Theworkwasfirstpublishedin1770。"TheRevolution，"saysoneofthecharacters，"wasbroughtaboutwithoutaneffort，throughtheheroismofagreatman，aroyalphilosopherworthyofpower，becausehedespisedit，"etc。（TomeII。109。）
　　[10]"MémoiresdeM。Bouillé，"p。70。—Cf。Barante，"Tableaudelalitt。fran？aiseaudixhuitièmesiècle，"p。318。"Civilizationandenlightenmentweresupposedtohaveallayedallpassionsandsoftenedallcharacters。Itseemedasifmoralityhadbecomeeasyofpracticeandthatthebalanceofsocialorderwassowelladjustedthatnothingcoulddisturbit。"
　　[11]SeeinRousseau，inthe"LettreàM。deBeaumont，"asceneofthisdescription，theestablishmentofdeismandtoleration，associatedwithasimilardiscourse。
　　[12]RouxetBuchez，"Histoireparlementaire，"IV。322，theaddressmadeonthe11thFeb。，1790。"Whatanaffectingandsublimeaddress，"
　　saysadeputy。ItwasgreetedbytheAssembly，with"unparalleledapplause。"Thewholeaddressoughttohavebeenquotedentire。
　　[13]Thenumberofcerebralcellsisestimated（thecorticallayer）
　　attwelvehundredmillions（in1880）andthefibersbindingthemtogetheratfourthousandmillions。（Todayin1990itisthoughtthatthebraincontainsonemillionmillionneuronsandmanytimesmorefibers。SR。）
　　[14]Inhisbest—sellingbook"TheBlindWatchmaker"，（Published1986）thebiologistRichardDawkinswrites:"Allappearancestothecontrary，theonlywatchmakerinnatureistheblindforcesofphysics，albeitdeployedinaveryspecialway。Atruewatchmakerhasforesight:hedesignshiscogsandsprings，andplanstheirinterconnections，withafuturepurposeinhismind’seye。Naturalselection，theblind，unconscious，automaticprocesswhichDarwindiscovered，andwhichwenowknowistheexplanationfortheexistenceandapparentlypurposefulformofalllife，hasnopurposeinmind。Ithasnomindandnomind’seye。itdoesnotplanforthefuture。Ithasnovision，noforesight，nosightatall。Ifitcanbesaidtoplaytheroleofwatchmakerinnature，itistheblindwatchmaker。"（SR。）
　　[15]AlreadyMichelMontaigne（1533—1592）hadnotedman’stendencytoover—estimatehisownpowersofjudgment:
　　’So，toreturntomyself，thesolefeatureforwhichIholdmyselfinsomeesteemisthatinwhichnomanhaseverthoughthimselfdefective。Myself—approbationiscommon，andsharedbyall。Forwhohaseverconsideredhimselflackingincommonsense？Thiswouldbeaself—contradictoryproposition。Lackofsenseisadiseasethatneverexistswhenitisseen；itismosttenaciousandstrong，yetthefirstglancefromthepatient’seyepiercesitthroughanddispersesit，asadensemistisdispersedbythesun’sbeams。Toaccuseoneselfwouldamounttoself—absolution。Thereneverwasastreet—porterorasillywomanwhowasnotsureofhavingasmuchsenseaswasnecessary。Wereadilyrecognizeinothersasuperiorityincourage，physicalstrength，experience，agility，orbeauty。Butasuperiorjudgmentweconcedetonobody。Andwethinkthatwecouldourselveshavediscoveredthereasonswhichoccurnaturallytoothers，ifonlywehadlookedinthesamedirection。’）（SR。）
　　[16]Myfather’scousin，ablack—smithissuefromalonglineofcountryblack—smiths，bornin1896，usedtosaythatthebasicprincipleelevatingchildrenwastoensure"thatthechildnevershouldbeabletoexcludethepossibilityofgoodthrashing。"（SR）。
　　[17]Rousseau，"Contratsocial，"I，ch。7；III。ch。13，14，15，18；
　　IV。ch。1。—Cf。Condorcet，ninthepoch。
