285。）"Whenyouspeakofsub—inspectors，doyoumeanmenatalesssalary，andofaninferiorstamptothepresentinspectors？""Iwouldnothavetheminferior，ifyoucouldgetthemotherwise。"（n。294。）"Doyoumerelywantmoreinspectors，ordoyouwantalowerclassofmenasaninspector？"
　　"Amanwhowouldknockabout，andseethatthingsarekeptright;amanwhowouldnotbeafraidofhimself。"（n。295。）"Ifyouobtainedyourwishingettinganinferiorclassofinspectorsappointed，doyouthinkthattherewouldbenodangerfromwantofskill，&c？""Ithinknot，IthinkthattheGovernmentwouldseeafterthat，andhavepropermeninthatposition。"
　　（n。297。）Thiskindofexaminationbecomesatlasttoomuchevenforthechairmanofthecommittee，andheinterruptswiththeobservation:"Youwantaclassofmenwhowouldlookintoallthedetailsofthemine，andwouldgointoalltheholesandcorners，andgointotherealfacts……theywouldreporttothechiefinspector，whowouldthenbringhisscientificknowledgetobearonthefactstheyhavestated？"
　　（ns。298，299。）"Woulditnotentailverygreatexpenseifalltheseoldworkingswerekeptventilated？""Yes，expensemightbeincurred，butlifewouldbeatthesametimeprotected。"（n。531。）Aworkingminerobjectstothe17thsectionoftheActof1860;hesays，"Atthepresenttime，iftheinspectorofminesfindsapartofthemineunfittoworkin，hehastoreportittothemine—ownerandtheHomeSecretary。Afterdoingthat，thereisgiventotheowner20daystolookoverthematter;attheendof20dayshehasthepowertorefusemakinganyalterationinthemine;but，whenherefuses，themine—ownerwritestotheHomeSecretary，atthesametimenominatingfiveengineers，andfromthosefiveengineersnamedbythemine—ownerhimself，theHomeSecretaryappointsone，Ithink，asarbitrator，orappointsarbitratorsfromthem;nowwethinkinthatcasethemine—ownervirtuallyappointshisownarbitrator。"（n。581。）Bourgeoisexaminer，himselfamine—owner:"But……isthisa’Merelyspeculativeobjection？"（n。586。）"Thenyouhaveaverypooropinionoftheintegrityofminingengineers？""Itismostcertainlyunjustandinequitable。"（n。
　　588。）"Donotminingengineerspossessasortofpubliccharacter，anddonotyouthinkthattheyareabovemakingsuchapartialdecisionasyouapprehend？""Idonotwishtoanswersuchaquestionasthatwithrespecttothepersonalcharacterofthosemen。Ibelievethatinmanycasestheywouldactverypartiallyindeed，andthatitoughtnottobeintheirhandstodoso，wheremen’slivesareatstake。"（n。589。）Thissamebourgeoisisnotashamedtoputthisquestion:"Doyounotthinkthatthemine—owneralsosufferslossfromanexplosion？"Finally，"ArenotyouworkmeninLancashireabletotakecareofyourowninterestswithoutcallingintheGovernmenttohelpyou？""No。"（n。1042。）
　　Intheyear1865therewere3，217coalminesinGreatBritain，and12
　　inspectors。AYorkshiremine—ownerhimselfcalculates（Times，26thJanuary，1867），thatputtingononesidetheirofficework，whichabsorbsalltheirtime，eachminecanbevisitedbutonceintenyearsbyaninspector。
　　Nowonderthatexplosionshaveincreasedprogressively，bothinnumberandextent（sometimeswithalossof200—300men），duringthelasttenyears。Thesearethebeautiesof"free"capitalistproduction！[ThissentencehasbeenaddedtotheEnglishtextinconformitywiththe4thGermanedition。？Ed。]
　　TheverydefectiveAct，passedin1872，isthefirstthatregulatesthehoursoflabourofthechildrenemployedinmines，andmakesexploitersandowners，toacertainextent，responsibleforso—calledaccidents。
　　TheRoyalCommissionappointedin1867toinquireintotheemploymentinagricultureofchildren，youngpersons，andwomen，haspublishedsomeveryimportantreports。SeveralattemptstoapplytheprinciplesoftheFactoryActs，butinamodifiedform，toagriculturehavebeenmade，buthavesofarresultedincompletefailure。AllthatIwishtodrawattentiontohereistheexistenceofanirresistibletendencytowardsthegeneralapplicationofthoseprinciples。
