such，forinstance，asthelossofafingerbeingatriflingmatter。A
　　working—man’slivingandprospectsdependsomuchuponhisfingers，thatanylossofthemisaveryseriousmattertohim。WhenIhaveheardsuchinconsiderateremarksmade，Ihaveusuallyputthisquestion:Supposeyouwereinwantofanadditionalworkman，andtwoweretoapply，bothequallywellqualifiedinotherrespects，butonehadlostathumboraforefinger，whichwouldyouengage？Thereneverwasahesitationastotheanswer……"
　　Themanufacturershave"mistakenprejudicesagainstwhattheyhaveheardrepresentedasapseudo—philanthropiclegislation。"（"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1855。"）Thesemanufacturersarecleverfolk，andnotwithoutreasonweretheyenthusiasticfortheslave—holders’rebellion。
　　[111]InthosefactoriesthathavebeenlongestsubjecttotheFactoryActs，withtheircompulsorylimitationofthehoursoflabour，andotherregulations，manyoftheolderabuseshavevanished。Theveryimprovementofthemachinerydemandstoacertainextent"improvedconstructionofthebuildings，"andthisisanadvantagetotheworkpeople。（See"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。for31stOct。，1863，"p。109。）
　　[112]Seeamongstothers，JohnHoughton:"HusbandryandTradeImproved。"London，1727。"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，1720。"JohnBellers，l。
　　c。"Themastersandtheirworkmenare，unhappily，inaperpetualwarwitheachother。Theinvariableobjectoftheformeristogettheirworkdoneascheaplyaspossible;andtheydonotfailtoemployeveryartificetothispurpose，whilstthelatterareequallyattentivetoeveryoccasionofdistressingtheirmastersintoacompliancewithhigherdemands。"（"AnEnquiryintotheCausesofthePresentHighPriceofProvisions，"pp。61—62。
　　Author，theRev。NathanielForster，quiteonthesideoftheworkmen。）
　　[113]Inold—fashionedmanufacturestherevoltsoftheworkpeopleagainstmachinery，eventothisday，occasionallyassumeasavagecharacter，asinthecaseoftheSheffieldfilecuttersin1865。
　　[114]SirJamesSteuartalsounderstandsmachineryquiteinthissense。"Jeconsidèredonclesmachinescommedesmoyensd’augmenter（virtuellement）lenombredesgensindustrieuxqu’onn’estpasobligédenourrir……Enquoil’effetd’unemachinediffère—t—ildeceluidenouveauxhabitants？"
　　（Frenchtrans。t。I。，l。I。，ch。XIX。）MorenaïveisPetty，whosays，itreplaces"Polygamy。"Theabovepointofviewis，atthemost，admissibleonlyforsomepartsoftheUnitedStates。Ontheotherhand，"machinerycanseldombeusedwithsuccesstoabridgethelabourofanindividual;
　　moretimewouldbelostinitsconstructionthancouldbesavedbyitsapplication。Itisonlyreallyusefulwhenitactsongreatmasses，whenasinglemachinecanassisttheworkofthousands。Itisaccordinglyinthemostpopulouscountries，wheretherearemostidlemen，thatitismostabundant……Itistrotcalledintousebyascarcityofmen，butbythefacilitywithwhichtheycanbebroughttoworkinmasses。"（PiercyRavenstone:"ThoughtsontheFundingSystemanditsEffects。"London，1824，p。45。）
　　[115][Noteinthe4thGermanedition。？ThisappliestoGermanytoo。
　　Whereinourcountryagricultureonalargescaleexists，henceparticularlyintheEast，ithasbecomepossibleonlyinconsequenceoftheclearingoftheestates（"Bauernlegen"），apracticewhichbecamewiderspreadinthe16thcenturyandwasparticularlysosince1648。？F。E。]
　　[116]"Machineryandlabourareinconstantcompetition。"Ricardo，l。c。，p。
　　479。
