Inexaminingtheancientconstitutionofthejudicialpower，amongstmostEuropeannations，twothingsstrikethemind—theindependenceofthatpower，andtheextentofitsfunctions。Notonlydidthecourtsofjusticedecidealmostalldifferencesbetweenprivatepersons，butinverymanycasestheyactedasarbitersbetweenprivatepersonsandtheState。Idonotherealludetothepoliticalandadministrativeofficeswhichcourtsofjudicaturehadinsomecountriesusurped，butthejudicialofficecommontothemall。InmostofthecountriesofEurope，therewere，andtherestillare，manyprivaterights，connectedforthemostpartwiththegeneralrightofproperty，whichstoodundertheprotectionofthecourtsofjustice，andwhichtheStatecouldnotviolatewithouttheirsanction。Itwasthissemi—politicalpowerwhichmainlydistinguishedtheEuropeancourtsofjudicaturefromallothers;forallnationshavehadjudges，butallhavenotinvestedtheirjudgeswiththesameprivileges。UponexaminingwhatisnowoccurringamongstthedemocraticnationsofEuropewhicharecalledfree，aswellasamongsttheothers，itwillbeobservedthatnewandmoredependentcourtsareeverywherespringingupbythesideoftheoldones，fortheexpresspurposeofdeciding，byanextraordinaryjurisdiction，suchlitigatedmattersasmayarisebetweenthegovernmentandprivatepersons。Theelderjudicialpowerretainsitsindependence，butitsjurisdictionisnarrowed;
andthereisagrowingtendencytoreduceittobeexclusivelythearbiterbetweenprivateinterests。Thenumberofthesespecialcourtsofjusticeiscontinuallyincreasing，andtheirfunctionsincreaselikewise。Thusthegovernmentismoreandmoreabsolvedfromthenecessityofsubjectingitspolicyanditsrightstothesanctionofanotherpower。Asjudgescannotbedispensedwith，atleasttheStateistoselectthem，andalwaystoholdthemunderitscontrol;sothat，betweenthegovernmentandprivateindividuals，theyplacetheeffigyofjusticeratherthanjusticeitself。TheStateisnotsatisfiedwithdrawingallconcernstoitself，butitacquiresanever—increasingpowerofdecidingonthemallwithoutrestrictionandwithoutappeal。*d[Footnoted:AstrangesophismhasbeenmadeonthisheadinFrance。Whenasuitarisesbetweenthegovernmentandaprivateperson，itisnottobetriedbeforeanordinaryjudge—inorder，theysay，nottomixtheadministrativeandthejudicialpowers;asifitwerenottomixthosepowers，andtomixtheminthemostdangerousandoppressivemanner，toinvestthegovernmentwiththeofficeofjudgingandadministeringatthesametime。]
ThereexistsamongstthemodernnationsofEuropeonegreatcause，independentofallthosewhichhavealreadybeenpointedout，whichperpetuallycontributestoextendtheagencyortostrengthentheprerogativeofthesupremepower，thoughithasnotbeensufficientlyattendedto:Imeanthegrowthofmanufactures，whichisfosteredbytheprogressofsocialequality。Manufacturesgenerallycollectamultitudeofmenofthesamespot，amongstwhomnewandcomplexrelationsspringup。
Thesemenareexposedbytheircallingtogreatandsuddenalternationsofplentyandwant，duringwhichpublictranquillityisendangered。Itmayalsohappenthattheseemploymentssacrificethehealth，andeventhelife，ofthosewhogainbythem，orofthosewholivebythem。Thusthemanufacturingclassesrequiremoreregulation，superintendence，andrestraintthantheotherclassesofsociety，anditisnaturalthatthepowersofgovernmentshouldincreaseinthesameproportionasthoseclasses。
