Evenwhentherelianceofademocraticpeoplehasbeenwon，itisstillnoeasymattertogaintheirattention。Itisextremelydifficulttoobtainahearingfrommenlivingindemocracies，unlessitbetospeaktothemofthemselves。Theydonotattendtothethingssaidtothem，becausetheyarealwaysfullyengrossedwiththethingstheyaredoing。Forindeedfewmenareidleindemocraticnations;lifeispassedinthemidstofnoiseandexcitement，andmenaresoengagedinactingthatlittleremainstothemforthinking。Iwouldespeciallyremarkthattheyarenotonlyemployed，butthattheyarepassionatelydevotedtotheiremployments。Theyarealwaysinaction，andeachoftheiractionsabsorbstheirfaculties:thezealwhichtheydisplayinbusinessputsouttheenthusiasmtheymightotherwiseentertainforidea。Ithinkthatitisextremelydifficulttoexcitetheenthusiasmofademocraticpeopleforanytheorywhichhasnotapalpable，direct，andimmediateconnectionwiththedailyoccupationsoflife:thereforetheywillnoteasilyforsaketheiroldopinions;foritisenthusiasmwhichflingsthemindsofmenoutofthebeatentrack，andeffectsthegreatrevolutionsoftheintellectaswellasthegreatrevolutionsofthepoliticalworld。Thusdemocraticnationshaveneithertimenortastetogoinsearchofnovelopinions。Evenwhenthosetheypossessbecomedoubtful，theystillretainthem，becauseitwouldtaketoomuchtimeandinquirytochangethem—
　　theyretainthem，notascertain，butasestablished。
　　Thereareyetotherandmorecogentreasonswhichpreventanygreatchangefrombeingeasilyeffectedintheprinciplesofademocraticpeople。Ihavealreadyadvertedtothematthecommencementofthispartofmywork。Iftheinfluenceofindividualsisweakandhardlyperceptibleamongstsuchapeople，thepowerexercisedbythemassuponthemindofeachindividualisextremelygreat—Ihavealreadyshownforwhatreasons。I
　　wouldnowobservethatitiswrongtosupposethatthisdependssolelyupontheformofgovernment，andthatthemajoritywouldloseitsintellectualsupremacyifitweretoloseitspoliticalpower。Inaristocraciesmenhaveoftenmuchgreatnessandstrengthoftheirown:whentheyfindthemselvesatvariancewiththegreaternumberoftheirfellow—countrymen，theywithdrawtotheirowncircle，wheretheysupportandconsolethemselves。
　　Suchisnotthecaseinademocraticcountry;therepublicfavorseemsasnecessaryastheairwebreathe，andtoliveatvariancewiththemultitudeis，asitwere，nottolive。Themultituderequiresnolawstocoercethosewhothinknotlikeitself:
　　publicdisapprobationisenough;asenseoftheirlonelinessandimpotenceovertakesthemanddrivesthemtodespair。
　　Wheneversocialconditionsareequal，publicopinionpresseswithenormousweightuponthemindofeachindividual;itsurrounds，directs，andoppresseshim;andthisarisesfromtheveryconstitutionofsociety，muchmorethanfromitspoliticallaws。Asmengrowmorealike，eachmanfeelshimselfweakerinregardtoalltherest;ashediscernsnothingbywhichheisconsiderablyraisedabovethem，ordistinguishedfromthem，hemistrustshimselfassoonastheyassailhim。Notonlydoeshemistrusthisstrength，butheevendoubtsofhisright;andheisverynearacknowledgingthatheisinthewrong，whenthegreaternumberofhiscountrymenassertthatheisso。Themajoritydonotneedtoconstrainhim—theyconvincehim。Inwhateverwaythenthepowersofademocraticcommunitymaybeorganizedandbalanced，itwillalwaysbeextremelydifficulttobelievewhatthebulkofthepeoplereject，ortoprofesswhattheycondemn。
　　Thiscircumstanceisextraordinarilyfavorabletothestabilityofopinions。Whenanopinionhastakenrootamongstademocraticpeople，andestablisheditselfinthemindsofthebulkofthecommunity，itafterwardssubsistsbyitselfandismaintainedwithouteffort，becausenooneattacksit。Thosewhoatfirstrejecteditasfalse，ultimatelyreceiveitasthegeneralimpression;andthosewhostilldisputeitintheirhearts，concealtheirdissent;theyarecarefulnottoengageinadangerousanduselessconflict。Itistrue，thatwhenthemajorityofademocraticpeoplechangetheiropinions，theymaysuddenlyandarbitrarilyeffectstrangerevolutionsinmen’sminds;buttheiropinionsdonotchangewithoutmuchdifficulty，anditisalmostasdifficulttoshowthattheyarechanged。
