123。）Theconcludingstatementinthisquotationrefersexclusivelytoshoemaking。
　　[191]Inglove—makingandotherindustrieswheretheconditionofthework—peopleishardlydistinguishablefromthatofpaupers，thisdoesnotoccur。
　　[192]l。c。，p。83，n。122。
　　[193]InthewholesalebootandshoetradeofLeicesteralone，therewerein1864，800sewing—machinesalreadyinuse。
　　[194]l。c。，p。84，n。124。
　　[195]Instances:TheArmyClothingDepotatPimlico，London，theShirtfactoryofTillieandHendersonatLondonderry，andtheclothesfactoryofMessrs。
　　TaitatLimerickwhichemploysabout1，200hands。
　　[196]"TendencytoFactorySystem"（l。c。，p。lxvii）。"Thewholeemploymentisatthistimeinastateoftransition，andisundergoingthesameChangeasthateffectedinthelacetrade，weaving，&c。"（l。c。，n。405。）
　　"Acompleterevolution"（l。c。，p。xlvi。，n。318）。AtthedateoftheChild。
　　Empl。Comm。of1840stockingmakingwasstilldonebymanuallabour。Since1846varioussortsofmachineshavebeenintroduced，whicharenowdrivenbysteam。Thetotalnumberofpersonsofbothsexesandofallagesfrom3yearsupwards，employedinstockingmakinginEngland，wasin1862about129，000。Oftheseonly4，063were，accordingtotheParliamentaryReturnofthe11thFebruary，1862，workingundertheFactoryActs。
　　[197]Thus，e。g。，intheearthenwaretrade，Messrs。Cochrane，oftheBritainPottery，Glasgow，report:"Tokeepupourquantitywehavegoneextensivelyintomachineswroughtbyunskilledtabour，andeverydayconvincesusthatwecanproduceagreaterquantitythanbytheoldmethod。"（"Rep。ofInsp。
　　ofFact。，31stOct。，1865，"p。13。）"TheeffectoftheFact。Actsistoforceonthefurtherintroductionofmachinery"（l。c。，pp。13—14）。
　　[198]Thus，aftertheextensionoftheFactoryActtothepotteries，greatincreaseofpowerjiggersinplaceofhand—movedjiggers。
　　[199]"Reportoflnsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1865，"pp。96and127。
　　[200]Theintroductionofthisandothermachineryintomatch—makingcausedinonedepartmentalone230youngpersonstobereplacedby32boysandgirlsof14to17yearsofage。Thissavinginlabourwascarriedstillfurtherin1865，bytheemploymentofsteampower。
　　[201]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，11。Rep。，1864，"p。ix。，n。50。
　　[202]"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1865，"p……22。
　　[203]"Butitmustbeborneinmindthatthoseimprovements，thoughcarriedoutfullyinsomeestablishments，arebynomeansgeneral，andarenotcapableofbeingbroughtintouseinmanyoftheoldmanufactorieswithoutanexpenditureofcapitalbeyondthemeansofmanyofthepresentoccupiers。""Icannotbutrejoice，"writesSub—Insp。May，"thatnotwithstandingthetemporarydisorganisationwhichinevitablyfollowstheintroductionofsuchameasure（astheFactoryActExtensionAct），andis，indeed，directlyindicativeoftheevilswhichitwasintendedtoremedy，&c。"（Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1865。）
　　[204]Withblastfurnaces，forinstance，"worktowardstheendoftheweekbeinggenerallymuchincreasedindurationinconsequenceofthehabitofthemenofidlingonMondayandoccasionallyduringapartorthewholeofTuesdayalso。"（"Child。Empl。Comm。，III。Rep。，"p。vi。）"Thelittlemastersgenerallyhaveveryirregularhours。Theylosetwoorthreedays，andthenworkallnighttomakeitup……Theyalwaysemploytheirownchildren，iftheyhaveany。"（l。c。，p。vii。）"Thewantofregularityincomingtowork，encouragedbythepossibilityandpracticeofmakingupforthisbyworkinglongerhours。"（l。c。，p。xviii。）"InBirmingham……anenormousamountoftimeislost……idlingpartofthetime，slavingtherest。"