Thisisatruthofgeneralapplication;whatfollowsmoreespeciallyconcernsthenationsofEurope。Inthecenturieswhichprecededthatinwhichwelive，thearistocracywasinpossessionofthesoil，andwascompetenttodefendit:landedpropertywasthereforesurroundedbyamplesecurities，anditspossessorsenjoyedgreatindependence。Thisgaverisetolawsandcustomswhichhavebeenperpetuated，notwithstandingthesubdivisionoflandsandtheruinofthenobility;and，atthepresenttime，landownersandagriculturistsarestillthoseamongstthecommunitywhomusteasilyescapefromthecontrolofthesupremepower。Inthesesamearistocraticages，inwhichallthesourcesofourhistoryaretobetraced，personalpropertywasofsmallimportance，andthosewhopossesseditweredespisedandweak:themanufacturingclassformedanexceptioninthemidstofthosearistocraticcommunities;asithadnocertainpatronage，itwasnotoutwardlyprotected，andwasoftenunabletoprotectitself。
Henceahabitsprungupofconsideringmanufacturingpropertyassomethingofapeculiarnature，notentitledtothesamedeference，andnotworthyofthesamesecuritiesaspropertyingeneral;andmanufacturerswerelookeduponasasmallclassinthebulkofthepeople，whoseindependencewasofsmallimportance，andwhomightwithproprietybeabandonedtothedisciplinarypassionsofprinces。Onglancingoverthecodesofthemiddleages，oneissurprisedtosee，inthoseperiodsofpersonalindependence，withwhatincessantroyalregulationsmanufactureswerehampered，evenintheirsmallestdetails:onthispointcentralizationwasasactiveandasminuteasitcaneverbe。Sincethattimeagreatrevolutionhastakenplaceintheworld;manufacturingproperty，whichwasthenonlyinthegerm，hasspreadtillitcoversEurope:themanufacturingclasshasbeenmultipliedandenrichedbytheremnantsofallotherranks;ithasgrownandisstillperpetuallygrowinginnumber，inimportance，inwealth。Almostallthosewhodonotbelongtoitareconnectedwithitatleastonsomeonepoint;afterhavingbeenanexceptioninsociety，itthreatenstobecomethechief，ifnottheonly，class;neverthelessthenotionsandpoliticalprecedentsengenderedbyitofoldstillclingaboutit。Thesenotionsandtheseprecedentsremainunchanged，becausetheyareold，andalsobecausetheyhappentobeinperfectaccordancewiththenewnotionsandgeneralhabitsofourcontemporaries。
Manufacturingpropertythendoesnotextenditsrightsinthesameratioasitsimportance。Themanufacturingclassesdonotbecomelessdependent，whilsttheybecomemorenumerous;but，onthecontrary，itwouldseemasifdespotismlurkedwithinthem，andnaturallygrewwiththeirgrowth。*eAsanationbecomesmoreengagedinmanufactures，thewantofroads，canals，harbors，andotherworksofasemi—publicnature，whichfacilitatetheacquisitionofwealth，ismorestronglyfelt;andasanationbecomesmoredemocratic，privateindividualsarelessable，andtheStatemoreable，toexecuteworksofsuchmagnitude。Idonothesitatetoassertthatthemanifesttendencyofallgovernmentsatthepresenttimeistotakeuponthemselvesalonetheexecutionoftheseundertakings;bywhichmeanstheydailyholdincloserdependencethepopulationwhichtheygovern。
[Footnotee:Ishallquoteafewfactsincorroborationofthisremark。Minesarethenaturalsourcesofmanufacturingwealth:asmanufactureshavegrownupinEurope，astheproduceofmineshasbecomeofmoregeneralimportance，andgoodminingmoredifficultfromthesubdivisionofpropertywhichisaconsequenceoftheequalityofconditions，mostgovernmentshaveassertedarightofowningthesoilinwhichthemineslie，andofinspectingtheworks;whichhasneverbeenthecasewithanyotherkindofproperty。Thusmines，whichwereprivateproperty，liabletothesameobligationsandshelteredbythesameguaranteesasallotherlandedproperty，havefallenunderthecontroloftheState。TheStateeitherworksthemorfarmsthem;theownersofthemaremeretenants，derivingtheirrightsfromtheState;and，moreover，theStatealmosteverywhereclaimsthepowerofdirectingtheiroperations:itlaysdownrules，enforcestheadoptionofparticularmethods，subjectstheminingadventurerstoconstantsuperintendence，and，ifrefractory，theyareoustedbyagovernmentcourtofjustice，andthegovernmenttransferstheircontracttootherhands;sothatthegovernmentnotonlypossessesthemines，buthasalltheadventurersinitspower。
