Thesetwocausesdonotactinthesamemanneruponaristocraticarmies:asmenarepromotedinthembyrightofbirthmuchmorethanbyrightofseniority，thereareinallranksacertainnumberofyoungmen，whobringtotheirprofessionalltheearlyvigorofbodyandmind。Again，asthemenwhoseekformilitaryhonorsamongstanaristocraticpeople，enjoyasettledpositionincivilsociety，theyseldomcontinueinthearmyuntiloldageovertakesthem。Afterhavingdevotedthemostvigorousyearsofyouthtothecareerofarms，theyvoluntarilyretire，andspendathometheremainderoftheirmatureryears。
Alongpeacenotonlyfillsdemocraticarmieswithelderlyofficers，butitalsogivestoalltheofficershabitsbothofbodyandmindwhichrenderthemunfitforactualservice。Themanwhohaslonglivedamidstthecalmandlukewarmatmosphereofdemocraticmannerscanatfirstilladapthimselftothehardertoilsandsternerdutiesofwarfare;andifhehasnotabsolutelylostthetasteforarms，atleasthehasassumedamodeoflifewhichunfitshimforconquest。
Amongstaristocraticnations，theeaseofcivillifeexerciseslessinfluenceonthemannersofthearmy，becauseamongstthosenationsthearistocracycommandsthearmy:andanaristocracy，howeverplungedinluxuriouspleasures，hasalwaysmanyotherpassionsbesidesthatofitsownwell—being，andtosatisfythosepassionsmorethoroughlyitswell—beingwillbereadilysacrificed。*a[Footnotea:SeeAppendixV。]
Ihaveshownthatindemocraticarmies，intimeofpeace，promotionisextremelyslow。Theofficersatfirstsupportthisstateofthingswithimpatience，theygrowexcited，restless，exasperated，butintheendmostofthemmakeuptheirmindstoit。Thosewhohavethelargestshareofambitionandofresourcesquitthearmy;others，adaptingtheirtastesandtheirdesirestotheirscantyfortunes，ultimatelylookuponthemilitaryprofessioninacivilpointofview。Thequalitytheyvaluemostinitisthecompetencyandsecuritywhichattendit:
theirwholenotionofthefuturerestsuponthecertaintyofthislittleprovision，andalltheyrequireispeaceablytoenjoyit。
Thusnotonlydoesalongpeacefillanarmywitholdmen，butitisfrequentlyimpartstheviewsofoldmentothosewhoarestillintheprimeoflife。
Ihavealsoshownthatamongstdemocraticnationsintimeofpeacethemilitaryprofessionisheldinlittlehonorandindifferentlyfollowed。Thiswantofpublicfavorisaheavydiscouragementtothearmy;itweighsdownthemindsofthetroops，andwhenwarbreaksoutatlast，theycannotimmediatelyresumetheirspringandvigor。Nosimilarcauseofmoralweaknessoccursinaristocraticarmies:theretheofficersareneverloweredeitherintheirowneyesorinthoseoftheircountrymen，because，independentlyoftheirmilitarygreatness，theyarepersonallygreat。Buteveniftheinfluenceofpeaceoperatedonthetwokindsofarmiesinthesamemanner，theresultswouldstillbedifferent。Whentheofficersofanaristocraticarmyhavelosttheirwarlikespiritandthedesireofraisingthemselvesbyservice，theystillretainacertainrespectforthehonoroftheirclass，andanoldhabitofbeingforemosttosetanexample。Butwhentheofficersofademocraticarmyhavenolongertheloveofwarandtheambitionofarms，nothingwhateverremainstothem。
