o’clockatnight。Thestrawcutstheirmouths，withwhichtheyconstantlymoistenit，andtheirfingers。Dr。BallardgivesitasthegeneralopinionofthewholebodyofmedicalofficersinLondon，that300cubicfeetistheminimumspaceproperforeachpersoninabedroomorworkroom。Butinthestraw—plaitschoolsspaceismoresparinglyallottedthaninthelace—schools，"122/3，17，181/2andbelow22cubicfeetforeachperson。"
　　Thesmallerofthesenumbers，saysoneofthecommissioners，Mr。White，representslessspacethanthehalfofwhatachildwouldoccupyifpackedinaboxmeasuring3feetineachdirection。Thusdothechildrenenjoylifetilltheageof12or14。Thewretchedhalf—starvedparentsthinkofnothingbutgettingasmuchaspossibleoutoftheirchildren。
　　Thelatter，assoonastheyaregrownup，donotcareafarthing，andnaturallyso，fortheirparents，andleavethem。"Itisnowonderthatignoranceandviceaboundinapopulationsobroughtup……Theirmoralityisatthelowestebb，……agreatnumberofthewomenhaveillegitimatechildren，andthatatsuchanimmatureagethateventhosemostconversantwithcriminalstatisticsareastounded。"[184]AndthenativelandofthesemodelfamiliesisthepatternChristiancountryforEurope;sosaysatleastCountMontalembert，certainlyacompetentauthorityonChristianity！
　　Wagesintheaboveindustries，miserableastheyare（themaximumwagesofachildinthestraw—plaitschoolsrisinginrarecasesto3shillings），arereducedfarbelowtheirnominalamountbytheprevalenceofthetrucksystemeverywhere，butespeciallyinthelacedistricts。[185]
　　E。PassageofModernManufacture，anDomesticIndustryintoModernMechanicalIndustry。TheHasteningofThisRevolutionbytheApplicationoftheFactoryActstothoseIndustriesThecheapeningoflabour—power，bysheerabuseofthelabourofwomenandchildren，bysheerrobberyofeverynormalconditionrequisiteforworkingandliving，andbythesheerbrutalityofoverworkandnight—work，meetsatlastwithnaturalobstaclesthatcannotbeoverstepped。Soalso，whenbasedonthesemethods，dothecheapeningofcommoditiesandcapitalistexploitationingeneral。Sosoonasthispointisatlastreached？andittakesmanyyears？thehourhasstruckfortheintroductionofmachinery，andforthethenceforthrapidconversionofthescattereddomesticindustriesandalsoofmanufacturesintofactoryindustries。
　　Anexample，onthemostcolossalscale，ofthismovementisaffordedbytheproductionofwearingapparel。Thisindustry，accordingtotheclassificationoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，comprisesstraw—hatmakers，ladies’—hatmakers，cap—makers，tailors，millinersanddressmakers，shirt—makers，corset—makers，glove—makers，shoemakers，besidesmanyminorbranches，suchasthemakingofneck—ties，collars，&c。In1861，thenumberoffemalesemployedintheseindustries，inEnglandandWales，amountedto586，299，ofthese115，242attheleastwereunder20，and16，650。under15yearsofage。
　　ThenumberoftheseworkwomenintheUnitedKingdomin1861，was750，334。
　　ThenumberofmalesemployedinEnglandandWales，inhat—making，shoemaking，glove—makingandtailoringwas437，969;ofthese14，964under15years，89，285between15and20，and333，117over20years。Manyofthesmallerbranchesarenotincludedinthesefigures。Buttakethefiguresastheystand;wethenhaveforEnglandandWalesalone，accordingtothecensusof1861，atotalof1，024，277persons，aboutasmanyasareabsorbedbyagricultureandcattlebreeding。Webegintounderstandwhatbecomesoftheimmensequantitiesofgoodsconjuredupbythemagicofmachinery，andoftheenormousmassesofworkpeople，whichthatmachinerysetsfree。
　　Theproductionofwearingappareliscarriedonpartlyinmanufactoriesinwhoseworkroomsthereisbutareproductionofthatdivisionoflabour，themembradisjectaofwhichwerefoundreadytohand;partlybysmallmaster—handicraftsmen;these，however，donot，asformerly，workforindividualconsumers，butformanufactoriesandwarehouses，andtosuchanextentthatoftenwholetownsandstretchesofcountrycarryoncertainbranches，suchasshoemaking，asaspeciality;finally，onaverygreatscalebytheso—calleddomesticworkers，whoformanexternaldepartmentofthemanufactories，warehouses，andevenoftheworkshopsofthesmallermasters。[186]
　　Therawmaterial，&c。，issuppliedbymechanicalindustry，themassofcheaphumanmaterial（taillableàmercietmiséricorde）