　　Time，events，ortheunaidedindividualactionofthemind，willsometimesundermineordestroyanopinion，withoutanyoutwardsignofthechange。Ithasnotbeenopenlyassailed，noconspiracyhasbeenformedtomakewaronit，butitsfollowersonebyonenoiselesslysecede—daybydayafewofthemabandonit，untillastitisonlyprofessedbyaminority。Inthisstateitwillstillcontinuetoprevail。Asitsenemiesremainmute，oronlyinterchangetheirthoughtsbystealth，theyarethemselvesunawareforalongperiodthatagreatrevolutionhasactuallybeeneffected;andinthisstateofuncertainlytheytakenosteps—theyobserveeachotherandaresilent。Themajorityhaveceasedtobelievewhattheybelievedbefore;buttheystillaffecttobelieve，andthisemptyphantomofpublicopinioninstrongenoughtochillinnovators，andtokeepthemsilentandatrespectfuldistance。Weliveatatimewhichhaswitnessedthemostrapidchangesofopinioninthemindsofmen;
　　neverthelessitmaybethattheleadingopinionsofsocietywillerelongbemoresettledthantheyhavebeenforseveralcenturiesinourhistory:thattimeisnotyetcome，butitmayperhapsbeapproaching。AsIexaminemorecloselythenaturalwantsandtendenciesofdemocraticnations，Igrowpersuadedthatifeversocialequalityisgenerallyandpermanentlyestablishedintheworld，greatintellectualandpoliticalrevolutionswillbecomemoredifficultandlessfrequentthanissupposed。Becausethemenofdemocraciesappearalwaysexcited，uncertain，eager，changeableintheirwillsandintheirpositions，itisimaginedthattheyaresuddenlytoabrogatetheirlaws，toadoptnewopinions，andtoassumenewmanners。Butiftheprincipleofequalitypredisposesmentochange，italsosuggeststothemcertaininterestsandtasteswhichcannotbesatisfiedwithoutasettledorderofthings;equalityurgesthemon，butatthesametimeitholdsthemback;itspursthem，butfastensthemtoearth;—itkindlestheirdesires，butlimitstheirpowers。This，however，isnotperceivedatfirst;thepassionswhichtendtoseverthecitizensofademocracyareobviousenough;butthehiddenforcewhichrestrainsandunitesthemisnotdiscernibleataglance。
　　Amidsttheruinswhichsurroundme，shallIdaretosaythatrevolutionsarenotwhatImostfearcominggenerations？Ifmencontinuetoshutthemselvesmorecloselywithinthenarrowcircleofdomesticinterestsandtoliveuponthatkindofexcitement，itistobeapprehendedthattheymayultimatelybecomeinaccessibletothosegreatandpowerfulpublicemotionswhichperturbnations—butwhichenlargethemandrecruitthem。Whenpropertybecomessofluctuating，andtheloveofpropertysorestlessandsoardent，Icannotbutfearthatmenmayarriveatsuchastateastoregardeverynewtheoryasaperil，everyinnovationasanirksometoil，everysocialimprovementasastepping—stonetorevolution，andsorefusetomovealtogetherforfearofbeingmovedtoofar。Idread，andIconfessit，lesttheyshouldatlastsoentirelygivewaytoacowardlyloveofpresentenjoyment，astolosesightoftheinterestsoftheirfutureselvesandofthoseoftheirdescendants;andtoprefertoglidealongtheeasycurrentoflife，ratherthantomake，whenitisnecessary，astrongandsuddenefforttoahigherpurpose。
　　Itisbelievedbysomethatmodernsocietywillbeeverchangingitsaspect;formyself，Ifearthatitwillultimatelybetooinvariablyfixedinthesameinstitutions，thesameprejudices，thesamemanners，sothatmankindwillbestoppedandcircumscribed;thatthemindwillswingbackwardsandforwardsforever，withoutbegettingfreshideas;thatmanwillwastehisstrengthinbootlessandsolitarytrifling;and，thoughincontinualmotion，thathumanitywillceasetoadvance。
　　ChapterXXII:WhyDemocraticNationsAreNaturallyDesirousOfPeace，AndDemocraticArmiesOfWarThesameinterests，thesamefears，thesamepassionswhichdeterdemocraticnationsfromrevolutions，deterthemalsofromwar;thespiritofmilitarygloryandthespiritofrevolutionareweakenedatthesametimeandbythesamecauses。Theever—