　　[117]Thecompetitionbetweenhand—weavingandpower—weavinginEngland，beforethepassingofthePoorLawof1833，wasprolongedbysupplementingthewages，whichhadfallenconsiderablybelowtheminimum，withparishrelief。
　　"TheRev。Mr。Turnerwas，in1827，rectorofWilmslowinCheshire，amanufacturingdistrict。ThequestionsoftheCommitteeofEmigration，andMr。Turner’sanswers，showhowthecompetitionofhumanlabourismaintainedagainstmachinery。’Question:Hasnottheuseofthepower—loomsupersededtheuseofthehand—loom？Answer:Undoubtedly;itwouldhavesupersededthemmuchmorethanithasdone，ifthehand—loomweaverswerenotenabledtosubmittoareductionofwages。’’Question:Butinsubmittinghehasacceptedwageswhichareinsufficienttosupporthim，andlookstoparochialcontributionastheremainderofhissupport？Answer:Yes，andinfactthecompetitionbetweenthehand—loomandthepower—loomismaintainedoutofthepoor—rates。’
　　Thusdegradingpauperismorexpatriation，isthebenefitwhichtheindustriousreceivefromtheintroductionofmachinery，tobereducedfromtherespectableandinsomedegreeindependentmechanic，tothecringingwretchwholivesonthedebasingbreadofcharity。Thistheycallatemporaryinconvenience。"
　　（"APrizeEssayontheComparativeMeritsofCompetitionandCo—operation。"
　　Lond。，1834，p。29。）
　　[118]"Thesamecausewhichmayincreasetherevenueofthecountry"（i。e。，asRicardoexplainsinthesamepassage，therevenuesoflandlordsandcapitalists，whosewealth，fromtheeconomicpointofview，formstheWealthoftheNation），"mayatthesametimerenderthepopulationredundantanddeterioratetheconditionofthelabourer。"（Ricardo，l。c。，p。469。）"Theconstantaimandthetendencyofeveryimprovementinmachineryis，infact，todoawayentirelywiththelabourofman，ortolessenitspricebysubstitutingthelabourofwomenandchildrenforthatofgrown—upmen，orofunskilledforthatofskilledworkmen。"（Ure，l。c。，t。I。，p。35。）
　　[119]"Rep。Insp。Fact。for31stOctober，1858，"p。43。
　　[120]"Rep。lnsp。Fact。for31stOctober，1856，"p。15。
　　[121]Ure，l。c。，p。19。"Thegreatadvantageofthemachineryemployedinbrick—makingconsistsinthis，thattheemployerismadeentirelyindependentofskilledlabourers。"（"Ch。Empl。Comm。V。Report，"Lond。，1866，p。130，n。46。）
　　Mr。A。Sturrock，superintendentofthemachinedepartmentoftheGreatNorthernRailway，says，withregardtothebuildingoflocomotives，&c。:
　　"ExpensiveEnglishworkmenarebeinglessusedeveryday。TheproductionoftheworkshopsofEnglandisbeingincreasedbytheuseofimprovedtoolsandthesetoolsareagainservedbyalowclassoflabour……Formerlytheirskilledlabournecessarilyproducedallthepartsofengines。Nowthepartsofenginesareproducedbylabourwithlessskill，butwithgoodtools。Bytools，Imeanengineer’smachinery，lathes，planingmachines，drills，andsoon。"（"RoyalCorn。onRailways，"Lond。，1867，MinutesofEvidence，n。17，862and17，863。）
　　[122]Ure，l。c。，p。20。
　　[123]Ure，l。c。，p。321。
　　[124]Ure，l。c。，p。23。
　　[125]"Rep。Insp。Fact。，31stOct。，1863，"pp。108，109。
　　[126]l。c。，p。109。Therapidimprovementofmachinery，duringthecrisis，allowedtheEnglishmanufacturers，immediatelyaftertheterminationoftheAmericanCivilWar，andalmostinnotime，toglutthemarketsoftheworldagain。
　　Cloth，’duringthelastsixmonthsof1866，wasalmostunsaleable。ThereuponbegantheconsignmentofgoodstoIndiaandChina，thusnaturallymakingtheglutmoreintense。Atthebeginningof1867themanufacturersresortedtotheirusualwayoutofthedifficulty，viz。，reducingwages5percent。