　　iscomposedoftheindividuals"liberated"bymechanicalindustryandimprovedagriculture。Themanufacturesofthisclassowedtheiroriginchieflytothecapitalist’sneedofhavingathandanarmyreadyequippedtomeetanyincreaseofdemand。[187]Thesemanufactures，nevertheless，allowedthescatteredhandicraftsanddomesticindustriestocontinuetoexistasabroadfoundation。Thegreatproductionofsurplus—valueinthesebranchesoflabour，andtheprogressivecheapeningoftheirarticles，wereandarechieflyduetotheminimumwagespaid，nomorethanrequisiteforamiserablevegetation，andtotheextensionofworking—timeuptothemaximumendurablebythehumanorganism。Itwasinfactbythecheapnessofthehumansweatandthehumanblood，whichwereconvertedintocommodities，thatthemarketswereconstantlybeingextended，andcontinuedailytobeextended;moreespeciallywasthisthecasewithEngland’scolonialmarkets，where，besides，Englishtastesandhabitsprevail。Atlastthecriticalpointwasreached。Thebasisoftheoldmethod，sheerbrutalityintheexploitationoftheworkpeople，accompaniedmoreorlessbyasystematicdivisionoflabour，nolongersufficedfortheextendingmarketsandforthestillmorerapidlyextendingcompetitionofthecapitalists。Thehourstruckfortheadventofmachinery。Thedecisivelyrevolutionarymachine，themachinewhichattacksinanequaldegreethewholeofthenumberlessbranchesofthissphereofproduction，dressmaking，tailoring，shoemaking，sewing，hat—making，andmanyothers，isthesewing—machine。
　　Itsimmediateeffectontheworkpeopleislikethatofallmachinery，which，sincetheriseofmodernindustry，hasseizeduponnewbranchesoftrade。Childrenoftootenderanagearesentadrift。Thewageofthemachinehandsrisescomparedwiththatofthehouse—workers，manyofwhombelongtothepoorestofthepoor。Thatofthebettersituatedhandicraftsman，withwhomthemachinecompetes，sinks。Thenewmachinehandsareexclusivelygirlsandyoungwomen。Withthehelpofmechanicalforce，theydestroythemonopolythatmalelabourhadoftheheavierwork，andtheydriveofffromthelighterworknumbersofoldwomenandveryyoungchildren。Theoverpoweringcompetitioncrushestheweakestofthemanuallabourers。Thefearfulincreaseindeathfromstarvationduringthelast10yearsinLondonrunsparallelwiththeextensionofmachinesewing。[188]Thenewworkwomenturnthemachinesbyhandandfoot，orbyhandalone，sometimessitting，sometimesstanding，accordingtotheweight，size，andspecialmakeofthemachine，andexpendagreatdealoflabour—power。Theiroccupationisunwholesome，owingtothelonghours，althoughinmostcasestheyarenotsolongasundertheoldsystem。Whereverthesewing—machinelocatesitselfinnarrowandalreadyover—crowdedworkrooms，itaddstotheunwholesomeinfluences。"Theeffect，"saysMr。Lord，"onenteringlow—ceiledworkroomsinwhich30to40machinehandsareworkingisunbearable……Theheat，partlyduetothegasstovesusedforwarmingtheirons，ishorrible……
　　Evenwhenmoderatehoursofwork，i。e。，from8inthemorningtill6intheevening，prevailinsuchplaces，yet3or4personsfallintoaswoonregularlyeveryday。"[189]
　　Therevolutionintheindustrialmethodswhichisthenecessaryresultoftherevolutionintheinstrumentsofproduction，iseffectedbyamedleyoftransitionforms。Theseformsvaryaccordingtotheextenttowhichthesewing—machinehasbecomeprevalentinonebranch，ofindustryortheother，tothetimeduringwhichithasbeeninoperation，tothepreviousconditionoftheworkpeople，tothepreponderanceofmanufacture，ofhandicraftsorofdomesticindustry，totherentoftheworkrooms，[190]&c。Indressmaking，forinstance，wherethelabourforthemostpartwasalreadyorganised，chieflybysimpleco—operation，thesewing—machineatfirstformedmerelyanewfactorinthatmanufacturingindustry。Intailoring，shirtmaking，shoemaking，&c。，alltheformsareintermingled。