　　increasingnumbersofmenofproperty—loversofpeace，thegrowthofpersonalwealthwhichwarsorapidlyconsumes，themildnessofmanners，thegentlenessofheart，thosetendenciestopitywhichareengenderedbytheequalityofconditions，thatcoolnessofunderstandingwhichrendersmencomparativelyinsensibletotheviolentandpoeticalexcitementofarms—allthesecausesconcurtoquenchthemilitaryspirit。Ithinkitmaybeadmittedasageneralandconstantrule，that，amongstcivilizednations，thewarlikepassionswillbecomemorerareandlessintenseinproportionassocialconditionsshallbemoreequal。Warisneverthelessanoccurrencetowhichallnationsaresubject，democraticnationsaswellasothers。Whatevertastetheymayhaveforpeace，theymustholdthemselvesinreadinesstorepelaggression，orinotherwordstheymusthaveanarmy。
　　Fortune，whichhasconferredsomanypeculiarbenefitsupontheinhabitantsoftheUnitedStates，hasplacedtheminthemidstofawilderness，wheretheyhave，sotospeak，noneighbors:afewthousandsoldiersaresufficientfortheirwants;butthisispeculiartoAmerica，nottodemocracy。Theequalityofconditions，andthemannersaswellastheinstitutionsresultingfromit，donotexemptademocraticpeoplefromthenecessityofstandingarmies，andtheirarmiesalwaysexerciseapowerfulinfluenceovertheirfate。Itisthereforeofsingularimportancetoinquirewhatarethenaturalpropensitiesofthemenofwhomthesearmiesarecomposed。
　　Amongstaristocraticnations，especiallyamongstthoseinwhichbirthistheonlysourceofrank，thesameinequalityexistsinthearmyasinthenation;theofficerisnoble，thesoldierisaserf;theoneisnaturallycalledupontocommand，theothertoobey。Inaristocraticarmies，theprivatesoldier’sambitionisthereforecircumscribedwithinverynarrowlimits。
　　Norhastheambitionoftheofficeranunlimitedrange。Anaristocraticbodynotonlyformsapartofthescaleofranksinthenation，butitcontainsascaleofrankswithinitself:themembersofwhomitiscomposedareplacedoneaboveanother，inaparticularandunvaryingmanner。Thusonemanisborntothecommandofaregiment，anothertothatofacompany;whenoncetheyhavereachedtheutmostobjectoftheirhopes，theystopoftheirownaccord，andremaincontentedwiththeirlot。Thereis，besides，astrongcause，which，inaristocracies，weakenstheofficer’sdesireofpromotion。Amongstaristocraticnations，anofficer，independentlyofhisrankinthearmy，alsooccupiesanelevatedrankinsociety;theformerisalmostalwaysinhiseyesonlyanappendagetothelatter。Anoblemanwhoembracestheprofessionofarmsfollowsitlessfrommotivesofambitionthanfromasenseofthedutiesimposedonhimbyhisbirth。Heentersthearmyinordertofindanhonorableemploymentfortheidleyearsofhisyouth，andtobeabletobringbacktohishomeandhispeerssomehonorablerecollectionsofmilitarylife;buthisprincipalobjectisnottoobtainbythatprofessioneitherproperty，distinction，orpower，forhepossessestheseadvantagesinhisownright，andenjoysthemwithoutleavinghishome。
　　Indemocraticarmiesallthesoldiersmaybecomeofficers，whichmakesthedesireofpromotiongeneral，andimmeasurablyextendstheboundsofmilitaryambition。Theofficer，onhispart，seesnothingwhichnaturallyandnecessarilystopshimatonegrademorethanatanother;andeachgradehasimmenseimportanceinhiseyes，becausehisrankinsocietyalmostalwaysdependsonhisrankinthearmy。Amongstdemocraticnationsitoftenhappensthatanofficerhasnopropertybuthispay，andnodistinctionbutthatofmilitaryhonors:consequentlyasoftenashisdutieschange，hisfortunechanges，andhebecomes，asitwere，anewman。Whatwasonlyanappendagetohispositioninaristocraticarmies，hasthusbecomethemainpoint，thebasisofhiswholecondition。UndertheoldFrenchmonarchyofficerswerealwayscalledbytheirtitlesofnobility;theyarenowalwayscalledbythetitleoftheirmilitaryrank。Thislittlechangeintheformsoflanguagesufficestoshowthatagreatrevolutionhastakenplaceintheconstitutionofsocietyandinthatofthearmy。Indemocraticarmiesthedesireofadvancementisalmostuniversal:itisardent，tenacious，perpetual;itisstrengthenedbyallotherdesires，andonlyextinguishedwithlifeitself。Butitiseasytosee，thatofallarmiesintheworld，thoseinwhichadvancementmustbeslowestintimeofpeacearethearmiesofdemocraticcountries。Asthenumberofcommissionsisnaturallylimited，whilstthenumberofcompetitorsisalmostunlimited，andasthestrictlawofequalityisoverallalike，nonecanmakerapidprogress—manycanmakenoprogressatall。