　　Theworkpeopleresisted，andsaidthattheonlyremedywastoworkshorttime，4daysa—week;andtheirtheorywasthecorrectone。Afterholdingoutforsometime，theself—electedcaptainsofindustryhadtomakeuptheirmindstoshorttime，withreducedwagesinsomeplaces，andinotherswithout。
　　[127]"Therelationofmasterandmanintheblown—flintbottletradesamountstoachronicstrike。"Hencetheimpetusgiventothemanufactureofpressedglass，inwhichthechiefoperationsaredonebymachinery。OnefirminNewcastle，whoformerlyproduced350，000lbs。ofblown—flintglass，nowproducesinitsplace3，000，500lbs。ofpressedglass。（"Ch。Empl。Comm。，FourthRep。，"1865，pp。262—263。）
　　[128]Gaskell。"TheManufacturingPopulationofEngland，"London，1833，pp。3，4。
　　[129]W。Fairbaimdiscoveredseveralveryimportantapplicationsofmachinerytotheconstructionofmachines，inconsequenceofstrikesinhisownworkshops。
　　[130]Ure，l。c。，pp。368—370
　　[131]Ure，l。c。，pp。368，7，370，280，281，321，370，475。
　　[132]Ricardooriginallywasalsoofthisopinion，butafterwardsexpresslydisclaimeditwiththescientificimpartialityandloveoftruthcharacteristicofhim。Seel。c。，ch。xxxi。"OnMachinery。"
　　[133]Notabene。Myillustrationisentirelyonthelinesofthosegivenbytheabovenamedeconomists。
　　[134]AdiscipleofRicardo，inanswertotheinsipiditiesofJ。B。Say，remarksonthispoint:"Wheredivisionoflabouriswelldeveloped，theskillofthelabourerisavailableonlyinthatparticularbranchinwhichithasbeenacquired;hehimselfisasortofmachine。Itdoesnotthereforehelpmattersonejot，torepeatinparrotfashion，thatthingshaveatendencytofindtheirlevel。Onlookingarounduswecannotbutsee，thattheyareunabletofindtheirlevelforalongtime;andthatwhentheydofindit，thelevelisalwayslowerthanatthecommencementoftheprocess。"
　　（"。AnInquiryintothosePrinciplesRespectingtheNatureofDemand，"&c。，Lond。1821，p。72。）
　　[135]MacCulloch，amongstothers，isapastmasterinthispretentiouscretinism。
　　"If，"hesays，withtheaffectednaïvetéofachildof8years，"ifitbeadvantageous，todeveloptheskilloftheworkmanmoreandmore，sothatheiscapableofproducing，withthesameorwithalessquantityoflabour，aconstantlyincreasingquantityofcommodities，itmustalsobeadvantageous，thatheshouldavailhimselfofthehelpofsuchmachineryaswillassisthimmosteffectivelyintheattainmentofthisresult。"
　　（MacCulloch:"Princ。ofPol。Econ。，"Lond。1830，p。166。）
　　[136]"TheinventorofthespinningmachinehasruinedIndia，afact，however，thattouchesusbutlittle。"A。Thiers:Delapropriété。？M。Thiershereconfoundsthespinningmachinewiththepower—loom，"afact，however，thattouchesusbutlittle。"
　　[137]Accordingtothecensusof1861（Vol。II。，Lond。，1863），thenumberofpeopleemployedincoalminesinEnglandandWales，amountedto246，613
　　ofwhich73，545wereunder，and173，067wereover20years。Ofthoseunder20，835werebetween5and10years，30，701between10and15years，42，010
　　between15and19years。Thenumberemployediniron，copper。lead，tin，andotherminesofeverydescription，was319，222。
　　[138]InEnglandandWales，in1861，therewereemployedinmakingmachinery，60，807persons，includingthemastersandtheirclerks，&c。，alsoallagentsandbusinesspeopleconnectedwiththisindustry，butexcludingthemakersofsmallmachines，suchassewing—machines，&c。，asalsothemakersoftheoperativepartsofmachines，suchasspindles。Thetotalnumberofcivilengineersamountedto3，329。