　　[18]Rousseau，"Contratsocial，"III，1，18；IV，3。
　　[19]DeTocqueville，"L’Ancienrégime，"bookII。entire，andbookIII。ch。3。
　　[20]Rousseau，"Contratsocial。"I。6。
　　[21]IbidemI。9。"TheStateinrelationtoitsmembersismasterofalltheirpossessionsaccordingtothesocialcompact……
　　possessorsareconsideredasdepositariesofthepublicwealth。"
　　[22]Rousseau，"Discourssurl’Economiepolitique，"308。
　　[23]Ibid。"Emile，"bookV。175。
　　[24]Rousseau，"Discourssurl’Economiepolitique，"302
　　[25]Rousseau，onthe"GovernmentdePologne，"277，283，287。
　　[26]Ibid。"Emile，"bookI。
　　[27]Morelly，"Codedelanature。""Attheageoffiveallchildrenshouldberemovedtheirfamiliesandbroughtupincommon，atthechargeoftheState，inauniformmanner。"Asimilarproject，perfectlySpartan，wasfoundamongthepapersofSt。—Just。
　　[28]Rousseau，"Contratsocial，"II。3；IV。8。
　　[29]Cf。Mercier，"L’an2240，"I。ch。17and18。From1770on，hetracestheprogrammeofasystemofworshipsimilartothatoftheThéophilanthropists，thechapterbeingentitled:"Passiéloignéqu’onpense。"
　　BOOKFOURTH。THEPROPAGATIONOFTHEDOCTRINE。
　　CHAPTERI。
　　SUCCESSOFTHISPHILOSOPHYINFRANCE。—FAILUREOFTHESAME
　　PHILOSOPHYINENGLAND。
　　Severalsimilartheorieshaveinthepasttraversedtheimaginationofmen，andsimilartheoriesarelikelydosoagain。Inallagesandinallcountries，itsufficedthatman’sconceptofhisownnaturechangedfor，asanindirectconsequence，newutopiasanddiscoverieswouldsproutinthefieldsofpoliticsandreligion。[1]—
　　Butthisdoesnotsufficeforthepropagationofthenewdoctrinenor，moreimportant，fortheorytobeputintopractice。AlthoughborninEngland，thephilosophyoftheeighteenthcenturycouldnotdevelopitselfinEngland；thefeverfordemolitionandreconstructionremainedbutbrieflyandsuperficialthere。Deism，atheism，materialism，skepticism，ideology，thetheoryofthereturntonature，theproclamationsoftherightsofman，allthetemeritiesofBolingbroke，Collins，Toland，TindalandMandeville，theboldideasofHume，Hartley，JamesMillandBentham，alltherevolutionarydoctrines，weresomanyhotbedplantsproducedhereandthere，intheisolatedstudiesofafewthinkers:outintheopen，afterbloomingforawhile，subjecttoavigorouscompetitionwiththeoldvegetationtowhichthesoilbelonged，theyfailed[2]。—Onthecontrary，inFrance，theseedimportedfromEngland，takesrootandspreadswithextraordinaryvigor。AftertheRegencyitisinfullbloom[3]。Likeanyspeciesfavoredbysoilandclimate，itinvadesallthefields，appropriatinglightandairtoitself，scarcelyallowinginitsshadeafewpunyspecimensofahostilespecies，asurvivorofanantiquefloralikeRollin，oraspecimenofaneccentricfloralikeSaint—
　　Martin。Withlargetreesanddensethickets，throughmassesofbrushwoodandlowplants，suchasVoltaire，Montesquieu，Rousseau，Diderot，d’AlembertandBuffon，orDuclos，Mably，Condillac，Turgot，Beaumarchais，BernadindeSaint—Pierre，BarthélemyandThomas，suchasacrowdofjournalists，compilersandconversationalists，ortheeliteofthephilosophical，scientificandliterarymultitude，itoccupiestheAcademy，thestage，thedrawingroomandthedebate。Alltheimportantpersonsofthecenturyareitsoffshoots，andamongthesearesomeofthegrandesteverproducedbyhumanity。—Thiswaspossiblebecausetheseedhadfallenonsuitableground，thatistosay，onthesoilinthehomelandoftheclassicspirit。Inthislandoftheraisonraisonnante[4]itnolongerencounterstheantagonistswhoimpededitsgrowthontheothersideoftheChannel，anditnotonlyimmediatelyacquiresvigorofsapbutthepropagatingorganwhichitrequiredaswell。