　　（l。c。，p。xi。）
　　[205]"Child。Empl。Comm。，IV。，Rep。，"p。xxxii。，"Theextensionoftherailwaysystemissaidtohavecontributedgreatlytothiscustomofgivingsuddenorders，andtheconsequenthurry，neglectofmeal—times，andlatehoursoftheworkpeople。"（l。c。，p。xxxi。）
　　[206]"Ch。Empl。Comm，IV。Rep。，"pp。xxxv。，n。235，237。
　　[207]"Ch。Empl。Comm。IV。Rep。，"p。127，n。56。
　　[208]Withrespecttothelossoftradebynon—completionofshippingordersintime，Irememberthatthiswasthepetargumentofthefactorymastersin1832and1833。Nothingthatcanheadvancednowonthissubject，couldhavetheforcethatithadthen，beforesteamhadhalvedalldistancesandestablishednewregulationsfortransit。Itquitefailedatthattimeofproofwhenputtothetest，andagainitwillcertainlyfailshouldithavetobetried。"（"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，31Oct。，1862，"pp。
　　54，55。）
　　[208a]"Ch。Empl。Comm。IV。Rep。，"p。xviii，n。118。
　　[208b]JohnBellersremarkedasfarbackas1699:"Theuncertaintyoffashionsdoesincreasenecessitouspoor。Ithastwogreatmischiefsinit。1st，Thejourneymenaremiserableinwinterforwantofwork，themercersandmaster—weaversnotdaringtolayouttheirstockstokeepthejourneymenemployedbeforethespringcomes，andtheyknowwhatthefashionwillthenbe;2ndly，Inthespringthejourneymenarenotsufficient，butthemaster—weaversmustdrawinmanyprentices，thattheymaysupplythetradeofthekingdominaquarterorhalfayear，whichrobstheploughofhands，drainsthecountryoflabourers，andinagreatpartstocksthecitywithbeggars，andstarvessomeinwinterthatareashamedtobeg。"（"EssaysaboutthePoor，Manufactures，&c。，"p。9。）
　　[209]"Ch。Empl。Comm。V。Rep。，"p。171，n。34。
　　[210]TheevidenceofsomeBradfordexport—housesisasfollows:"Underthesecircumstances，itseemsclearthatnoboysneedbeworkedlongerthanfrom8a。m。to7or7。30p。m。，inmakingup。Itismerelyaquestionofextrahandsandextraoutlay。Ifsomemasterswerenotsogreedy，theboyswouldnotworklate;anextramachinecostsonly£16or£18;muchofsuchover—timeasdoesoccuristobereferredtoaninsufficiencyofappliances，andawantofspace。""Ch。Empl，Comm。V。Rep。，"p。171，n。
　　35，36，38。
　　[211]l。c。ALondonmanufacturer，whoinotherrespectslooksuponthecompulsoryregulationofthehoursoflabourasaprotectionfortheworkpeopleagainstthemanufacturers，andforthemanufacturersthemselvesagainstthewholesaletrade，states:"Thepressureinourbusinessiscausedbytheshippers，whowant，e。g。，tosendthegoodsbysailingvesselsoastoreachtheirdestinationatagivenseason，andatthesametimewanttopocketthedifferenceinfreightbetweenasailingvesselandasteamship，orwhoselecttheearlieroftwosteamshipsinordertobeintheforeignmarketbeforetheircompetitors。"
　　[212]"Thiscouldbeobviated，"saysamanufacturer，"attheexpenseofanenlargementoftheworksunderthepressureofaGeneralActofParliament。"l。c。，p。x。，n。38。
　　[213]l。c。，p。xv。，n。72。sqq。
　　[214]"Rep。Insp。Fact。，31stOctober，1865，"p。127。
　　[215]Ithasbeenfoundoutbyexperiment，thatwitheachrespirationofaverageintensitymadebyahealthyaverageindividual，about25cubicinchesofairareconsumed，andthatabout20respirationsaremadeineachminute。
　　Hencetheairinhaledin24hoursbyeachindividualisabout720，000cubicinches，or416cubicfeet。Itisclear，however，thatairwhichhasbeenoncebreathed，cannolongerserveforthesameprocessuntilithasbeenpurifiedinthegreatworkshopofNature。AccordingtotheexperimentsofValentinandBrunner，itappearsthatahealthymangivesoffabout1，300cubicinchesofcarbonicacidperhour;thiswouldgiveabout8ouncesofsolidcarbonthrownofffromthelungsin24hours。"Everymanshouldhaveatleast800cubicfeet。"（Huxley。）