　　Thusthedesireofadvancementisgreater，andtheopportunitiesofadvancementfewer，therethanelsewhere。Alltheambitiousspiritsofademocraticarmyareconsequentlyardentlydesirousofwar，becausewarmakesvacancies，andwarrantstheviolationofthatlawofsenioritywhichisthesoleprivilegenaturaltodemocracy。
　　Wethusarriveatthissingularconsequence，thatofallarmiesthosemostardentlydesirousofwararedemocraticarmies，andofallnationsthosemostfondofpeacearedemocraticnations:and，whatmakesthesefactsstillmoreextraordinary，isthatthesecontraryeffectsareproducedatthesametimebytheprincipleofequality。
　　Allthemembersofthecommunity，beingalike，constantlyharborthewish，anddiscoverthepossibility，ofchangingtheirconditionandimprovingtheirwelfare:thismakesthemfondofpeace，whichisfavorabletoindustry，andallowseverymantopursuehisownlittleundertakingstotheircompletion。Ontheotherhand，thissameequalitymakessoldiersdreamoffieldsofbattle，byincreasingthevalueofmilitaryhonorsintheeyesofthosewhofollowtheprofessionofarms，andbyrenderingthosehonorsaccessibletoall。Ineithercasetheinquietudeoftheheartisthesame，thetasteforenjoymentasinsatiable，theambitionofsuccessasgreat—themeansofgratifyingitarealonedifferent。
　　Theseoppositetendenciesofthenationandthearmyexposedemocraticcommunitiestogreatdangers。Whenamilitaryspiritforsakesapeople，theprofessionofarmsimmediatelyceasestobeheldinhonor，andmilitarymenfalltothelowestrankofthepublicservants:theyarelittleesteemed，andnolongerunderstood。Thereverseofwhattakesplaceinaristocraticagesthenoccurs;themenwhoenterthearmyarenolongerthoseofthehighest，butofthelowestrank。Militaryambitionisonlyindulgedinwhennootherispossible。Hencearisesacircleofcauseandconsequencefromwhichitisdifficulttoescape:thebestpartofthenationshunsthemilitaryprofessionbecausethatprofessionisnothonored，andtheprofessionisnothonoredbecausethebestpartofthenationhasceasedtofollowit。Itisthennomatterofsurprisethatdemocraticarmiesareoftenrestless，ill—tempered，anddissatisfiedwiththeirlot，althoughtheirphysicalconditioniscommonlyfarbetter，andtheirdisciplinelessstrictthaninothercountries。Thesoldierfeelsthatheoccupiesaninferiorposition，andhiswoundedprideeitherstimulateshistasteforhostilitieswhichwouldrenderhisservicesnecessary，orgiveshimaturnforrevolutions，duringwhichhemayhopetowinbyforceofarmsthepoliticalinfluenceandpersonalimportancenowdeniedhim。Thecompositionofdemocraticarmiesmakesthislast—mentioneddangermuchtobefeared。Indemocraticcommunitiesalmosteverymanhassomepropertytopreserve;butdemocraticarmiesaregenerallyledbymenwithoutproperty，mostofwhomhavelittletoloseincivilbroils。Thebulkofthenationisnaturallymuchmoreafraidofrevolutionsthanintheagesofaristocracy，buttheleadersofthearmymuchlessso。
　　Moreover，asamongstdemocraticnations（torepeatwhatI
　　havejustremarked）thewealthiest，thebesteducated，andthemostablemenseldomadoptthemilitaryprofession，thearmy，takencollectively，eventuallyformsasmallnationbyitself，wherethemindislessenlarged，andhabitsaremorerudethaninthenationatlarge。Now，thissmalluncivilizednationhasarmsinitspossession，andaloneknowshowtousethem:for，indeed，thepacifictemperofthecommunityincreasesthedangertowhichademocraticpeopleisexposedfromthemilitaryandturbulentspiritofthearmy。Nothingissodangerousasanarmyamidstanunwarlikenation;theexcessiveloveofthewholecommunityforquietcontinuallyputsitsconstitutionatthemercyofthesoldiery。Itmaythereforebeasserted，generallyspeaking，thatifdemocraticnationsarenaturallypronetopeacefromtheirinterestsandtheirpropensities，theyareconstantlydrawntowarandrevolutionsbytheirarmies。Militaryrevolutions，whicharescarcelyevertobeapprehendedinaristocracies，arealwaystobedreadedamongstdemocraticnations。Theseperilsmustbereckonedamongstthemostformidablewhichbesettheirfuturefate，andtheattentionofstatesmenshouldbesedulouslyappliedtofindaremedyfortheevil。