　　I。THEPROPAGATINGORGAN，ELOQUENCE。
　　Causesofthisdifference。—ThisartofwritinginFrance。—Itssuperiorityatthisepoch。—Itservesasthevehicleofnewideas。
　　—Booksarewrittenforpeopleoftheworld。—Thisaccountsforphilosophydescendingtothedrawingroom。
　　Thisorganisthe"talentofspeech，eloquenceappliedtothegravestsubjects，thetalentformakingthingsclear。"[5]"Thegreatwritersofthisnation，"saystheiradversary，"expressthemselvesbetterthanthoseofanyothernation。Theirbooksgivebutlittleinformationtotruesavants，"but"throughtheartofexpressiontheyinfluencemen"and"themassofmen，constantlyrepelledfromthesanctuaryofthesciencesbythedrystyleandbadtasteof（other）
　　scientificwriters，cannotresisttheseductionsoftheFrenchstyleandmethod。"Thustheclassicspiritthatfurnishestheideaslikewisefurnishesthemeansofconveyingthem，thetheoriesoftheeighteenthcenturybeinglikethoseseedsprovidedwithwingswhichfloatanddistributethemselvesonallsoils。Thereisnobookofthatdaynotwrittenforpeopleofthehighsociety，andevenforwomenofthisclass。InFontenelle’sdialoguesonthePluralityofworldstheprincipalpersonageisamarchioness。Voltairecomposeshis"Métaphysique"andhis"EssaisurlesMoeurs"forMadameduChatelet，andRousseauhis"Emile"forMadamed’Epinay。Condillacwrotethe"TraitédesSensations"fromsuggestionsofMademoiselleFerrand，andhesetsforthinstructionstoyoungladieshowtoreadhis"Logique。"
　　Baudeaudedicatesandexplainstoaladyhis"TableauEconomique。"
　　Diderot’smostprofoundworkisaconversationbetweenMademoiselledel’Espinasseandd’AlembertandBordeu[6]。Montesquieuhadplacedaninvocationtothemusesinthemiddleofthe"EspritdesLois。"Almosteveryworkisaproductofthedrawing—room，anditisalwaysonethat，beforethepublic，hasbeenpresentedwithitsbeginnings。Inthisrespectthehabitissostrongastolastuptotheendof1789；
　　theharanguesabouttobemadeintheNationalAssemblyarealsopassagesofbravurapreviouslyrehearsedbeforeladiesataneveningentertainment。TheAmericanAmbassador，apracticalman，explainstoWashingtonwithsoberironythefineacademicandliteraryparadeprecedingthepoliticaltournamentinpublic[7]。
　　"Thespeechesaremadebeforehandinasmallsocietyofyoungmenandwomen，amongthemgenerallythefairfriendofthespeakerisone，orelsethefairwhomhemeanstomakehisfriend，；andthesocietyverypolitelygivetheirapprobation，unlesstheladywhogivesthetonetothatcirclechancestoreprehendsomething，whichisofcoursealtered，ifnotamended。"
　　Itisnotsurprising，withcustomsofthiskind，thatprofessionalphilosophersshouldbecomemenofsociety。Atnotimeorinanyplacehavetheybeensotothesameextent，norsohabitually。Thegreatdelightofamanofgeniusoroflearninghere，saysanEnglishtraveler，istoreignoverabrilliantassemblyofpeopleoffashion[8]。WhilstinEnglandtheyburythemselvesmoroselyintheirbooks，livingamongstthemselvesandappearinginsocietyonlyonconditionof"doingsomepoliticaldrudgery，"thatofjournalistorpamphleteerintheserviceofaparty，inFrancetheydineouteveryevening，andconstitutetheornamentsandamusementofthedrawing—