　　[216]AccordingtotheEnglishFactoryAct，parentscannotsendtheirchildrenunder14yearsofageintoFactoriesunderthecontroloftheAct，unlessatthesametimetheyallowthemtoreceiveelementaryeducation。ThemanufacturerisresponsibleforcompliancewiththeAct。"Factoryeducationiscompulsory，anditisaconditionoflabour。"（"Rep。Insp。Fact。，31stOct。，1865，"
　　p。111。）
　　[217]Ontheveryadvantageousresultsofcombininggymnastics（anddrillinginthecaseofboys）withcompulsoryeducationforfactorychildrenandpauperscholars，seethespeechofN。W。Seniorattheseventhannualcongressof"TheNationalAssociationforthePromotionofSocialScience，"in"ReportofProceedings，&c。，"Lond。1863，pp。63，64，alsothe"Rep。Insp。
　　Fact。，31stOct。，1865，"pp。118，119，120，126，sqq。
　　[218]"Rep。Insp。Fact。，31stOct。，1865，"p。118。AsilkmanufacturernaivelystatestotheChildren’sEmploymentCommissioners:"Iamquitesurethatthetruesecretofproducingefficientworkpeopleistobefoundinunitingeducationandtabourfromaperiodofchildhood。Ofcoursetheoccupationmustnotbetoosevere，norirksome，orunhealthy。ButoftheadvantageoftheunionIhavenodoubt。Iwishmyownchildrencouldhavesomeworkaswellasplaytogivevarietytotheirschooling。"（"Ch。Empl。Comm。
　　V。Rep。，"p。82，n。36。）
　　[219]Senior，l。c。，p。66。HowModernIndustry，whenithasattainedtoacertainpitch，iscapable，bytherevolutioniteffectsinthemodeofproductionandinthesocialconditionsofproduction，ofalsorevolutionisingpeople’sminds，isstrikinglyshownbyacomparisonofSenior’sspeechin1863，withhisphilippicagainsttheFactoryActof1833;orbyacomparison，oftheviewsofthecongressabovereferredto，withthefactthatincertaincountrydistrictsofEnglandpoorparentsareforbidden，onpainofdeathbystarvation，toeducatetheirchildren。Thus，e。g。，Mr。SnellreportsittobeacommonoccurrenceinSomersetshirethat，whenapoorpersonclaimsparishrelief，heiscompelledtotakehischildrenfromschool。
　　Mr。Wollarton，theclergymanatFeltham，alsotellsofcaseswhereallreliefwasdeniedtocertainfamilies"becausetheyweresendingtheirchildrentoschool！"
　　[220]Whereverhandicraft—machines，drivenbymen，competedirectlyorindirectlywithmoredevelopedmachinesdrivenbymechanicalpower，agreatchangetakesplacewithregardtothetabourerwhodrivesthemachine。Atfirstthesteam—enginereplacesthistabourer，afterwardshemustreplacethesteam—engine。Consequentlythetensionandtheamountoftabour—powerexpendedbecomemonstrous，andespeciallysointhecaseofthechildrenwhoarecondemnedtothistorture。ThusMr。Longe;oneofthecommissioners，foundinCoventryandtheneighbourhoodboysoffrom10to15yearsemployedindrivingtheribbon—looms，nottomentionyoungerchildrenwhohadtodrivesmallermachines。"Itisextraordinarilyfatiguingwork。Theboyisameresubstituteforsteampower。"（"Ch。Empl。Comm。V，Rep。1866;"
　　p。114，n。6。）Astothefatalconsequencesof"thissystemofslavery，"
　　astheofficialreportstylesit，seel。c。，p。114sqq。
　　[221]l。c。，p。3，n。24。
　　[222]l。c。，P。7，n。60。