　　[139]Sinceironisoneofthemostimportantrawmaterials;letmeherestatethat，in1861，therewereinEnglandandWales125，771operativeironfounders，ofwhom123，430weremaim2，341females。Oftheformer30，810wereunder，and92，620over20years。
　　[140]"Afamilyoffourgrown—uppersons，withtwochildrenaswinders，earnedattheendofthelast，andthebeginningofthepresentcentury，bytenhours’dailylabour，L4aweek。Iftheworkwasverypressing，theycouldearnmore……Beforethat，theyhadalwayssufferedfromadificientsupplyofyarn。"（Gaskell，l。c。，pp。25—27。）
　　[141]F。Engels，in"Lage，&c。，"pointsoutthemiserableconditionofalargenumberofthosewhoworkontheseveryarticlesofluxury。Seealsonumerousinstancesinthe"ReportsoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission。"
　　[142]In1861，inEnglandandWales，therewere94，665sailorsinthemerchantservice。
　　[143]Oftheseonly177，596aremalesabove13yearsofage。
　　[144]Ofthese，30，501arefemales。
　　[145]Ofthese，137，447males。Noneareincludedinthe1，208，648whodonotserveinprivatehouses。Between1861and1870thenumberofmaleservantsnearlydoubleditself。Itincreasedto267，671。Intheyear1847therewere2，694gamekeepers（forthelandlords’preserves），in1869therewere4，921。TheyoungservantgirlsinthehousesoftheLondonlowermiddleclassareincommonparlancecalled"slaveys。"
　　[146]Ganilh，onthecontrary，considersthefinalresultofthefactorysystemtobeanabsolutelylessnumberofoperatives，atwhoseexpenseanincreasednumberof"genshonnêtes"liveanddeveloptheirwell—known"perfectibilité
　　perfectible。"Littleasheunderstandsthemovementofproduction，atleasthefeels，thatmachinerymustneedsbeaveryfatalinstitution，ifitsintroductionconvertsbusyworkmenintopaupers，anditsdevelopmentcallsmoreslavesoflabourintoexistencethanithassuppressed。Itisnotpossibletobringoutthecretinismofhisstandpoint，exceptbyhisownwords:"Lesclassescondamnéesàproduireetàconsommerdiminuent，etlesclassesquidirigentletravail，quisoulagent，consolent，etéclairenttoutelapopulation，semultiplient……ets’approprienttonslesbienfaitsquirésultentdeladiminutiondesfmisdutravail，deI’abondancedesproductions，etdubonmarchédesconsommations。
　　Danscettedirection，l’espécehumaines’élèveauxplushautesconceptionsdugénie，pénètredanslesprofoundeursmystérieusesdelareligion，établitlesprincipessalutairesdelamorale（whichconsistsin’s’appropriertouslesbeinfaits，’
　　&c。），lesloistutélairesdelaliberté（libertyof’lesclassescondamnéesàproduire？’）etdupouvoir，del’obéissanceetdelajustice，dudevoiretdelaI’humanité。"Forthistwaddle，see"DesSystèmesd’EconomiePolitique，&c。，ParM。Ch。Ganilh，"
　　2èmeed。，Paris，1821，t。I，p。224，andseep。212。
　　[147]"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，31Oct。，1865，"p。58，sq。Atthesametime，however，meansofemploymentforanincreasednumberofhandswasreadyin110newmillswith11，625looms，628，576spindlesand2，695totalhorse—powerofsteamandwater（l。c。）。
　　[148]"Reports，&c。，for31Oct。，1862，"p。79。Attheendof1871，Mr。A。
　　Redgrave，thefactoryinspector，inalecturegivenatBradford，intheNewMechanics’Institution，said:"Whathasstruckmeforsometimepastisthealteredappearanceofthewoollenfactories。Formerlytheywerefilledwithwomenandchildren，nowmachineryseemstodoallthework。