　　roomstowhichtheyresorttoconverse[9]。Thereisnotahouseinwhichdinnersaregiventhathasnotitstitularphilosopher，and，lateron，itseconomistandmanofscience。Inthevariousmemoirs，andinthecollectionsofcorrespondence，wetrackthemfromonedrawingroomtoanother，fromonechateautoanother，VoltairetoCireyatMadameduChatelet’s，andthenhome，atFerneywherehehasatheaterandentertainsallEurope；RousseautoMadamed’Epinay’s，andM。deLuxembourg’s；theAbbéBarthelemytotheDuchessedeChoiseul’s；
　　Thomas，MarmontelandGibbontoMadameNecker’s；theencyclopediststod’Holbach’sampledinners，totheplainanddiscreettableofMadameGeoffrin，andtothelittledrawingroomofMademoiselledeL’Espinasse，allbelongingtothegreatcentralstatedrawing—room，thatistosay，totheFrenchAcademy，whereeachnewlyelectedmemberappearstoparadehisstyleandobtainfromapolishedbodyhiscommissionofmasterintheartofdiscourse。Suchapublicimposesonanauthortheobligationofbeingmoreawriterthanaphilosopher。
　　Thethinkerisexpectedtoconcernhimselfwithhissentencesasmuchaswithhisideas。Heisnotallowedtobeamerescholarinhiscloset，asimpleerudite，divingintofoliosinGermanfashion，ametaphysicianabsorbedwithhisownmeditations，havinganaudienceofpupilswhotakenotes，and，asreaders，mendevotedtostudyandwillingtogivethemselvestrouble，aKant，whoformsforhimselfaspeciallanguage，whowaitsforapublictocomprehendhimandwholeavestheroominwhichhelaborsonlyforthelecture—roominwhichhedelivershislectures。Here，onthecontrary，inthematterofexpression，allareexpertsandevenprofessional。Themathematiciand’Alembertpublishesasmalltreatiseonelocution；Buffon，thenaturalistpronouncesadiscourseonStyle；thelegistMontesquieucomposesanessayonTaste；thepsychologistCondillacwritesavolumeontheartofwriting。Inthisconsiststheirgreatestglory；
　　philosophyowesitsentryintosocietytothem。Theywithdrewitfromthestudy，theclosed—societyandtheschool，tointroduceitintocompanyandintoconversation。
　　II。ITSMETHOD。
　　Owingtothismethoditbecomespopular。
　　"MadamelaMaréchale，"saysoneofDiderot’spersonages，[10]。"I
　　mustconsiderthingsfromasomewhathigherpointofview。"—"AshighasyoupleasesolongasIunderstandyou。"—"Ifyoudonotunderstandmeitwillbemyfault。"—"Youareverypolite，butyoumustknowthatIhavestudiednothingbutmyprayer。book。"—Thatmakesnodifference；theprettywoman，ablyledon，beginstophilosophizewithoutknowingit，arrivingwithouteffortatthedistinctionbetweengoodandevil，comprehendinganddecidingonthehighestdoctrinesofmoralityandreligion。—Suchistheartoftheeighteenthcentury，andtheartofwriting。Peopleareaddressedwhoareperfectlyfamiliarwithlife，butwhoarecommonlyignorantoforthography，whoarecuriousinalldirections，butillpreparedforany；theobjectistobringtruthdowntotheirlevel[11]。Scientificortooabstracttermsareinadmissible；theytolerateonlythoseusedtoordinaryconversation。Andthisisnoobstacle；itiseasiertotalkphilosophyinthislanguagethantouseitfordiscussingprecedenceandclothes。