　　Whenanationperceivesthatitisinwardlyaffectedbytherestlessambitionofitsarmy，thefirstthoughtwhichoccursistogivethisinconvenientambitionanobjectbygoingtowar。I
　　speaknoillofwar:waralmostalwaysenlargesthemindofapeople，andraisestheircharacter。Insomecasesitistheonlychecktotheexcessivegrowthofcertainpropensitieswhichnaturallyspringoutoftheequalityofconditions，anditmustbeconsideredasanecessarycorrectivetocertaininveteratediseasestowhichdemocraticcommunitiesareliable。Warhasgreatadvantages，butwemustnotflatterourselvesthatitcandiminishthedangerIhavejustpointedout。Thatperilisonlysuspendedbyit，toreturnmorefiercelywhenthewarisover;
　　forarmiesaremuchmoreimpatientofpeaceafterhavingtastedmilitaryexploits。Warcouldonlybearemedyforapeoplewhichshouldalwaysbeathirstformilitaryglory。Iforeseethatallthemilitaryrulerswhomayriseupingreatdemocraticnations，willfinditeasiertoconquerwiththeirarmies，thantomaketheirarmiesliveatpeaceafterconquest。Therearetwothingswhichademocraticpeoplewillalwaysfindverydifficult—tobeginawar，andtoendit。
　　Again，ifwarhassomepeculiaradvantagesfordemocraticnations，ontheotherhanditexposesthemtocertaindangerswhicharistocracieshavenocausetodreadtoanequalextent。I
　　shallonlypointouttwoofthese。Althoughwargratifiesthearmy，itembarrassesandoftenexasperatesthatcountlessmultitudeofmenwhoseminorpassionseverydayrequirepeaceinordertobesatisfied。Thusthereissomeriskofitscausing，underanotherform，thedisturbanceitisintendedtoprevent。
　　Noprotractedwarcanfailtoendangerthefreedomofademocraticcountry。Notindeedthataftereveryvictoryitistobeapprehendedthatthevictoriousgeneralswillpossessthemselvesbyforceofthesupremepower，afterthemannerofSyllaandCaesar:thedangerisofanotherkind。Wardoesnotalwaysgiveoverdemocraticcommunitiestomilitarygovernment，butitmustinvariablyandimmeasurablyincreasethepowersofcivilgovernment;itmustalmostcompulsorilyconcentratethedirectionofallmenandthemanagementofallthingsinthehandsoftheadministration。Ifitleadnottodespotismbysuddenviolence，itpreparesmenforitmoregentlybytheirhabits。Allthosewhoseektodestroythelibertiesofademocraticnationoughttoknowthatwaristhesurestandtheshortestmeanstoaccomplishit。Thisisthefirstaxiomofthescience。
　　Oneremedy，whichappearstobeobviouswhentheambitionofsoldiersandofficersbecomesthesubjectofalarm，istoaugmentthenumberofcommissionstobedistributedbyincreasingthearmy。Thisaffordstemporaryrelief，butitplungesthecountryintodeeperdifficultiesatsomefutureperiod。Toincreasethearmymayproducealastingeffectinanaristocraticcommunity，becausemilitaryambitionisthereconfinedtooneclassofmen，andtheambitionofeachindividualstops，asitwere，atacertainlimit;sothatitmaybepossibletosatisfyallwhofeelitsinfluence。Butnothingisgainedbyincreasingthearmyamongstademocraticpeople，becausethenumberofaspirantsalwaysrisesinexactlythesameratioasthearmyitself。Thosewhoseclaimshavebeensatisfiedbythecreationofnewcommissionsareinstantlysucceededbyafreshmultitudebeyondallpowerofsatisfaction;andeventhosewhowerebutnowsatisfiedsoonbegintocravemoreadvancement;forthesameexcitementprevailsintheranksofthearmyasinthecivilclassesofdemocraticsociety，andwhatmenwantisnottoreachacertaingrade，buttohaveconstantpromotion。Thoughthesewantsmaynotbeveryvast，theyareperpetuallyrecurring。Thusademocraticnation，byaugmentingitsarmy，onlyallaysforatimetheambitionofthemilitaryprofession，whichsoonbecomesevenmoreformidable，becausethenumberofthosewhofeelitisincreased。Iamofopinionthatarestlessandturbulentspiritisanevilinherentintheveryconstitutionofdemocraticarmies，andbeyondhopeofcure。Thelegislatorsofdemocraciesmustnotexpecttodeviseanymilitaryorganizationcapablebyitsinfluenceofcalmingandrestrainingthemilitaryprofession:
　　theireffortswouldexhausttheirpowers，beforetheobjectisattained。
　　Theremedyforthevicesofthearmyisnottobefoundinthearmyitself，butinthecountry。Democraticnationsarenaturallyafraidofdisturbanceandofdespotism;theobjectistoturnthesenaturalinstinctsintowell—digested，deliberate，andlastingtastes。Whenmenhaveatlastlearnedtomakeapeacefulandprofitableuseoffreedom，andhavefeltitsblessings—whentheyhaveconceivedamanlyloveoforder，andhavefreelysubmittedthemselvestodiscipline—thesesamemen，iftheyfollowtheprofessionofarms，bringintoit，unconsciouslyandalmostagainsttheirwill，thesesamehabitsandmanners。Thegeneralspiritofthenationbeinginfusedintothespiritpeculiartothearmy，temperstheopinionsanddesiresengenderedbymilitarylife，orrepressesthembythemightyforceofpublicopinion。Teachbutthecitizenstobeeducated，orderly，firm，andfree，thesoldierswillbedisciplinedandobedient。Anylawwhich，inrepressingtheturbulentspiritofthearmy，shouldtendtodiminishthespiritoffreedominthenation，andtoovershadowthenotionoflawandright，woulddefeatitsobject:itwoulddomuchmoretofavor，thantodefeat，theestablishmentofmilitarytyranny。
　　Afterall，andinspiteofallprecautions，alargearmyamidstademocraticpeoplewillalwaysbeasourceofgreatdanger;themosteffectualmeansofdiminishingthatdangerwouldbetoreducethearmy，butthisisaremedywhichallnationshaveitnotintheirpowertouse。
　　BookThree—ChaptersXXIII—XVI
　　ChapterXXIII:WhichIsTheMostWarlikeAndMostRevolutionaryClassInDemocraticArmies？
　　Itisapartoftheessenceofademocraticarmytobeverynumerousinproportiontothepeopletowhichitbelongs，asI
　　shallhereaftershow。Ontheotherhand，menlivingindemocratictimesseldomchooseamilitarylife。Democraticnationsarethereforesoonledtogiveupthesystemofvoluntaryrecruitingforthatofcompulsoryenlistment。Thenecessityoftheirsocialconditioncompelsthemtoresorttothelattermeans，anditmayeasilybeforeseenthattheywillalleventuallyadoptit。Whenmilitaryserviceiscompulsory，theburdenisindiscriminatelyandequallybornebythewholecommunity。Thisisanothernecessaryconsequenceofthesocialconditionofthesenations，andoftheirnotions。Thegovernmentmaydoalmostwhateveritpleases，provideditappealstothewholecommunityatonce:itistheunequaldistributionoftheweight，nottheweightitself，whichcommonlyoccasionsresistance。Butasmilitaryserviceiscommontoallthecitizens，theevidentconsequenceisthateachofthemremainsbutforafewyearsonactiveduty。Thusitisinthenatureofthingsthatthesoldierindemocraciesonlypassesthroughthearmy，whilstamongmostaristocraticnationsthemilitaryprofessionisonewhichthesoldieradopts，orwhichisimposeduponhim，forlife。
　　Thishasimportantconsequences。Amongstthesoldiersofademocraticarmy，someacquireatasteformilitarylife，butthemajority，beingenlistedagainsttheirwill，andeverreadytogobacktotheirhomes，donotconsiderthemselvesasseriouslyengagedinthemilitaryprofession，andarealwaysthinkingofquittingit。Suchmendonotcontractthewants，andonlyhalfpartakeinthepassions，whichthatmodeoflifeengenders。Theyadaptthemselvestotheirmilitaryduties，buttheirmindsarestillattachedtotheinterestsandthedutieswhichengagedthemincivillife。Theydonotthereforeimbibethespiritofthearmy—orrather，theyinfusethespiritofthecommunityatlargeintothearmy，andretainitthere。Amongstdemocraticnationstheprivatesoldiersremainmostlikecivilians:uponthemthehabitsofthenationhavethefirmesthold，andpublicopinionmostinfluence。Itisbytheinstrumentalityoftheprivatesoldiersespeciallythatitmaybepossibletoinfuseintoademocraticarmytheloveoffreedomandtherespectofrights，iftheseprincipleshaveoncebeensuccessfullyinculcatedonthepeopleatlarge。Thereversehappensamongstaristocraticnations，wherethesoldieryhaveeventuallynothingincommonwiththeirfellow—citizens，andwheretheyliveamongstthemasstrangers，andoftenasenemies。Inaristocraticarmiestheofficersaretheconservativeelement，becausetheofficersalonehaveretainedastrictconnectionwithcivilsociety，andneverforegotheirpurposeofresumingtheirplaceinitsoonerorlater:indemocraticarmiestheprivatesoldiersstandinthisposition，andfromthesamecause。