　　Ifthegeneralextensionoffactorylegislationtoalltradesforthepurposeofprotectingtheworking—classbothinmindandbodyhasbecomeinevitable，ontheotherhand，aswehavealreadypointedout，thatextensionhastensonthegeneralconversionofnumerousisolatedsmallindustriesintoafewcombinedindustriescarriedonuponalargescale;itthereforeacceleratestheconcentrationofcapitalandtheexclusivepredominanceofthefactorysystem。Itdestroysboththeancientandthetransitionalforms，behindwhichthedominionofcapitalisstillinpartconcealed，andreplacesthembythedirectandopenswayofcapital;buttherebyitalsogeneralisesthedirectoppositiontothissway。Whileineachindividualworkshopitenforcesuniformity，regularity，order，andeconomy，itincreasesbytheimmensespurwhichthelimitationandregulationoftheworking—daygivetotechnicalimprovement，theanarchyandthecatastrophesofcapitalistproductionasawhole，theintensityoflabour，andthecompetitionofmachinerywiththelabourer。Bythedestructionofpettyanddomesticindustriesitdestroysthelastresortofthe"redundantpopulation，"andwithitthesoleremainingsafety—valveofthewholesocialmechanism。Bymaturingthematerialconditions，andthecombinationonasocialscaleoftheprocessesofproduction，itmaturesthecontradictionsandantagonismsofthecapitalistformofproduction，andtherebyprovides，alongwiththeelementsfortheformationofanewsociety，theforcesforexplodingtheoldone。[243]
　　SECTION10。MODERNINDUSTRYANDAGRICULTURE
　　Therevolutioncalledforthbymodernindustryinagriculture，andinthesocialrelationsofagriculturalproducers，willbeinvestigatedlateron。Inthisplace，weshallmerelyindicateafewresultsbywayofanticipation。
　　Iftheuseofmachineryinagricultureisforthemostpartfreefromtheinjuriousphysicaleffectithasonthefactoryoperative，itsactioninsupersedingthelabourersismoreintense，andfindslessresistance，asweshallseelaterindetail。InthecountiesofCambridgeandSuffolk，forexample，theareaofcultivatedlandhasextendedverymuchwithinthelast20years（upto1868），whileinthesameperiodtheruralpopulationhasdiminished，notonlyrelatively，butabsolutely。IntheUnitedStatesitisasyetonlyvirtuallythatagriculturalmachinesreplacelabourers;
　　inotherwords，theyallowofthecultivationbythefarmerofalargersurface，butdonotactuallyexpelthelabourersemployed。In1861thenumberofpersonsoccupiedinEnglandandWalesinthemanufactureofagriculturalmachineswas1，034，whilstthenumberofagriculturallabourersemployedintheuseofagriculturalmachinesandsteam—enginesdidnotexceed1，205。
　　Inthesphereofagriculture，modernindustryhasamorerevolutionaryeffectthanelsewhere，forthisreason，thatitannihilatesthepeasant，thatbulwarkoftheoldsociety，andreplaceshimbythewage—labourer。
　　Thusthedesireforsocialchanges，andtheclassantagonismsarebroughttothesamelevelinthecountryasinthetowns。Theirrational，old—fashionedmethodsofagriculturearereplacedbyscientificones。Capitalistproductioncompletelytearsasundertheoldbondofunionwhichheldtogetheragricultureandmanufactureintheirinfancy。Butatthesametimeitcreatesthematerialconditionsforahighersynthesisinthefuture，viz。，theunionofagricultureandindustryonthebasisofthemoreperfectedformstheyhaveeachacquiredduringtheirtemporaryseparation。Capitalistproduction，bycollectingthepopulationingreatcentres，andcausinganever—increasingpreponderanceoftownpopulation，ontheonehandconcentratesthehistoricalmotivepowerofsociety;ontheotherhand，itdisturbsthecirculationofmatterbetweenmanandthesoil，i。