　　[223]"insomepartsoftheHighlandsofScotland，notmanyyearsago，everypeasant，accordingtotheStatisticalAccount，madehisownshoesofleathertannedbyhimself。Manyashepherdandcottartoo，withhiswifeandchildren，appearedatChurchinclotheswhichhadbeentouchedbynohandsbuttheirown，sincetheywereshornfromthesheepandsownintheflaxfield。Inthepreparationofthese。itisadded，scarcelyasinglearticlehadbeenpurchased，excepttheawl，needle，thimble，andaveryfewpartsoftheiron—workemployedintheweaving。Thedyes，toci，werechieflyextractedbythewomenfromtrees，shrubsandherbs。"（DugaldStewart’s"Works，"
　　Hamilton’sEd。，Vol。viii。，pp。327—328。）
　　[224]Inthecelebrated"Livredesmètiers"ofEtienneBoileau，wefinditprescribedthatajourneymanonbeingadmittedamongthemastershadtoswear"tolovehisbrethrenwithbrotherlylove，tosupportthemintheirrespectivetrades，notwilfullytobetraythesecretsofthetrade，andbesides，intheinterestsofall，nottorecommendhisown—waresbycallingtheattentionofthebuyertodefectsinthearticlesmadebyothers。"
　　[225]"Thebourgeoisiecannotexistwithoutcontinuallyrevolutionisingtheinstrumentsofproduction，andtherebytherelationsofproductionandallthesocialrelations。Conservation，inanunalteredform，oftheoldmodesofproductionwasonthecontrarythefirstconditionofexistenceforallearlierindustrialclasses。Constantrevolutioninproduction，uninterrupteddisturbanceofallsocialconditions，everlastinguncertaintyandagitation，distinguishthebourgeoisepochfromallearlierones。Allfixed，fast—frozenrelations，withtheirtrainofancientandvenerableprejudicesandopinions，aresweptaway，allnewformedonesbecomeantiquatedbeforetheycanossify。
　　Allthatissolidmeltsintoair，allthatisholyisprofaned，andmanisatlastcompelledtofacewithsobersenseshisrealconditionsoflife，andhisrelationswithhiskind。"（F。EngelsundKarlMarx:"ManifestderKommunistischenPartei。"Lond。1848，p。5。）
　　[226]"YoutakemylifeWhenyoudotakethemeanswherebyIlive。"
　　Shakespeare。[227]AFrenchworkman，onhisreturnfromSan—Francisco，writesasfollows:
　　"Inevercouldhavebelieved，thatIwascapableofworkingatthevariousoccupationsIwasemployedoninCalifornia。IwasfirmlyconvincedthatIwasfitfornothingbutletter—pressprinting……Onceinthemidstofthisworldofadventurers，whochangetheiroccupationasoftenastheydotheirshirt，egad，Ididastheothers。Asminingdidnotturnoutremunerativeenough，Ileftitforthetown，whereinsuccessionIbecametypographer，slater，plumber，&c。InconsequenceofthusfindingoutthatIamfittoanysortofwork，Ifeellessofamolluskandmoreofaman。"（A。Corbon，"Del’enseignementprofessionnel，"2èmeed。，p。50。）
　　[228]JohnBellers，averyphenomenoninthehistoryofPoliticalEconomy，sawmostclearlyattheendofthe17thcentury，thenecessityforabolishingthepresentsystemofeducationanddivisionoflabour，whichbegethypertrophyandatrophyatthetwooppositeextremitiesofsociety。Amongstotherthingshesaysthis:"Anidlelearningbeinglittlebetterthanthelearningofidleness……Bodilylabour，it’saprimitiveinstitutionofGod……Labourbeingasproperforthebodies’healthaseatingisforitsliving;forwhatpainsamansavesbyease，hewillfindindisease……Labouraddsoiltothelampoflife，whenthinkinginflamesit……Achildishsillyemploy"（awarningthis，bypresentiment，againsttheBasedowsandtheirmodernimitators）"leavesthechildren’smindssilly，"（"ProposalsforRaisingaColledgeofIndustryofallUsefulTradesandHusbandry。"Lond。，1696，pp。12，14，18。）
　　[229]Thissortoflabourgoesonmostlyinsmallworkshops，aswehaveseeninthelacemakingandstraw—plaitingtrades，andascouldbeshownmoreindetailfromthemetaltradesofSheffield，Birmingham，&c。