Iamthereforeofopinionthat，whenademocraticpeopleengagesinawarafteralongpeace，itincursmuchmoreriskofdefeatthananyothernation;butitoughtnoteasilytobecastdownbyitsreverses，forthechancesofsuccessforsuchanarmyareincreasedbythedurationofthewar。Whenawarhasatlength，byitslongcontinuance，rousedthewholecommunityfromtheirpeacefuloccupationsandruinedtheirminorundertakings，thesamepassionswhichmadethemattachsomuchimportancetothemaintenanceofpeacewillbeturnedtoarms。War，afterithasdestroyedallmodesofspeculation，becomesitselfthegreatandsolespeculation，towhichalltheardentandambitiousdesireswhichequalityengendersareexclusivelydirected。Henceitisthattheselfsamedemocraticnationswhicharesoreluctanttoengageinhostilities，sometimesperformprodigiousachievementswhenoncetheyhavetakenthefield。Asthewarattractsmoreandmoreofpublicattention，andisseentocreatehighreputationsandgreatfortunesinashortspaceoftime，thechoicestspiritsofthenationenterthemilitaryprofession:alltheenterprising，proud，andmartialminds，nolongerofthearistocracysolely，butofthewholecountry，aredrawninthisdirection。Asthenumberofcompetitorsformilitaryhonorsisimmense，andwardriveseverymantohisproperlevel，greatgeneralsarealwayssuretospringup。Alongwarproducesuponademocraticarmythesameeffectsthatarevolutionproducesuponapeople;itbreaksthroughregulations，andallowsextraordinarymentoriseabovethecommonlevel。Thoseofficerswhosebodiesandmindshavegrownoldinpeace，areremoved，orsuperannuated，ortheydie。Intheirsteadahostofyoungmenarepressingon，whoseframesarealreadyhardened，whosedesiresareextendedandinflamedbyactiveservice。Theyarebentonadvancementatallhazards，andperpetualadvancement;theyarefollowedbyotherswiththesamepassionsanddesires，andaftertheseareothersyetunlimitedbyaughtbutthesizeofthearmy。
Theprincipleofequalityopensthedoorofambitiontoall，anddeathprovideschancesforambition。Deathisconstantlythinningtheranks，makingvacancies，closingandopeningthecareerofarms。
Thereismoreoverasecretconnectionbetweenthemilitarycharacterandthecharacterofdemocracies，whichwarbringstolight。Themenofdemocraciesarenaturallypassionatelyeagertoacquirewhattheycovet，andtoenjoyitoneasyconditions。
Theyforthemostpartworshipchance，andaremuchlessafraidofdeaththanofdifficulty。Thisisthespiritwhichtheybringtocommerceandmanufactures;andthissamespirit，carriedwiththemtothefieldofbattle，inducesthemwillinglytoexposetheirlivesinordertosecureinamomenttherewardsofvictory。Nokindofgreatnessismorepleasingtotheimaginationofademocraticpeoplethanmilitarygreatness—agreatnessofvividandsuddenlustre，obtainedwithouttoil，bynothingbuttheriskoflife。Thus，whilsttheinterestsandthetastesofthemembersofademocraticcommunitydivertthemfromwar，theirhabitsofmindfitthemforcarryingonwarwell;theysoonmakegoodsoldiers，whentheyarerousedfromtheirbusinessandtheirenjoyments。Ifpeaceispeculiarlyhurtfultodemocraticarmies，warsecurestothemadvantageswhichnootherarmieseverpossess;andtheseadvantages，howeverlittlefeltatfirst，cannotfailintheendtogivethemthevictory。Anaristocraticnation，whichinacontestwithademocraticpeopledoesnotsucceedinruiningthelatterattheoutsetofthewar，alwaysrunsagreatriskofbeingconqueredbyit。
ChapterXXV:OfDisciplineInDemocraticArmiesItisaverygeneralopinion，especiallyinaristocraticcountries，thatthegreatsocialequalitywhichprevailsindemocraciesultimatelyrenderstheprivatesoldierindependentoftheofficer，andthusdestroysthebondofdiscipline。Thisisamistake，fortherearetwokindsofdiscipline，whichitisimportantnottoconfound。Whentheofficerisnobleandthesoldieraserf—onerich，theotherpoor—theformereducatedandstrong，thelatterignorantandweak—thestrictestbondofobediencemayeasilybeestablishedbetweenthetwomen。Thesoldierisbrokenintomilitarydiscipline，asitwere，beforeheentersthearmy;orrather，militarydisciplineisnothingbutanenhancementofsocialservitude。Inaristocraticarmiesthesoldierwillsoonbecomeinsensibletoeverythingbuttheordersofhissuperiorofficers;heactswithoutreflection，triumphswithoutenthusiasm，anddieswithoutcomplaint:inthisstateheisnolongeraman，butheisstillamostformidableanimaltrainedforwar。