e。，preventsthereturntothesoilofitselementsconsumedbymanintheformoffoodandclothing;itthereforeviolatestheconditionsnecessarytolastingfertilityofthesoil。Bythisactionitdestroysatthesametimethehealthofthetownlabourerandtheintellectuallifeoftherurallabourer。[244]Butwhileupsettingthenaturallygrownconditionsforthemaintenanceofthatcirculationofmatter，itimperiouslycallsforitsrestorationasasystem，asaregulatinglawofsocialproduction，andunderaformappropriatetothefulldevelopmentofthehumanrace。Inagricultureasinmanufacture，thetransformationofproductionundertheswayofcapital，means，atthesametime，themartyrdomoftheproducer;theinstrumentoflabourbecomesthemeansofenslaving，exploiting，andimpoverishingthelabourer;thesocialcombinationandorganisationoflabour—processesisturnedintoanorganisedmodeofcrushingouttheworkman’sindividualvitality，freedom，andindependence。Thedispersionoftherurallabourersoverlargerareasbreakstheirpowerofresistancewhileconcentrationincreasesthatofthetownoperatives。Inmodernagriculture，asintheurbanindustries，theincreasedproductivenessandquantityofthelaboursetinmotionareboughtatthecostoflayingwasteandconsumingbydiseaselabour—poweritself。Moreover，allprogressincapitalisticagricultureisaprogressintheart，notonlyofrobbingthelabourer，butofrobbingthesoil;allprogressinincreasingthefertilityofthesoilforagiventime，isaprogresstowardsruiningthelastingsourcesofthatfertility。Themoreacountrystartsitsdevelopmentonthefoundationofmodernindustry，liketheUnitedStates，forexample，themorerapidisthisprocessofdestruction。[245]Capitalistproduction，therefore，developstechnology，andthecombiningtogetherofvariousprocessesintoasocialwhole，onlybysappingtheoriginalsourcesofallwealth—thesoilandthelabourer。
　　Footnotes[1]Millshouldhavesaid，"ofanyhumanbeingnotfedbyotherpeople’slabour，"
　　for，withoutdoubt，machineryhasgreatlyincreasedthenumberofwell—to—doidlers。
　　[2]See，forinstance，Hutton:"CourseofMathematics。"
　　[3]"Fromthispointofviewwemaydrawasharplineofdistinctionbetweenatoolandamachine:spades，hammers，chisels，&c。，combinationsofleversandofscrews，inallofwhich，nomatterhowcomplicatedtheymaybeinotherrespects，manisthemotivepower，……allthisfallsundertheideaofatool;buttheplough，whichisdrawnbyanimalpower，andwind—mills，&c。，mustbeclassedamongmachines。"（WilhelmSchulz:
　　"DieBewegungderProduktion。"Zürich，1843，p。38。）Inmanyrespectsabooktoberecommended。
　　[4]Beforehistime，spinningmachines，althoughveryimperfectones，hadalreadybeenused，andItalywasprobablythecountryoftheirfirstappearance。
　　Acriticalhistoryoftechnologywouldshowhowlittleanyoftheinventionsofthe18thcenturyaretheworkofasingleindividual。Hithertothereisnosuchbook。DarwinhasinterestedusinthehistoryofNature’sTechnology，i。e。，intheformationoftheorgansofplantsandanimals，whichorgansserveasinstrumentsofproductionforsustaininglife。Doesnotthehistoryoftheproductiveorgansofman，oforgansthatarethematerialbasisofallsocialorganisation，deserveequalattention？Andwouldnotsuchahistorybeeasiertocompile，since，asVicosays，humanhistorydiffersfromnaturalhistoryinthis，thatwehavemadetheformer，butnotthelatter？Technologydisclosesman’smodeofdealingwithNature，theprocessofproductionbywhichhesustainshislife，andtherebyalsolaysbarethemodeofformationofhissocialrelations，andofthementalconceptionsthatflowfromthem。Everyhistoryofreligion，even，thatfailstotakeaccountofthismaterialbasis，isuncritical。Itis，inreality，mucheasiertodiscoverbyanalysistheearthlycoreofthemistycreationsofreligion，than，conversely，itis，todevelopfromtheactualrelationsoflifethecorrespondingcelestialisedformsofthoserelations。Thelattermethodistheonlymaterialistic，andthereforetheonlyscientificone。