Nevertheless，asmanufacturesincrease，theworkingofoldminesincreasesalso;newonesareopened，theminingpopulationextendsandgrowsup;daybydaygovernmentsaugmenttheirsubterraneandominions，andpeoplethemwiththeiragents。]
Ontheotherhand，inproportionasthepowerofaStateincreases，anditsnecessitiesareaugmented，theStateconsumptionofmanufacturedproduceisalwaysgrowinglarger，andtoesecommoditiesaregenerallymadeinthearsenalsorestablishmentsofthegovernment。Thus，ineverykingdom，therulerbecomestheprincipalmanufacturer;hecollectsandretainsinhisserviceavastnumberofengineers，architects，mechanics，andhandicraftsmen。Notonlyishetheprincipalmanufacturer，buthetendsmoreandmoretobecomethechief，orratherthemasterofallothermanufacturers。Asprivatepersonsbecomemorepowerlessbybecomingmoreequal，theycaneffectnothinginmanufactureswithoutcombination;butthegovernmentnaturallyseekstoplacethesecombinationsunderitsowncontrol。
Itmustbeadmittedthatthesecollectivebeings，whicharecalledcombinations，arestrongerandmoreformidablethanaprivateindividualcaneverbe，andthattheyhavelessoftheresponsibilityoftheirownactions;whenceitseemsreasonablethattheyshouldnotbeallowedtoretainsogreatanindependenceofthesupremegovernmentasmightbeconcededtoaprivateindividual。
Rulersarethemoreapttofollowthislineofpolicy，astheirowninclinationsinvitethemtoit。Amongstdemocraticnationsitisonlybyassociationthattheresistanceofthepeopletothegovernmentcaneverdisplayitself:hencethelatteralwayslookswithill—favoronthoseassociationswhicharenotinitsownpower;anditiswellworthyofremark，thatamongstdemocraticnations，thepeoplethemselvesoftenentertainasecretfeelingoffearandjealousyagainsttheseveryassociations，whichpreventsthecitizensfromdefendingtheinstitutionsofwhichtheystandsomuchinneed。Thepowerandthedurationofthesesmallprivatebodies，inthemidstoftheweaknessandinstabilityofthewholecommunity，astonishandalarmthepeople;andthefreeusewhicheachassociationmakesofitsnaturalpowersisalmostregardedasadangerousprivilege。Alltheassociationswhichspringupinourageare，moreover，newcorporatepowers，whoserightshavenotbeensanctionedbytime;theycomeintoexistenceatatimewhenthenotionofprivaterightsisweak，andwhenthepowerofgovernmentisunbounded;henceitisnotsurprisingthattheylosetheirfreedomattheirbirth。AmongstallEuropeannationstherearesomekindsofassociationswhichcannotbeformeduntiltheStatehasexaminedtheirby—laws，andauthorizedtheirexistence。Inseveralothers，attemptsaremadetoextendthisruletoallassociations;theconsequencesofsuchapolicy，ifitweresuccessful，mayeasilybeforeseen。Ifoncethesovereignhadageneralrightofauthorizingassociationsofallkindsuponcertainconditions，hewouldnotbelongwithoutclaimingtherightofsuperintendingandmanagingthem，inordertopreventthemfromdepartingfromtheruleslaiddownbyhimself。Inthismanner，theState，afterhav...完整阅读请扫描二维码下载丁香书院APP免费看：
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