Ademocraticpeoplemustdespairofeverobtainingfromsoldiersthatblind，minute，submissive，andinvariableobediencewhichanaristocraticpeoplemayimposeonthemwithoutdifficulty。Thestateofsocietydoesnotpreparethemforit，andthenationmightbeindangeroflosingitsnaturaladvantagesifitsoughtartificiallytoacquireadvantagesofthisparticularkind。Amongstdemocraticcommunities，militarydisciplineoughtnottoattempttoannihilatethefreespringofthefaculties;allthatcanbedonebydisciplineistodirectit;theobediencethusinculcatedislessexact，butitismoreeagerandmoreintelligent。Ithasitsrootinthewillofhimwhoobeys:itrestsnotonlyonhisinstinct，butonhisreason;
andconsequentlyitwilloftenspontaneouslybecomemorestrictasdangerrequiresit。Thedisciplineofanaristocraticarmyisapttoberelaxedinwar，becausethatdisciplineisfoundeduponhabits，andwardisturbsthosehabits。Thedisciplineofademocraticarmyonthecontraryisstrengthenedinsightoftheenemy，becauseeverysoldierthenclearlyperceivesthathemustbesilentandobedientinordertoconquer。
ThenationswhichhaveperformedthegreatestwarlikeachievementsknewnootherdisciplinethanthatwhichIspeakof。
Amongsttheancientsnonewereadmittedintothearmiesbutfreemenandcitizens，whodifferedbutlittlefromoneanother，andwereaccustomedtotreateachotherasequals。Inthisrespectitmaybesaidthatthearmiesofantiquityweredemocratic，althoughtheycameoutofthebosomofaristocracy;
theconsequencewasthatinthosearmiesasortoffraternalfamiliarityprevailedbetweentheofficersandthemen。
Plutarch’slivesofgreatcommandersfurnishconvincinginstancesofthefact:thesoldierswereintheconstanthabitoffreelyaddressingtheirgeneral，andthegenerallistenedtoandansweredwhateverthesoldiershadtosay:theywerekeptinorderbylanguageandbyexample，farmorethanbyconstraintorpunishment;thegeneralwasasmuchtheircompanionastheirchief。IknownotwhetherthesoldiersofGreeceandRomeevercarriedtheminutiaeofmilitarydisciplinetothesamedegreeofperfectionastheRussianshavedone;butthisdidnotpreventAlexanderfromconqueringAsia—andRome，theworld。
ChapterXXVI:SomeConsiderationsOnWarInDemocraticCommunitiesWhentheprincipleofequalityisingrowth，notonlyamongstasinglenation，butamongstseveralneighboringnationsatthesametime，asisnowthecaseinEurope，theinhabitantsofthesedifferentcountries，notwithstandingthedissimilarityoflanguage，ofcustoms，andoflaws，neverthelessresembleeachotherintheirequaldreadofwarandtheircommonloveofpeace。
*aItisinvainthatambitionorangerputsarmsinthehandsofprinces;theyareappeasedinspiteofthemselvesbyaspeciesofgeneralapathyandgoodwill，whichmakesthesworddropfromtheirgrasp，andwarsbecomemorerare。Asthespreadofequality，takingplaceinseveralcountriesatonce，simultaneouslyimpelstheirvariousinhabitantstofollowmanufacturesandcommerce，notonlydotheirtastesgrowalike，buttheirinterestsaresomixedandentangledwithoneanotherthatnonationcaninflictevilsonothernationswithoutthoseevilsfallingbackuponitself;andallnationsultimatelyregardwarasacalamity，almostasseveretotheconquerorastotheconquered。Thus，ontheonehand，itisextremelydifficultinde...完整阅读请扫描二维码下载丁香书院APP免费看：
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