　　Theweakpointsintheabstractmaterialismofnaturalscience，amaterialismthatexcludeshistoryanditsprocess，areatonceevidentfromtheabstractandideologicalconceptionsofitsspokesmen，whenevertheyventurebeyondtheboundsoftheirownspeciality。
　　[5]Especiallyintheoriginalformofthepower—loom，werecognise，atthefirstglance，theancientloom。Initsmodernform，thepower—loomhasundergoneessentialalterations。
　　[6]Itisonlyduringthelast15years（i。e。，sinceabout1850），thataconstantlyincreasingportionofthesemachinetoolshavebeenmadeinEnglandbymachinery，andthatnotbythesamemanufacturerswhomakethemachines。
　　Instancesofmachinesforthefabricationofthesemechanicaltoolsare，theautomaticbobbin—makingengine，thecardsettingengine，shuttle—makingmachines，andmachinesforforgingmuleandthrostlespindles。
　　[7]Mosessays:"Thoushaltnotmuzzletheoxthattreadsthecorn。"TheChristianphilanthropistsofGermany，onthecontrary，fastenedawoodenboardroundthenecksoftheserfs，whomtheyusedasamotivepowerforgrinding，inordertopreventthemfromputtingflourintotheirmouthswiththeirhands。
　　[8]Itwaspartlythewantofstreamswithagoodfallonthem，andpartlytheirbattleswithsuperabundanceofwaterinotherrespects，thatcompelledtheDutchtoresorttowindasamotivepower。Thewind—millitselftheygotfromGermany，whereitsinventionwastheoriginofaprettysquabblebetweenthenobles，thepriests，andtheemperor，astowhichofthosethreethewind"belonged。"Theairmakesbondage，wasthecryinGermany，atthesametimethatthewindwasmakingHollandfree。Whatitreducedtobondageinthiscase，wasnottheDutchman，butthelandfortheDutchman。
　　In1836，12，000windmillsof6，000horse—powerwerestillemployedinHolland，topreventtwo—thirdsofthelandfrombeingreconvertedintomorasses。
　　[9]Itwas，indeed，verymuchimprovedbyWatt’sfirstso—calledsingleactingengine;but，inthisform，itcontinuedtobeameremachineforraisingwater，andtheliquorfromsaltmines。
　　[10]"Theunionofallthesesimpleinstruments，setinmotionbyasinglemotor，constitutesamachine。"（Babbage，l。c。）
　　[11]InJanuary，1861，JohnC。MortonreadbeforetheSocietyofArtsapaperon"Theforcesemployedinagriculture。"Hetherestates:"Everyimprovementthatfurtherstheuniformityofthelandmakesthesteam—enginemoreandmoreapplicabletotheproductionofpuremechanicalforce……Horse—powerisrequisitewherevercrookedfencesandotherobstructionspreventuniformaction。Theseobstructionsarevanishingdaybyday。Foroperationsthatdemandmoreexerciseofwillthanactualforce，theonlypowerapplicableisthatcontrolledeveryinstantbythehumanmind—inotherwords，man—power。"
　　Mr。Mortonthenreducessteam—power，horse—power，andman—power，totheunitingeneraluseforsteam—engines，namely，theforcerequiredtoraise33，000lbs。onefootinoneminute，andreckonsthecostofonehorse—powerfromasteam—enginetobe3d。，andfromahorsetobe5—1/2d。perhour。
　　Further，ifahorsemustfullymaintainitshealth，itcanworknomorethan8hoursaday。Threeattheleastoutofeverysevenhorsesusedontillagelandduringtheyearcanbedispensedwithbyusingsteam—power，atanexpensenotgreaterthanthatwhich，thehorsesdispensedwith，wouldcostduringthe3or4monthsinwhichalonetheycanbeusedeffectively。
　　Lastly，steam—power，inthoseagriculturaloperationsinwhichitcanbeemployed，improves，incomparisonwithhorse—power，thequalityofthework。Todotheworkofasteam—enginewouldrequire66men，atatotalcostof15S。anhour，andtodotheworkofahorse，32men，atatotalcostof8s。anhour。