　　Atmyaskingforanexplanationofthisfromamanufacturer，hegavemethefollowing:’UndertheoldsystemIemployed63persons;aftertheintroductionofimprovedmachineryIreducedmyhandsto33，andlately，inconsequenceofnewandextensivealterations，Ihavebeeninapositiontoreducethose33to13。"
　　[149]See"Reports，&c。，31Oct。，1856，"p。16。
　　[150]"Thesufferingsofthehand—loomweaverswerethesubjectofaninquirybyaRoyalCommission，butalthoughtheirdistresswasacknowledgedandlamented，theameliorationoftheirconditionwasleft，andprobablynecessarilyso，tothechancesandchangesoftime，whichitmaynowbehoped"[20
　　yearslater！]"havenearlyobliteratedthosemiseries，andnotimprobablybythepresentgreatextentionofthepower—loom。"（"Rep。Insp。ofFact。，31Oct。，1856，"p。15。）
　　[151]Otherwaysinwhichmachineryaffectstheproductionofrawmaterialwillbementionedinthethirdbook。
　　[152]EXPORTOFCOTTONFROMINDIATOGREATBRITAIN。1846。？34，540，143lbs。1860。？204，141，168lbs。1865。？445，947，600lbs。
　　EXPORTOFWOOLFROMINDIATOGREATBRITAIN。1846。？4，570，581
　　lbs。1860。？20，214，173lbs。1865。？20，679，111lbs。
　　[153]EXPORTOFWOOLFROMTHECAPETOGREATBRITAIN。1846。？2，958，457lbs。1860。？16，574，345lbs。1865。？29，920，623lbs。
　　EXPORTOFWOOLFROMAUSTRALIATOGREATBRITAIN。1846。？21，789，346
　　lbs。1860。？59，166，616lbs。1865。？109，734，261lbs。
　　[154]TheeconomicdevelopmentoftheUnitedStatesisitselfaproductofEuropean，moreespeciallyofEnglishmodernindustry。Intheirpresentform（1866）
　　theStatesmuststillbeconsideredaEuropeancolony。[Addedinthe4thGermanedition。？"Sincethentheyhavedevelopedintocountrywhoseindustryholdssecondplaceintheworld，withoutonthataccountentirelylosingtheircolonialcharacter。"？F。E。]
　　EXPORTOFCOTTONFROMTHEUNITEDSTATESTOGREATBRITAIN
　　1846。—401，949，393lbs。1852。—765，630，543lbs。
　　1859。—961，707，264lbs。1860。—1，115，890，608lbs。
　　EXPORTOFCORN，&c。，FROMTHEUNITEDSTATES
　　TOGREATBRITAIN
　　18501862
　　Wheat，cwts16，202，31241，033，503
　　Barley，cwts3，669，6536，624，800
　　Oats，cwts3，174，8014，496，994
　　Rye，cwts388，7497，108
　　Flour，cwts3，819，4407，207，113
　　Buckwheat，cwts1，05419，571
　　Maize，cwts5，473，16111，694，818
　　BereorBigg（asortofBarley），cwts2，0397，675
　　Peas，cwts811，6201，024，722
　　Beans，cwts1，822，9722，037，137
　　棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗—
　　Totalexports35，365，80174，083，441
　　[156]InanappealmadeinJuly，1866，totheTradeSocietiesofEngland，bytheshoemakersofLeicester，whohadbeenthrownonthestreetsbyalock—out，itisstated:"TwentyyearsagotheLeicestershoetradewasrevolutionisedbytheintroductionofrivetingintheplaceofstitching。Atthattimegoodwagescouldbeearned。Greatcompetitionwasshownbetweenthedifferentfirmsastowhichcouldturnouttheneatestarticle。Shortlyafterwards，howeveraworsekindofcompetitionsprangup，namely，thatofundersellingoneanotherinthemarket。Theinjuriousconsequencessoonmanifestedthemselvesinreductionsofwages，andsosweepinglyquickwasthefallinthepriceoflabour，thatmanyfirmsnowpayonlyonehalfoftheoriginalwages。
　　Andyet，thoughwagessinklowerandlower，profitsappear，witheachalterationinthescaleofwages，toincrease。"Evenbadtimesareutilisedbythemanufacturers，formakingexceptionalprofitsbyexcessiveloweringofwages，i。e。，byadirectrobberyofthelabourer’smeansofsubsistence。
　　Oneexample（ithasreferencetothecrisisintheCoventrysilkweaving）:
　　"FrominformationIhavereceivedfrommanufacturersaswellasworkmen，thereseemstobenodoubtthatwageshavebeenreducedtoagreaterextentthaneitherthecompetitionoftheforeignproducers，orothercircumstanceshaverenderednecessary……themajorityofweaversareworkingatareductionof30to40percent。intheirwages。Apieceofribbonfor。makingwhichtheweavergot6s。or7s。fiveyearsback，nowonlybringsthem3s。3d。
　　or3s。6d。;otherworkisnowpricedat2s。and2s。3d。whichwasformerlypricedat4s。and4s。3d。Thereductioninwageseemstohavebeencarriedtoagreaterextentthanisnecessaryforincreasingdemand。Indeed，thereductioninthecostofweaving，inthecaseofmanydescriptionsofribbons，hasnetbeenaccompaniedbyanycorrespondingreductioninthesellingpriceofthemanufacturedarticle。"（Mr。F。D。LongesReport。"Ch。Emp。
　　Corn。，V。Rep。，1866，"p。114，1。）
　　[157]Conf"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，31stOctober，1862，"p。30。
　　[158]l。c。，p。19。
　　[159]"Rep。Insp。ofFact。，31stOctober，1863，"pp。41—45。
　　[160]l。c。，pp。41—42
　　[161]l。c。，p。57。
　　[162]l。c。，pp。50—51。
　　[163]l。c。，pp。62—63。
　　[164]"Rep。&c。，30thApril，1864，"p。27。
　　[165]FromaletterofMr。Harris，ChiefConstableofBolton，in"Rep。ofInsp。
　　ofFact。，31stOctober，1865，"pp。61—62。
　　[166]Inanappeal，dated1863，ofthefactoryoperativesofLancashire，&c。，forthepurposeofformingasocietyfororganisedemigration，wefindthefollowing:"Thatalargeemigrationoffactoryworkersisnowabsolutelyessentialtoraisethemfromtheirpresentprostratecondition，fewwilldeny;buttoshowthatacontinuousstreamofemigrationisatalltimesdemanded，and，withoutwhichitisimpossibleforthantomaintaintheirpositioninordinarytimes，webegtocallattentiontothesubjoinedfacts:？In1814theofficialvalueofcottongoodsexportedwas£17，665，378，whilsttherealmarketablevaluewas£20，070，824。In1858theofficialvalueofcottongoodsexported，was£182，221，681;buttherealormarketablevaluewasonly£43，001，322，beingaten—foldquantitysoldforlittlemorethandoubletheformerprice。Toproduceresultssodisadvantageoustothecountrygenerally，andtothefactoryworkersinparticular，severalcauseshavecooperated，which，hadcircumstancespermitted，weshouldhavebroughtmoreprominentlyunderyournotice;sufficeitforthepresenttosaythatthemostobviousoneistheconstantredundancyoflabour，withoutwhichatradesoruinousinitseffectsnevercouldhavebeencarriedon，andwhichrequiresaconstantlyextendingmarkettosaveitfromannihilation。Ourcottonmillsmaybebroughttoastandbytheperiodicalstagnationsoftrade，which，underpresentarrangements，areasinevitableasdeathitself;butthehumanmindisconstantlyatwork，andalthoughwebelieveweareunderthemarkinstatingthatsixmillionsofpersonshavelefttheseshoresduringthelast25years，yet，fromthenaturalincreaseofpopulation，andthedisplacementoflabourtocheapenproduction，alargepercentageofthemaleadultsinthemostprosperoustimesfinditimpossibletoobtainworkinfactoriesonanyconditionswhatever。"（"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，30thApril1863，"pp。
　　51—52。）Weshall，inalaterchapter，seehowourfriends，themanufacturers，endeavoured，duringthecatastropheinthecottontrade，topreventbyeverymeans，includingStateinterference，theemigrationoftheoperatives。
　　[167]"Ch。Empt。Comm。III。Report，1864，"p。108，n。447。
　　[168]IntheUnitedStatestherestoration，inthisway，ofhandicraftsbasedonmachineryisfrequent;andtherefore，whentheinevitabletransitiontothefactorysystemshalltakeplace，theensuingconcentrationwill，comparedwithEuropeandevenwithEngland，strideoninseven—leagueboots。