　　[230]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，V。Rep。，"p。xxv。，n。162，andII。Rep。，p。xxxviii。，n，285，289，p。xxv。，xxvi。，n。191。
　　[231]"Factorylabourmaybeaspureandasexcellentasdomesticlabour，andperhapsmoreso’"（"Rep。Insp。ofFact。，31stOctober，1865，"p。129。）
　　[232]"Rep。Insp。ofFact。，31stOctober，1865，"pp。27—32。
　　[233]Numerousinstanceswillbefoundin"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。"
　　[234]"Ch。Empl。Comm。，V。Rep。，"p。x。，n。35。
　　[235]Ch。Empl。Comm。，V。Rep。，"p。ix。，n。28。
　　[236]l。c。，p。xxv。，n。165—167。Astotheadvantagesoflargescale，comparedwithsmallscale，industries，see"Ch。Empl。Comm。，III。Rep。，"p。13，n。144，p。25，n。121，p。26，n。125，p。27，n。140，&c。
　　[237]ThetradesproposedtobebroughtundertheActwerethefollowing:Lace—making，stocking—weaving，straw—plaiting，themanufactureofwearingapparelwithitsnumeroussub—divisions，artificialflower—making，shoemaking，hat—making，glove—making，tailoring，allmetalworks，fromblastfurnacesdowntoneedleworks，&c。，paper—mills，glassworks，tobaccofactories，India—rubberworks，braid—making（forweaving），hand—carpetmaking，umbrellaandparasolmaking，themanufactureofspindlesandspools，letterpressprinting，book—binding，manufactureofstationery（includingpaperbags，cards，colouredpaper，&c。），rope—making，manufactureofjetornaments，brick—making，silkmanufacturebyhand，Coventryweaving，saltworks，tallowchandiers，cementworks，sugarrefineries，biscuit—making，variousindustriesconnectedwithtimber，andothermixedtrades。
　　[238]l。c。，p。xxv。，n。169。
　　[239]Here（from"TheToryCabinet……to"NassauW。Senior"）theEnglishtexthasbeenalteredinconformitywiththe4thGermanedition。？Ed。
　　[240]TheFactoryActsExtensionActwaspassedonAugust12，1867。itregulatesallfoundries，smithies，andmetalmanufactories，includingmachineshops;
　　furthermoreglass—works，papermills，gutta—perchaandIndia—rubberworks，tobaccomanufactories，letter—pressprintingandbook—bindingworks，and，lastly，allworkshopsinwhichmorethan50personsareemployed。TheHoursofLabourRegulationAct，passedonAugust17，1867，regulatesthesmallerworkshopsandtheso—calleddomesticindustries。
　　IshallreverttotheseActsandtothenewMiningActof1872
　　inVolumeII。
　　[241]Senior，"SocialScienceCongress，"pp。55—58。
　　[242]The"personnel"ofthisstaffconsistedof2inspectors，2assistantinspectorsand41sub—inspectors。Eightadditionalsub—inspectorswereappointedin1871。ThetotalcostofadministeringtheActsinEngland，Scotland，andIrelandamountedfortheyear1871—72tonomorethan£25，347，inclusiveofthelawexpensesincurredbyprosecutionsofoffendingmasters。
　　[243]RobertOwen，thefatherofCo—operativeFactoriesandStores，butwho，asbeforeremarked，innowaysharedtheillusionsofhisfollowerswithregardtothebearingoftheseisolatedelementsoftransformation，notonlypracticallymadethefactorysystemthesolefoundationofhisexperiments，butalsodeclaredthatsystemtobetheoreticallythestartingpointofthesocialrevolution。HerrVissering，ProfessorofPoliticalEconomyintheUniversityofLeyden，appearstohaveasuspicionofthiswhen，inhis"HandboekvanPractischeStaatshuishoudkunde，1860—62，"whichreproducesalltheplatitudesofvulgareconomy，hestronglysupportshandicraftsagainstthefactorysystem。