　　[12]Faulhaber，1625;DeCaus，1688。
　　[13]Themodernturbinefreestheindustrialexploitationofwater—powerfrommanyofitsformerfetters。
　　[14]"Intheearlydaysoftextilemanufactures，thelocalityofthefactorydependedupontheexistenceofastreamhavingasufficientfalltoturnawater—wheel;and，althoughtheestablishmentofthewater—millswasthecommencementofthebreakingupofthedomesticsystemofmanufacture，yetthemillsnecessarilysituateduponstreams，andfrequentlyatconsiderabledistancestheonefromtheother，formedpartofarural，ratherthananurbansystem;anditwasnotuntiltheintroductionofthesteam—powerasasubstituteforthestreamthatfactorieswerecongregatedintowns，andlocalitieswherethecoalandwaterrequiredfortheproductionofsteamwerefoundinsufficientquantities。Thesteam—engineistheparentofmanufacturingtowns。"（A。Redgravein"ReportsoftheInsp。ofFact。，30thApril，1860，"p。36。）
　　[15]FromthestandpointofdivisionoflabourinManufacture，weavingwasnotsimple，but，onthecontrary，complicatedmanuallabour;andconsequentlythepower—loomisamachinethatdoesverycomplicatedwork。Itisaltogethererroneoustosupposethatmodernmachineryoriginallyappropriatedthoseoperationsalone，whichdivisionoflabourhadsimplified。Spinningandweavingwere，duringthemanufacturingperiod，splitupintonewspecies，andtheimplementsweremodifiedandimproved;butthelabouritselfwasinnowaydivided，anditretaineditshandicraftcharacter。Itisnotthelabour，buttheinstrumentoflabour，thatservesasthestarting—pointofthemachine。
　　[16]BeforetheepochofMechanicalIndustry，thewoolmanufacturewasthepredominatingmanufactureinEngland。Henceitwasinthisindustrythat，inthefirsthalfofthe18thcentury，themostexperimentsweremade。Cotton，whichrequiredlesscarefulpreparationforitstreatmentbymachinery，derivedthebenefitoftheexperiencegainedonwool，justasafterwardsthemanipulationofwoolbymachinerywasdevelopedonthelinesofcotton—spinningandweavingbymachinery。Itwasonlyduringthe10yearsimmediatelypreceding1866，thatisolateddetailsofthewoolmanufacture，suchaswoolcombing，wereincorporatedinthefactorysystem。"Theapplicationofpowertotheprocessofcombingwool……extensivelyinoperationsincetheintroductionofthecombingmachine，especiallyLister’s……undoubtedlyhadtheeffectofthrowingaverylargenumberofmenoutofwork。Woolwasformerlycombedbyhand，mostfrequentlyinthecottageofthecomber。Itisnowverygenerallycombedinthefactory，andhand—labourissuperseded，exceptinsomeparticularkindsofwork，inwhichhand—combedwoolisstillpreferred。Manyofthehand—combersfoundemploymentinthefactories，buttheproduceofthehand—combersbearssosmallaproportiontothatofthemachine，thattheemploymentofaverylargenumberofcombershaspassedaway。"（"Rep。oflnsp。ofFact。for31stOct。，1856，"p。16。）
　　[17]"Theprincipleofthefactorysystem，then，istosubstitute……thepartitionofaprocessintoitsessentialconstituents，forthedivisionorgraduationoflabouramongartisans。"（AndrewUre:"ThePhilosophyofManufactures，"
　　Lond。，1835，p。20。）
　　[18]Thepower—loomwasatfirstmadechieflyofwood;initsimprovedmodernformitismadeofiron。Towhatanextenttheoldformsoftheinstrumentsofproductioninfluencedtheirnewformsatfirststarting，isshownby，amongstotherthings，themostsuperficialcomparisonofthepresentpower—loomwiththeoldone，ofthemodernblowingapparatusofablast—furnacewiththefirstinefficientmechanicalreproductionoftheordinarybellows，andperhapsmorestrikinglythaninanyotherway，bytheattemptsbeforetheinventionofthepresentlocomotive，toconstructalocomotivethatactuallyhadtwofeet，whichafterthefashionofahorse，itraisedalternatelyfromtheground。Itisonlyafterconsiderabledevelopmentofthescienceofmechanics，andaccumulatedpracticalexperience，thattheformofamachinebecomessettledentirelyinaccordancewithmechanicalprinciples，andemancipatedfromthetraditionalformofthetoolthatgaverisetoit。