　　Itoftenhappens，onthecontrary，thatinthesesamedemocraticarmiestheofficerscontracttastesandwantswhollydistinctfromthoseofthenation—afactwhichmaybethusaccountedfor。Amongstdemocraticnations，themanwhobecomesanofficerseversallthetieswhichboundhimtocivillife;heleavesitforever;hehasnointeresttoresumeit。Histruecountryisthearmy，sinceheowesallhehastotherankhehasattainedinit;hethereforefollowsthefortunesofthearmy，risesorsinkswithit，andhenceforwarddirectsallhishopestothatquarteronly。Asthewantsofanofficeraredistinctfromthoseofthecountry，hemayperhapsardentlydesirewar，orlabortobringaboutarevolutionattheverymomentwhenthenationismostdesirousofstabilityandpeace。Thereare，nevertheless，somecauseswhichallaythisrestlessandwarlikespirit。Thoughambitionisuniversalandcontinualamongstdemocraticnations，wehaveseenthatitisseldomgreat。Amanwho，beingborninthelowerclassesofthecommunity，hasrisenfromtherankstobeanofficer，hasalreadytakenaprodigiousstep。Hehasgainedafootinginasphereabovethatwhichhefilledincivillife，andhehasacquiredrightswhichmostdemocraticnationswilleverconsiderasinalienable。*aHeiswillingtopauseaftersogreataneffort，andtoenjoywhathehaswon。Thefearofriskingwhathehasalreadyobtaineddampsthedesireofacquiringwhathehasnotgot。Havingconqueredthefirstandgreatestimpedimentwhichopposedhisadvancement，heresignshimselfwithlessimpatiencetotheslownessofhisprogress。Hisambitionwillbemoreandmorecooledinproportionastheincreasingdistinctionofhisrankteacheshimthathehasmoretoputinjeopardy。IfIamnotmistaken，theleastwarlike，andalsotheleastrevolutionarypart，ofademocraticarmy，willalwaysbeitschiefcommanders。
　　[Footnotea:Thepositionofofficersisindeedmuchmoresecureamongstdemocraticnationsthanelsewhere;thelowerthepersonalstandingoftheman，thegreateristhecomparativeimportanceofhismilitarygrade，andthemorejustandnecessaryisitthattheenjoymentofthatrankshouldbesecuredbythelaws。]
　　ButtheremarksIhavejustmadeonofficersandsoldiersarenotapplicabletoanumerousclasswhichinallarmiesfillstheintermediatespacebetweenthem—Imeantheclassofnon—
　　commissionedofficers。Thisclassofnon—commissionedofficerswhichhaveneveractedapartinhistoryuntilthepresentcentury，ishenceforwarddestined，Ithink，toplayoneofsomeimportance。Liketheofficers，non—commissionedofficershavebroken，intheirminds，allthetieswhichboundthemtocivillife;liketheformer，theydevotethemselvespermanentlytotheservice，andperhapsmakeitevenmoreexclusivelytheobjectofalltheirdesires:butnon—commissionedofficersaremenwhohavenotyetreachedafirmandloftypostatwhichtheymaypauseandbreathemorefreely，eretheycanattainfurtherpromotion。Bytheverynatureofhisduties，whichisinvariable，anon—commissionedofficerisdoomedtoleadanobscure，confined，comfortless，andprecariousexistence;asyetheseesnothingofmilitarylifebutitsdangers;heknowsnothingbutitsprivationsanditsdiscipline—moredifficulttosupportthandangers:hesuffersthemorefromhispresentmiseries，fromknowingthattheconstitutionofsocietyandofthearmyallowhimtoriseabovethem;hemay，indeed，atanytimeobtainhiscommission，andenteratonceuponcommand，honors，independence，rights，andenjoyments。Notonlydoesthisobjectofhishopesappeartohimofimmenseimportance，butheisneversureofreachingittillitisactuallyhisown;thegradehefillsisbynomeansirrevocable;heisalwaysentirelyabandonedtothearbitrarypleasureofhiscommandingofficer，forthisisimperiouslyrequiredbythenecessityofdiscipline:aslightfault，awhim，mayalwaysdeprivehiminaninstantofthefruitsofmanyyearsoftoilandendeavor;untilhehasreachedthegradetowhichheaspireshehasaccomplishednothing;nottillhereachesthatgradedoeshiscareerseemtobegin。Adesperateambitioncannotfailtobekindledinamanthusincessantlygoadedonbyhisyouth，hiswants，hispassions，thespiritofhisage，hishopes，andhisage，hishopes，andhisfears。