　　[Addedinthe4thGermanedition？The"hopelesslybewilderingtangleofcontradictoryenactments"（S。314）（presentvolume，p。284）whichEnglishlegislationcalledintolifebymeansofthemutuallyconflictingFactoryActs，theFactoryActsExtensionActandtheWorkshops’Act，finallybecameintolerable，andthusalllegislativeenactmentsonthissubjectwerecodifiedintheFactoryandWorkshopActof1878。OfcoursenodetailedcritiqueofthisEnglishindustrialcodenowineffectcanbepresentedhere。Thefollowingremarkswillhavetosuffice。TheActcomprises:
　　1）TextileMills。Hereeverythingremainsaboutasitwas:
　　childrenmorethan10yearsofagemaywork51/2hoursaday;or6hoursandSaturdayoff;youngpersonsandwomen，10hourson5days，andatmost61/2onSaturday。
　　2）Non—TextileFactories。HeretheregulationsarebroughtcloserthanbeforetothoseofNo。1，buttherearestillseveralexceptionswhichfavourthecapitalistsandwhichincertaincasesmaybeexpandedbyspecialpermissionoftheHomeSecretary。
　　3）Workshops，definedapproximatelyasintheformerAct;
　　asforthechildren，youngworkersandwomenemployedthere，theworkshopsareaboutonaparwiththenon—textilefactories，butagainconditionsareeasierindetails。
　　4）Workshopsinwhichnochildrenoryoungworkersareemployed，butonlypersonsofbothsexesabovetheageof18;thiscategoryenjoystilleasierconditions。
　　5）DomesticWorkshops，whereonlymembersofthefamilyareemployed，inthefamilydwelling:stillmoreelasticregulationsandsimultaneouslytherestrictionthattheinspectormay，withoutspecialpermissionoftheministryoracourt，enteronlyroomsnotusedalsofordwellingpurposes;andlastlyunrestrictedfreedomforstraw—plaitingandlaceandglove—makingbymembersofthefamily。WithallitsdefectsthisAct，togetherwiththeSwissFederalFactoryLawofMarch23，1877，isstillbyfarthebestpieceoflegislationinthisfield。AcomparisonofitwiththesaidSwissfederallawisofparticularinterestbecauseitclearlydemonstratesthemeritsanddemeritsofthetwolegislativemethods？theEnglish，"historical"method，whichinterveneswhenoccasionrequires，andthecontinentalmethod，whichisbuiltuponthetraditionsoftheFrenchRevolutionandgeneralisesmore。Unfortunately，duetoinsufficientinspectionpersonnel，theEnglishcodeisstilllargelyadeadletterwithregardtoitsapplicationtoworkshops。？F。E。][244]"Youdividethepeopleintotwohostilecampsofclownishboorsandemasculateddwarfs。Goodheavens！anationdividedintoagriculturalandcommercialinterests，callingitselfsane;nay，stylingitselfenlightenedandcivilised，notonlyinspiteof，butinconsequenceofthismonstrousandunnaturaldivision。"（DavidUrquhart，l。c。，p。119。）Thispassageshows，atoneandthesametime，thestrengthandtheweaknessofthatkindofcriticismwhichknowshowtojudgeandcondemnthepresent，butnothowtocomprehendit。
　　[245]SeeLiebig:"DieChemieinihrerAnwendungaufAgriculturundPhysiologic，"
　　7。Auflage，1862，andespeciallythe"EinleitungindieNaturgesetzedesFeldbaus，"inthe1stVolume。Tohavedevelopedfromthepointofviewofnaturalscience，thenegative，i。e。，destructivesideofmodernagriculture，isoneofLiebig’simmortalmerits。Hissummary，too，ofthehistoryofagriculture，althoughnotfreefromgrosserrors，containsflashesoflight。
　　Itis，however，toberegrettedthatheventuresonsuchhaphazardassertionsasthefollowing:"Bygreaterpulverisingandmorefrequentploughing，thecirculationofairintheinteriorofporoussoilisaided，andthesurfaceexposedtotheactionoftheatmosphereisincreasedandrenewed;
　　butitiseasilyseenthattheincreasedyieldofthelandcannotbeproportionaltothelabourspentonthatland，butincreasesinamuchsmallerproportion。