For，ineveryabstractquestionthereissomeleadingandsimpleconceptiononwhichtherestdepends，thoseofunity，proportion，massandmotioninmathematics；thoseoforgan，functionandbeinginphysiology；thoseofsensation，pain，pleasureanddesireinpsychology；thoseofutility，contractandlawinpoliticsandmorality；thoseofcapital，production，value，exchangeinpoliticaleconomy，andthe，sameintheothersciences，allofthesebeingconceptionsderivedfrompassingexperience；fromwhichitfollowsthat，inappealingtocommonexperiencebymeansofafewfamiliarcircumstances，suchasshortstories，anecdotes，agreeabletales，andthelike，theseconceptionsarefashionedanewandrenderedprecise。Thisbeingaccomplished，almosteverythingisaccomplished；
　　fornothingthenremainsbuttoleadthelisteneralongstepbystep，flightbyflight，totheremotestconsequences。
　　"WillMadamelaMaréchalehavethekindnesstorecallmydefinition？"—"Irememberitwell—doyoucallthatadefinition？"
　　—"Yes。"—"That，then，isphilosophy！"—"Admirable！"—"AndI
　　havebeenphilosophical？"—"Asyoureadprose，withoutbeingawareofit。"
　　Therestissimplyamatterofreasoning，thatistosay，ofleadingon，ofputtingquestionsintherightorder，andofanalysis。
　　Withtheconceptionthusrenewedandrectifiedthetruthnearestathandisbroughtout，thenoutofthis，asecondtruthrelatedtothefirstone，andsoontotheend，nootherobligationbeinginvolvedinthismethodbutthatofcarefullyadvancingstepbystep，andofomittingnointermediarystep。—Withthismethodoneisabletoexplainall，tomakeeverythingunderstood，evenbywomen，andevenbywomenofsociety。Intheeighteenthcenturyitformsthesubstanceofalltalents，thewarpofallmasterpieces，thelucidity，popularityandauthorityofphilosophy。The"Eloges"ofFontenelle，the"Philosopheignorantetleprinciped’action"byVoltaire，the"
　　LettreàM。deBeaumont，"andthe"VicaireSavoyard"byRousseau，the"Traitédel’homme"andthe"époquesdelaNature"byBuffon，the"
　　Dialoguessurlesblés"byGaliani，the"Considérations"byd’Alembert，onmathematics，the"LanguedesCalculs"andthe"Logique"byCondillac，and，alittlelater，the"ExpositiondusystèmeduMonde"byLaplace，and"Discoursgénéraux"byBichatandCuvier；allarebasedonthismethod[12]。Finally，thisisthemethodwhichCondillacerectsintoatheoryunderthenameofideology，soonacquiringtheascendancyofadogma，andwhichthenseemstosumupallmethods。Attheveryleastitsumsuptheprocessbywhichthephilosophersofthecenturyobtainedtheiraudience，propagatedtheirdoctrineandachievedtheirsuccess。
　　III。ITSPOPULARITY。
　　Owingtostyleitbecomespleasing。—Twostimulantspeculiartothe18thcentury，coarsehumorandirony。
　　Thankstothismethodonecanbeunderstood；but，toberead，somethingmoreisnecessary。Icomparetheeighteenthcenturytoacompanyofpeoplearoundatable；itisnotsufficientthatthefoodbeforethembewellprepared，wellserved，withinreachandeasytodigest，butitisimportantthatitshouldbesomechoicedishor，betterstill，somedainty。TheintellectisEpicurean；letussupplyitwithsavory，delicateviandsadaptedtoitstaste；itwilleatsomuchthemoreowingtoitsappetitebeingsharpenedbysensuality。