　　Non—commissionedofficersarethereforebentonwar—onwaralways，andatanycost;butifwarbedeniedthem，thentheydesirerevolutionstosuspendtheauthorityofestablishedregulations，andtoenablethem，aidedbythegeneralconfusionandthepoliticalpassionsofthetime，togetridoftheirsuperiorofficersandtotaketheirplaces。Norisitimpossibleforthemtobringaboutsuchacrisis，becausetheircommonoriginandhabitsgivethemmuchinfluenceoverthesoldiers，howeverdifferentmaybetheirpassionsandtheirdesires。
　　Itwouldbeanerrortosupposethatthesevariouscharacteristicsofofficers，non—commissionedofficers，andmen，belongtoanyparticulartimeorcountry;theywillalwaysoccuratalltimes，andamongstalldemocraticnations。Ineverydemocraticarmythenon—commissionedofficerswillbetheworstrepresentativesofthepacificandorderlyspiritofthecountry，andtheprivatesoldierswillbethebest。Thelatterwillcarrywiththemintomilitarylifethestrengthorweaknessofthemannersofthenation;theywilldisplayafaithfulreflectionofthecommunity:ifthatcommunityisignorantandweak，theywillallowthemselvestobedrawnbytheirleadersintodisturbances，eitherunconsciouslyoragainsttheirwill;ifitisenlightenedandenergetic，thecommunitywillitselfkeepthemwithintheboundsoforder。
　　ChapterXXIV:CausesWhichRenderDemocraticArmiesWeakerThanOtherArmiesAtTheOutsetOfACampaign，AndMoreFormidableInProtractedWarfareAnyarmyisindangerofbeingconqueredattheoutsetofacampaign，afteralongpeace;anyarmywhichhaslongbeenengagedinwarfarehasstrongchancesofvictory:thistruthispeculiarlyapplicabletodemocraticarmies。Inaristocraciesthemilitaryprofession，beingaprivilegedcareer，isheldinhonorevenintimeofpeace。Menofgreattalents，greatattainments，andgreatambitionembraceit;thearmyisinallrespectsonalevelwiththenation，andfrequentlyaboveit。Wehaveseen，onthecontrary，thatamongstademocraticpeoplethechoicermindsofthenationaregraduallydrawnawayfromthemilitaryprofession，toseekbyotherpaths，distinction，power，andespeciallywealth。Afteralongpeace—andindemocraticagestheperiodsofpeacearelong—thearmyisalwaysinferiortothecountryitself。Inthisstateitiscalledintoactiveservice;anduntilwarhasalteredit，thereisdangerforthecountryaswellasforthearmy。
　　Ihaveshownthatindemocraticarmies，andintimeofpeace，theruleofseniorityisthesupremeandinflexiblelawofadvancement。Thisisnotonlyaconsequence，asIhavebeforeobserved，oftheconstitutionofthesearmies，butoftheconstitutionofthepeople，anditwillalwaysoccur。Again，asamongstthesenationstheofficerderiveshispositioninthecountrysolelyfromhispositioninthearmy，andashedrawsallthedistinctionandthecompetencyheenjoysfromthesamesource，hedoesnotretirefromhisprofession，orisnotsuper—annuated，tilltowardstheextremecloseoflife。Theconsequenceofthesetwocausesis，thatwhenademocraticpeoplegoestowarafteralongintervalofpeacealltheleadingofficersofthearmyareoldmen。Ispeaknotonlyofthegenerals，butofthenon—commissionedofficers，whohavemostofthembeenstationary，orhaveonlyadvancedstepbystep。Itmayberemarkedwithsurprise，thatinademocraticarmyafteralongpeaceallthesoldiersaremereboys，andallthesuperiorofficersindecliningyears;sothattheformerarewantinginexperience，thelatterinvigor。Thisisastrongelementofdefeat，forthefirstconditionofsuccessfulgeneralshipisyouth:Ishouldnothaveventuredtosaysoifthegreatestcaptainofmoderntimeshadnotmadetheobservation。