　　Thislaw，"addsLiebig，"wasfirstenunciatedbyJohnStuartMillinhis’PrinciplesofPol。Econ。，’Vol。1，p。17，asfollows:’Thattheproduceoflandincreases，caeterisparibus，inadiminishingratiototheincreaseofthelabourersemployed’（MillhereintroducesinanerroneousformthelawenunciatedbyRicardo’sschool，forsincethe’decreaseofthelabourersemployed，’keptevenpaceinEnglandwiththeadvanceofagriculture，thelawdiscoveredin，andappliedto，England，couldhavenoapplicationtothatcountry，atallevents），’istheuniversallawofagriculturalindustry。’Thisisveryremarkable，sinceMillwasignorantofthereasonforthistaw。"（Liebig，l。c。，Bd。I。，p。143andNote。）
　　ApartfromLiebig’swronginterpretationoftheword"labour，"bywhichwordheunderstandssomethingquitedifferentfromwhatPoliticalEconomydoes，itis，inanycase，"veryremarkable"thatheshouldmakeMr。JohnStuartMillthefirstpropounderofatheorywhichwasfirstpublishedbyJamesAndersoninA。Smith’sdays，andwasrepeatedinvariousworksdowntothebeginningofthe19thcentury;atheorywhichMalthus，thatmasterinplagiarism（thewholeofhispopulationtheoryisashamelessplagiarism），appropriatedtohimselfin1815;whichWestdevelopedatthesametimeas，andindependentlyof，Anderson;whichintheyear1817wasconnectedbyRicardowiththegeneraltheoryofvalue，thenmadetheroundoftheworldasRicardo’stheory，andin1820wasvulgarisedbyJamesMill，thefatherofJohnStuartMill;andwhich，finally，wasreproducedbyJohnStuartMillandothers，asadogmaalreadyquitecommonplace，andknowntoeveryschoolboy。ItcannotbedeniedthatJohnStuartMilloweshis，atallevents，"remarkable"authorityalmostentirelytosuchquid—pro—quos。
　　ChapterSixteenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartV:
　　TheProductionofAbsoluteandofRelativeSurplus—ValueCHAPTERSIXTEEN:
　　ABSOLUTEANDRELATIVESURPLUS—VALUE
　　Inconsideringthelabour—process，webegan（seeChapterV。）bytreatingitintheabstract，apartfromitshistoricalforms，asaprocessbetweenmanandNature。Wetherestated，"Ifweexaminethewholelabour—process，fromthepointofviewofitsresult，itisplainthatboththeinstrumentsandthesubjectoflabouraremeansofproduction，andthatthelabouritselfisproductivelabour。"AndinNote2，samepage，wefurtheradded:"Thismethodofdetermining，fromthestandpointofthelabour—processalone，whatisproductivelabour，isbynomeansdirectlyapplicabletothecaseofthecapitalistprocessofproduction。"Wenowproceedtothefurtherdevelopmentofthissubject。
　　Sofarasthelabour—processispurelyindividual，oneandthesamelabourerunitesinhimselfallthefunctions，thatlateronbecomeseparated。
　　Whenanindividualappropriatesnaturalobjectsforhislivelihood，noonecontrolshimbuthimself。Afterwardsheiscontrolledbyothers。A
　　singlemancannotoperateuponNaturewithoutcallinghisownmusclesintoplayunderthecontrolofhisownbrain。Asinthenaturalbodyheadandhandwaituponeachother，sothelabour—processunitesthelabourofthehandwiththatofthehead。Laterontheypartcompanyandevenbecomedeadlyfoes。Theproductceasestobethedirectproductoftheindividual，andbecomesasocialproduct，producedincommonbyacollectivelabourer，i。e。，byacombinationofworkmen，eachofwhomtakesonlyapart，greaterorless，inthemanipulationofthesubjectoftheirlabour。Astheco—operativecharacterofthelabour—processbecomesmoreandmoremarked，so，asanecessaryconsequence，doesournotionofproductivelabour，andofitsagenttheproductivelabourer，becomeextended。Inordertolabourproductively，itisnolongernecessaryforyoutodomanualworkyourself;enough，ifyouareanorganofthecollectivelabourer，andperformoneofitssubordinatefunctions。Thefirstdefinitiongivenaboveofproductivelabour，adefinitiondeducedfromtheverynatureoftheproductionofmaterialobjects，stillremainscorrectforthecollectivelabourer，consideredasawhole。Butitnolongerholdsgoodforeachmembertakenindividually。