　　[19]EliWhitney’scottonginhaduntilveryrecenttimesundergonelessessentialchangesthananyothermachineofthe18thcentury。Itisonlyduringthelastdecade（i。e。，since1856）thatanotherAmerican，Mr。Emery，ofAlbany，NewYork，hasrenderedWhitney’sginantiquatedbyanimprovementassimpleasitiseffective。
　　[20]"TheIndustryofNations，"Lond。，1855，PartII。，p。239。Thisworkalsoremarks:’Simpleandoutwardlyunimportantasthisappendagetolathesmayappear，itisnot，webelieve，averringtoomuchtostate，thatitsinfluenceinimprovingandextendingtheuseofmachineryhasbeenasgreatasthatproducedbyWatt’simprovementsofthesteam—engineitself。Itsintroductionwentatoncetoperfectallmachinery，tocheapenit，andtostimulateinventionandimprovement。"
　　[21]Oneofthesemachines，usedforforgingpaddle—wheelshaftsinLondon，iscalled"Thor。"Itforgesashaftof161/2tonswithasmucheaseasablacksmithforgesahorseshoe。
　　[22]Wood—workingmachinesthatarealsocapableofbeingemployedonasmallscalearemostlyAmericaninventions。
　　[23]Science，generallyspeaking，coststhecapitalistnothing，afactthatbynomeanshindershimfromexploitingit。Thescienceofothersisasmuchannexedbycapitalasthelabourofothers。Capitalisticappropriationandpersonalappropriation，whetherofscienceorofmaterialwealth，are，however，totallydifferentthings。Dr。Urehimselfdeploresthegrossignoranceofmechanicalscienceexistingamonghisdearmachinery—exploitingmanufacturers，andLiebigcanataleunfoldabouttheastoundingignoranceofchemistrydisplayedbyEnglishchemicalmanufacturers。
　　[24]Ricardolayssuchstressonthiseffectofmachinery（ofwhich，inotherconnexions，hetakesnomorenoticethanhedoesofthegeneraldistinctionbetweenthelabourprocessandtheprocessofcreatingsurplus—value），thatheoccasionallylosessightofthevaluegivenupbymachinestotheproduct，andputsmachinesonthesamefootingasnaturalforces。Tbus"AdamSmithnowhereundervaluestheserviceswhichthenaturalagentsandmachineryperformforus，butheveryjustlydistinguishesthenatureofthevaluewhichtheyaddtocommodities……astheyperformtheirworkgratuitously，theassistancewhichtheyaffordus，addsnothingtovalueinexchange。"
　　（Ric。，l。c。，pp。336，337。）ThisobservationofRicardoisofcoursecorrectinsofarasitisdirectedagainstJ。B。Say，whoimaginesthatmachinesrenderthe"service"ofcreatingvaluewhichformsapartof"profits。"
　　[25]Ahorse—powerisequaltoaforceof33，000foot—poundsperminute，i。e。，toaforcethatraises33，000poundsonefootinaminute，oronepound33，000feet。Thisisthehorsepowermeantinthetext。Inordinarylanguage，andalsohereandthereinquotationsinthiswork，adistinctionisdrawnbetweenthe"nominal"andthe"commercial"or"indicated"horse—powerofthesameengine。Theoldornominalhorse—poweriscalculatedexclusivelyfromthelengthofpiston—stroke，andthediameterofthecylinder，andleavespressureofsteamandpistonspeedoutofconsideration。Itexpressespracticallythis:Thisenginewouldbeoneof50horse—power，ifitweredrivenwiththesamelowpressureofsteam，andthesameslowpistonspeed，asinthedaysofBoultonandWatt。Butthetwolatterfactorshaveincreasedenormouslysincethosedays。Inordertomeasurethemechanicalforceexertedtodaybyanengine，anindicatorhasbeeninventedwhichshowsthepressureofthesteaminthecylinder。Thepistonspeediseasilyascertained。Thusthe"indicated"or"commercial"horse—powerofanengineisexpressedbyamathematicalformula，involvingdiameterofcylinder，lengthofstroke，pistonspeed，andsteampressure，simultaneously，andshowingwhatmultipleof33，000poundsisreallyraisedbytheengineinaminute。Hence，one"nominal"horse—powermayexertthree，four，orevenfive"indicated"or"real"horse—powers。Thisobservationismadeforthepurposeofexplainingvariouscitationsinthesubsequentpages。？F。E。