　　[169]See"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1865，"p。64。
　　[170]Mr。GillotterectedinBirminghamthefirststeel—penfactoryonalargescale。Itproduced，soearlyas1851，over180，000，000ofpensyearly，andconsumed120tonsofsteel。BirminghamhasthemonopolyofthisindustryintheUnitedKingdom，andatpresentproducesthousandsofmillionsofsteel—pens。AccordingtotheCensusof1861，thenumberofpersonsemployedwas1，428，ofwhom1，268femalesfrom5yearsofageupwards。
　　[171]"Ch。Empl。Comm。II。Rep。1864，"p。LXVIII。，n。415。
　　[172]Andnowforsoothchildrenareemployedatfile—cuttinginSheffield。
　　[173]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，V。Rep。1866，"p。3，n。24;p。6，n。55，56;p。7，n。
　　59，60。
　　[174]l。c。，pp。114，115，n。6，7。Thecommissionerjustlyremarksthatthoughasarulemachinestaketheplaceofmen，hereliterallyyoungpersonsreplacemachines。
　　[175]SeetheReportontheragtrade，andnumerousdetailsin"PublicHealth，VIII。Rep。"Lond。1866，app。，pp。196，208。
　　[176]"Ch。Empl。Comm。V。Rep。，1866，"pp。xvi—xviii，n。86—97，andpp。130—133，n。39—71。SeealsoIII。Rep。，1864，pp。48，56。
　　[177]"PublicHealth。SixthRep。，"Lond。1864，pp。29，31。
　　[178]l。c。，p。30。Dr。SimonremarksthatthemortalityamongtheLondontailorsandprintersbetweentheagesof25and35isinfactmuchgreater，becausetheemployersinLondonobtainfromthecountryagreatnumberofyoungpeopleupto30yearsofage，as"apprentices"and"improvers，"whocomeforthepurposeofbeingperfectedintheirtrade。ThesefigureinthecensusasLondoners，theyswelloutthenumberofheadsonwhichtheLondondeath—rateiscalculated，withoutaddingproportionallytothenumberofdeathsinthatplace。Thegreaterpartoftheminfactreturntothecountry，andespeciallyincasesofsevereillness。（l。c。）
　　[179]Ialludeheretohammerednails，asdistinguishedfromnailscutoutandmadebymachinery。See"Child。Empl。Comm。，ThirdRep。，"pp。xi。，xix。，n。125—130，p。52，n。11，p。114，n。487，p。137，n。674。
　　[180]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，II。Rep。，"p。xxii，n。166。
　　[181]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，II。Rep。，1864，"pp。xix。，xx。，xxi。
　　[182]l。c。，pp。xxi……xxii。
　　[183]l。c。，pp。xxix。，xxx。
　　[184]l。c。，pp。xi。，xii。
　　[185]"Child。Empl。Comm。，I。Rep。1863，"p。185。
　　[186]InEnglandmillineryanddressmakingareforthemostpartcarriedon，onthepremisesoftheemployer，partlybyworkwomenwholivethere，partlybywomenwholiveoffthepremises。
　　[187]Mr。White，acommissioner，visitedamilitaryclothingmanufactorythatemployed1，000to1，200persons，almostallfemales，andashoemanufactorywith1，300persons;ofthesenearlyonehalfwerechildrenandyoungpersons。
　　[188]Aninstance。TheweeklyreportofdeathsbytheRegistrar—Generaldated26thFeb。，1864，contains5casesofdeathfromstarvation。OnthesamedayTheTimesreportsanothercase。Sixvictimsofstarvationinoneweek！
　　[189]"Child。Empl。Comm。，SecondRep。，1864，"p。lxvii。，n。406—9，p。84，n。
　　124，p。lxxiii，n。441，p。68，n。6，p。84，n。126，p。78，n。85，p。76，n。69，p。lxxii，n。483。
　　[190]"Therentalofpremisesrequiredforworkroomsseemstheelementwhichultimatelydeterminesthepoint;andconsequentlyitisinthemetropolis，thattheoldsystemofgivingworkouttosmallemployersandfamilieshasbeenlongestretained，andearliestreturnedto。"（l。c。，p。83，n。