　　Twospecialcondimentsenterintothecuisineofthiscentury，and，accordingtothehandthatmakesuseofthem，theyfurnishallliterarydisheswithacoarseordelicateseasoning。InanEpicureansociety，towhichareturntonatureandtherightsofinstinctarepreached，voluptuousimagesandideaspresentthemselvesinvoluntarily；thisistheappetizing，excitingspice—box。Eachguestatthetableusesorabusesit；manyemptyitsentirecontentsontheirplate。AndIdonotalludemerelytotheliteraturereadinsecret，totheextraordinarybooksMadamed’Audlan，governesstotheFrenchroyalchildren，peruses，andwhichstrayoffintothehandsofthedaughtersofLouisXV，[13]nortootherbooks，stillmoreextraordinary，[14]inwhichphilosophicalargumentsappearasaninterludebetweenfilthandtheillustrations，andwhicharekeptbytheladiesofthecourtontheirtoilet—tables，underthetitleof"HeuresdeParis。"Ireferheretothegreatmen，tothemastersofthepublicintellect。WiththeexceptionofBuffon，allputpimentointotheirsauces，thatistosay，loosetalkorcoarsenessofexpression。Wefindthiseveninthe"EspritdesLois；"thereisanenormousamountofit，openandcoveredup，inthe"LettresPersanes。"
　　Diderot，inhistwogreatnovels，putsitinbyhandfuls，asifduringanorgy。Theteethcrunchonitlikesomanygrainsofpepper，oneverypageofVoltaire。Wefindit，notonlypiquant，butstrongandofburningintensity，inthe"NouvelleHélo？se，"scoresoftimesin"
　　Emile，"and，inthe"Confessions，"fromoneendtotheother。Itwasthetasteoftheday。M。deMalesherbes，souprightandsograve，committed"LaPucelle"tomemoryandrecitedit。WehavefromthepenofSaint—Just，thegloomiestofthe"Mountain，"apoemaslasciviousasthatofVoltaire，whileMadameRoland，thenoblestoftheGirondins，hasleftusconfessionsasventuresomeandspecificasthoseofRousseau[15]。—Ontheotherhandthereisasecondbox，thatcontainingtheoldGallicsalt，thatistosay，humorandraillery。Itsmouthiswideopeninthehandsofaphilosophyproclaimingthesovereigntyofreason。WhateveriscontrarytoReasonistoitabsurdandthereforeopentoridicule。Themomentthesolemnhereditarymaskcoveringupanabuseisbrusquelyandadroitlytornaside，wefeelacuriousspasm，thecornersofourmouthstretchingapartandourbreastheavingviolently，asatakindofsuddenrelief，anunexpecteddeliverance，experiencingasenseofourrecoveredsuperiority，ofourrevengebeinggratifiedandofanactofjusticehavingbeenperformed。Butitdependsonthemodeinwhichthemaskisstruckoffwhetherthelaughshallbeinturnlightorloud，suppressedorunbridled，nowamiableandcheerful，ornowbitterandsardonic。Humor（laplaisanterie）comportswithallaspects，frombuffoonerytoindignation；noliteraryseasoningaffordssuchavariety，orsomanymixtures，noronethatsowellentersintocombinationwiththatabove—mentioned。Thetwotogether，fromthemiddleagesdown，formtheprincipalingredientsemployedbytheFrenchcuisineinthecompositionofitsmostagreeabledainties，—
　　fables，tales，witticisms，jovialsongsandwaggeries，theeternalheritageofagood—humored，mockingpeople，preservedbyLaFontaineathwartthepompandsobrietyoftheseventeenthcentury，and，intheeighteenth，reappearingeverywhereatthephilosophicbanquet。Itscharmisgreattothebrilliantcompanyatthistable，soamplyprovided，whoseprincipaloccupationispleasureandamusement。Itisallthegreaterbecause，onthisoccasion，thepassingdispositionisinharmonywithhereditaryinstinct，andbecausethetasteoftheepochisfortifiedbythenationaltaste。Addtoallthistheexquisiteartofthecooks，theirtalentincommingling，inapportioningandinconcealingthecondiments，invaryingandarrangingthedishes，thecertaintyoftheirhand，thefinesseoftheirpalate，theirexperienceinprocesses，inthetraditionsandpracticeswhich，alreadyforahundredyears，formofFrenchprosethemostdelicatenourishmentoftheintellect。Itisnotstrangetofindthemskilledinregulatinghumanspeech，inextractingfromititsquintessenceandindistillingitsfulldelight。