　　[26]Thereaderwhoisimbuedwithcapitalistnotionswillnaturallymissherethe"interest"thatthemachine，inproportiontoitscapitalvalue，addstotheproduct。Itis，however，easilyseenthatsinceamachinenomorecreatesnewvaluethananyotherpartofconstantcapital，itcannotaddanyvalueunderthenameof"interest。"Itisalsoevidentthathere，wherewearetreatingoftheproductionofsurplus—value，wecannotassumeaprioritheexistenceofanypartofthatvalueunderthenameofinterest。
　　Thecapitalistmodeofcalculating，whichappears，primâfacie，absurd，andrepugnanttothelawsofthecreationofvalue，willbeexplainedinthethirdbookofthiswork。
　　[27]Thisportionofvaluewhichisaddedbythemachinery，decreasesbothabsolutelyandrelatively，whenthemachinerydoesawaywithhorsesandotheranimalsthatareemployedasmeremovingforces，andnotasmachinesforchangingtheformofmatter。Itmayherebeincidentallyobserved，thatDescartes，indefininganimalsasmeremachines，。sawwitheyesofthemanufacturingperiod，whiletoeyesofthemiddleages，animalswereassistantstoman，astheywerelatertoVonHallerinhis"RestaurationderStaatswissenschaften。"
　　ThatDescartes，likeBacon，anticipatedanalterationintheformofproduction，andthepracticalsubjugationofNaturebyMan，asaresultofthealteredmethodsofthought，isplainfromhis"DiscoursdelaMéthode。"
　　Hetheresays:"Ifestpossible（bythemethodsheintroducedinphilosophy）
　　deparveniridesconnaissancesfortutilesilavie，etqu’aulieudecettephilosophicspeculativequ’onenseignedanslesécoles，onenpeuttrouverunepratique，parlaquelle，connaissantlaforceetlesactionsdufeu，del’eau，deI’air，desastres，etdetonslesautrescorpsquinousenvironment，aussidistinctementquenousconnaissonslesdiversmétiersdenosartisans，nouslespourrionsemployerenmêmefaçonàtouslesusagesauxquelsilssontpropres，etainsinousrendrecommemaîtresetpossesseursdelanature"andthus"contrubuerauperfectionnementdelaviehumaine。"IntheprefacetoSirDudleyNorth’s"DiscoursesuponTrade"（1691）itisstated，thatDescartes’methodhadbeguntofreePoliticalEconomyfromtheoldfablesandsuperstitiousnotionsofgold，trade，&c。Onthewhole，however，theearlyEnglisheconomistssidedwithBaconandHobbesastheirphilosophers;while，atalaterperiod，thephilosopher[……]ofPoliticalEconomyinEngland，France，andItaly，wasLocke。
　　[28]Accordingtotheannualreport（1863）oftheEssenchamberofcommerce，therewasproducedin1862，atthecast—steelworksofKrupp，withits161furnaces，thirty—twosteam—engines（intheyear1800thiswasaboutthenumberofallthesteam—enginesworkinginManchester），andfourteensteam—hammers（representinginall1，236horse—power）forty—nineforges，203tool—machines，andabout2，400workmen—thirteenmillionpoundsofcaststeel。Heretherearenottwoworkmentoeachhorse—power。
　　[29]BabbageestimatesthatinJavathespinninglabouraloneadds117%tothevalueofthecotton。Atthesameperiod（1832）thetotalvalueaddedtothecottonbymachineryandlabourinthefine—spinningindustry，amountedtoabout33%ofthevalueofthecotton。（"OntheEconomyofMachinery，"
　　pp。165，166。）
　　[30]Machineprintingalsoeconomisescolour。
　　[31]SeePaperreadbyDr。Watson，ReporteronProductstotheGovernmentofIndia，beforetheSocietyofArts，17thApril，1860。
　　[32]"Thesemuteagents（machines）arealwaystheproduceofmuchlesslabourthanthatwhichtheydisplace，evenwhentheyareofthesamemoney—value。"