　　Ontheotherhand，however，ournotionofproductivelabourbecomesnarrowed。Capitalistproductionisnotmerelytheproductionofcommodities，itisessentiallytheproductionofsurplus—value。Thelabourerproduces，notforhimself，butforcapital。Itnolongersuffices，therefore，thatheshouldsimplyproduce。Hemustproducesurplus—value。Thatlaboureraloneisproductive，whoproducessurplus—valueforthecapitalist，andthusworksfortheself—expansionofcapital。Ifwemaytakeanexamplefromoutsidethesphereofproductionofmaterialobjects，aschoolmasterisaproductivelabourerwhen，inadditiontobelabouringtheheadsofhisscholars，heworkslikeahorsetoenrichtheschoolproprietor。Thatthelatterhaslaidouthiscapitalinateachingfactory，insteadofinasausagefactory，doesnotaltertherelation。Hencethenotionofaproductivelabourerimpliesnotmerelyarelationbetweenworkandusefuleffect，betweenlabourerandproductoflabour，butalsoaspecific，socialrelationofproduction，arelationthathassprunguphistoricallyandstampsthelabourerasthedirectmeansofcreatingsurplus—value。Tobeaproductivelaboureris，therefore，notapieceofluck，butamisfortune。InBookIV。whichtreatsofthehistoryofthetheory，itwillbemoreclearlyseen，thattheproductionofsurplus—valuehasatalltimesbeenmade，byclassicalpoliticaleconomists，thedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheproductivelabourer。Hencetheirdefinitionofaproductivelabourerchangeswiththeircomprehensionofthenatureofsurplus—value。ThusthePhysiocratsinsistthatonlyagriculturallabourisproductive，sincethatalone，theysay，yieldsasurplus—value。Andtheysaysobecause，withthem，surplus—valuehasnoexistenceexceptintheformofrent。
　　Theprolongationoftheworking—daybeyondthepointatwhichthelabourerwouldhaveproducedjustanequivalentforthevalueofhislabour—power，andtheappropriationofthatsurplus—labourbycapital，thisisproductionofabsolutesurplus—value。Itformsthegeneralgroundworkofthecapitalistsystem，andthestarting—pointfortheproductionofrelativesurplus—value。
　　Thelatterpre—supposesthattheworking—dayisalreadydividedintotwoparts，necessarylabour，andsurplus—labour。Inordertoprolongthesurplus—labour，thenecessarylabourisshortenedbymethodswherebytheequivalentforthewagesisproducedinlesstime。Theproductionofabsolutesurplus—valueturnsexclusivelyuponthelengthoftheworking—day;theproductionofrelativesurplus—value，revolutionisesoutandoutthetechnicalprocessesoflabour，andthecompositionofsociety。Itthereforepre—supposesaspecificmode，thecapitalistmodeofproduction，amodewhich，alongwithitsmethods，means，andconditions，arisesanddevelopsitselfspontaneouslyonthefoundationaffordedbytheformalsubjectionoflabourtocapital。
　　Inthecourseofthisdevelopment，theformalsubjectionisreplacedbytherealsubjectionoflabourtocapital。
　　Itwillsufficemerelytorefertocertainintermediateforms，inwhichsurplus—labourisnotextortedbydirectcompulsionfromtheproducer，northeproducerhimselfyetformallysubjectedtocapital。Insuchformscapitalhasnotyetacquiredthedirectcontrolofthelabour—process。