　　IV。THEMASTERS。
　　Theartandprocessesofthemasters。—Montesquieu。—Voltaire。
　　—Diderot。—Rousseau。—"TheMarriageofFigaro。"
　　Inthisrespectfouramongthemaresuperior，Montesquieu，Voltaire，DiderotandRousseau。Itseemssufficienttomentiontheirnames。ModernEuropehasnogreaterwriters。Andyettheirtalentmustbecloselyexaminedtoproperlycomprehendtheirpower。—IntoneandstyleMontesquieuisthefirst。Nowriterismoremasterofhimself，moreoutwardlycalm，moresureofhismeaning。Hisvoiceisneverboisterous；heexpressesthemostpowerfulthoughtswithmoderation。Thereisnogesticulation；exclamations，theabandonmentofimpulse，allthatisirreconcilablewithdecorumisrepugnanttohistact，hisreserve，hisdignity。Heseemstobealwaysaddressingaselectcircleofpeoplewithacuteminds，andinsuchawayastorenderthemateverymomentconsciousoftheiracuteness。Noflatterycouldbemoredelicate；wefeelgratefultohimformakingussatisfiedwithourintelligence。Wemustpossesssomeintelligencetobeabletoreadhim，forhedeliberatelycurtailsdevelopmentsandomitstransitions；wearerequiredtosupplytheseandtocomprehendhishiddenmeanings。Heisrigorouslysystematicbutthesystemisconcealed，hisconcisecompletedsentencessucceedingeachotherseparately，likesomanypreciouscoffersorcaskets，nowsimpleandplaininaspect，nowsuperblychasedanddecorated，butalwaysfull。
　　Openthemandeachcontainsatreasure；hereisplacedinnarrowcompassarichstoreofreflections，ofemotions，ofdiscoveries，ourenjoymentbeingthemoreintensebecausewecaneasilyretainallthisforamomentinthepalmofourhand。"Thatwhichusuallyformsagrandconception，"hehimselfsays，"isathoughtsoexpressedastorevealanumberofotherthoughts，andsuddenlydisclosingwhatwecouldnotanticipatewithoutpatientstudy。"This，indeed，ishismanner；hethinkswithsummaries；heconcentratestheessenceofdespotisminachapterofthreelines。Thesummaryitselfoftenbearstheairofanenigma，ofwhichthecharmistwofold；wehavethepleasureofcomprehensionaccompanyingthesatisfactionofdivining。
　　Inallsubjectshemaintainsthissupremediscretion，thisartofindicatingwithoutenforcing，thesereticences，thesmilethatneverbecomesalaugh。
　　"Inmydefenseofthe’EspritdesLois，"’hesays，"thatwhichgratifiesmeisnottoseevenerabletheologianscrushedtothegroundbuttoseethemglidedowngently。"
　　Heexcelsintranquilirony，inpolisheddisdain，[16]indisguisedsarcasm。HisPersiansjudgeFranceasPersians，andwesmileattheirerrors；unfortunatelythelaughisnotagainstthembutagainstourselves，fortheirerrorisfoundtobeaverity[17]。Thisorthatletter，inasobervein，seemsacomedyattheirexpensewithoutreflectinguponus，fullofMuslimprejudicesandoforientalconceit；[18]reflectamoment，andourconceit，inthisrelation，appearsnoless。Blowsofextraordinaryforceandreacharegiveninpassing，asifthoughtlessly，againstexistinginstitutions，againstthetransformedCatholicismwhich"inthepresentstateofEurope，cannotlastfivehundredyears，"againstthedegeneratemonarchywhichcausesusefulcitizenstostarvetofattenparasitecourtiers[19]。