　　（Ricardo，l。c。，p。40。）
　　[33]Henceinacommunisticsocietytherewouldbeaverydifferentscopefortheemployofmachinerythantherecanbeinabourgeoissociety。
　　[34]"Employersoflabourwouldnotunnecessarilyretaintwosetsofchildrenunderthirteen……Infactoneclassofmanufacturers，thespinnersofwoollenyam，nowrarelyemploychildrenunderthirteenyearsofage，i。e。，half—timers。Theyhaveintroducedimprovedandnewmachineryofvariouskinds，whichaltogethersupersedestheemploymentofchildren（i。e。，under13years）;f。i。，Iwillmentiononeprocessasanillustrationofthisdiminutioninthenumberofchildren，whereinbytheadditionofanapparatus，calledapiecingmachine，toexistingmachines，theworkofsixorfourhalf—timers，accordingtothepeculiarityofeachmachine，canbeperformedbyoneyoungperson（over13years）……thehalf—timesystem’stimulated’
　　theinventionofthepiecingmachine。"（ReportsofInsp。ofFact。for31stOct。，1858。）
　　[35]"Wretch"istherecognisedterminEnglishPoliticalEconomyfortheagriculturallabourer。
　　[36]"Machinery……canfrequentlynotbeemployeduntillabour（hemeanswages）
　　rises。"（Ricardo，l。c。，p。479。）
　　[37]See"ReportoftheSocialScienceCongress，atEdinburgh。"Oct。，1863。
　　[38]Dr。EdwardSmith，duringthecottoncrisiscausedbytheAmericanCivilWar，wassentbytheEnglishGovernmenttoLancashire，Cheshire，andotherplaces，toreportonthesanitaryconditionofthecottonoperatives。Hereported，thatfromahygienicpointofview，andapartfromthebanishmentoftheoperativesfromthefactoryatmosphere，thecrisishadseveraladvantages。
　　Thewomennowhadsufficientleisuretogivetheirinfantsthebreast，insteadofpoisoningthemwith"Godfrey’scordial。"Theyhadtimetolearntocook。Unfortunatelytheacquisitionofthisartoccurredatatimewhentheyhadnothingtocook。Butfromthisweseehowcapital，forthepurposesofitsself—expansion，hasusurpedthelabournecessaryinthehomeofthefamily。Thiscrisiswasalsoutilisedtoteachsewingtothedaughtersoftheworkmeninsewingschools。AnAmericanrevolutionandauniversalcrisis，inorderthattheworkinggirls，whospinforthewholeworld，mightlearntosew！
　　[39]"Thenumericalincreaseoflabourershasbeengreat，throughthegrowingsubstitutionoffemaleformale，andaboveall，ofchildishforadultlabour。
　　Threegirlsof13，atwagesoffrom6shillingsto8shillingsaweek，havereplacedtheonemanofmatureage，ofwagesvaryingfrom18shillingsto45shillings。"（Th。deQuincey:"TheLogicofPoliticalEcon。，"London，1844。Notetop。147。）Sincecertainfamilyfunctions，suchasnursingandsucklingchildren，cannotbeentirelysuppressed，themothersconfiscatedbycapital，musttrysubstitutesofsomesort。Domesticwork，suchassewingandmending，mustbereplacedbythepurchaseofready—madearticles。Hence，thediminishedexpenditureoflabourinthehouseisaccompaniedbyanincreasedexpenditureofmoney。Thecostofkeepingthefamilyincreases，andbalancesthegreaterincome。Inadditiontothis，economyandjudgmentintheconsumptionandpreparationofthemeansofsubsistencebecomesimpossible。Abundantmaterialrelatingtothesefacts，whichareconcealedbyofficialPoliticalEconomy，istobefoundintheReportsoftheInspectorsofFactories，oftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，andmoreespeciallyintheReportsonPublicHealth。
　　[40]Instrikingcontrastwiththegreatfact，thattheshorteningofthehoursoflabourofwomenandchildreninEnglishfactorieswasexactedfromcapitalbythemaleoperatives，wefindinthelatestreportsoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommissiontraitsoftheoperativeparentsinrelationtothetrafficinchildren，thataretrulyrevoltingandthoroughlylikeslave—dealing。