　　Herethefactorysystemproper。Theremiddlemenreceivetherawmaterialfromthecapitalistenchef，andgrouparoundtheirsewing—machines，in"chambers"and"garrets，"from10to50ormoreworkwomen。Finally，asisalwaysthecasewithmachinerywhennotorganisedintoasystem，andwhenitcanalsobeusedindwarfishproportions，handicraftsmananddomesticworkers，alongwiththeirfamilies，orwithalittleextralabourfromwithout，makeuseoftheirownsewing—machines。[191]ThesystemactuallyprevalentinEnglandis，thatthecapitalistconcentratesalargenumberofmachinesonhispremises，andthendistributestheproduceofthosemachinesforfurthermanipulationamongstthedomesticworkers。[192]Thevarietyofthetransitionforms，however，doesnotconcealthetendencytoconversionintothefactorysystemproper。Thistendencyisnurturedbytheverynatureofthesewing—machine，themanifoldusesofwhichpushontheconcentration，underoneroof，andonemanagement，ofpreviouslyseparatedbranchesofatrade。Itisalsofavouredbythecircumstancethatpreparatoryneedlework，andcertainotheroperations，aremostconvenientlydoneonthepremiseswherethemachineisatwork;aswellasbytheinevitableexpropriationofthehandsewers，andofthedomesticworkerswhoworkwiththeirownmachines。
　　Thisfatehasalreadyinpartovertakenthem。Theconstantlyincreasingamountofcapitalinvestedinsewing—machines，[193]givesthespurtotheproductionof，andglutsthemarketswith，machine—madearticles，therebygivingthesignaltothedomesticworkersforthesaleoftheirmachines。Theoverproductionofsewing—machinesthemselves，causestheirproducers，inbadwantofasale，toletthemoutforsomuchaweek，thuscrushingbytheirdeadlycompetitionthesmallownersofmachines。[194]Constantchangesintheconstructionofthemachines，andtheirever—increasingcheapness，depreciatedaybydaytheoldermakes，andallowoftheirbeingsoldingreatnumbers，atabsurdprices，tolargecapitalists，whoalonecanthusemploythemataprofit。Finally，thesubstitutionofthesteam—engineformangivesinthis，asinallsimilarrevolutions，thefinishingblow。
　　Atfirst，theuseofsteampowermeetswithmeretechnicaldifficulties，suchasunsteadinessinthemachines，difficultyincontrollingtheirspeed，rapidwearandtearofthelightermachines，&c。，allofwhicharesoonovercomebyexperience。[195]If，ontheonehand，theconcentrationofmanymachinesinlargemanufactoriesleadstotheuseofsteampower，ontheotherhand，thecompetitionofsteamwithhumanmuscleshastensontheconcentrationofworkpeopleandmachinesinlargefactories。ThusEnglandisatpresentexperiencing，notonlyinthecolossalindustryofmakingwearingapparel，butinmostoftheothertradesmentionedabove，theconversionofmanufacture，ofhandicrafts，andofdomesticworkintothefactorysystem，aftereachofthoseformsofproduction，totallychangedanddisorganised。undertheInfluenceofmodernindustry，haslongagoreproduced，andevenoverdone，allthehorrorsofthefactorysystem，withoutparticipatinginanyoftheelementsofsocialprogressitcontains。[196]
　　Thisindustrialrevolutionwhichtakesplacespontaneously，isartificiallyhelpedonbytheextensionoftheFactoryActstoallindustriesinwhichwomen，youngpersonsandchildrenareemployed。Thecompulsoryregulationoftheworking—dayasregardsitslength，pauses，beginningandend，thesystemofrelaysofchildren，theexclusionofallchildrenunderacertainage，&c。，necessitateontheonehandmoremachinery[197]andthesubstitutionofsteamasamotivepowerintheplaceofmuscles。[198]Ontheotherhand，inordertomakeupforthelossoftime，anexpansionoccursofthemeansofproductionusedincommon，ofthefurnaces，buildings，&c。，inoneword，greaterconcentrationofthemeansofproductionandacorrespondinglygreaterconcourseofworkpeople。Thechiefobjection，repeatedlyandpassionatelyurgedonbehalfofeachmanufacturethreatenedwiththeFactoryAct，isinfactthis，thatinordertocontinuethebusinessontheoldscaleagreateroutlayofcapitalwillbenecessary。Butasregardslabourintheso—calleddomesticindustriesandtheintermediateformsbetweenthemandManufacture，sosoonaslimitsareputtotheworking—dayandtotheemploymentofchildren，thoseindustriesgotothewall。Unlimitedexploitationofcheaplabour—poweristhesolefoundationoftheirpowertocompete。
　　Oneoftheessentialconditionsfortheexistenceofthefactorysystem，especiallywhenthelengthoftheworking—dayisfixed，iscertaintyintheresult，i。e。，theproductioninagiventimeofagivenquantityofcommodities，orofagivenusefuleffect。Thestatutorypausesintheworking—day，moreover，implytheassumptionthatperiodicalandsuddencessationoftheworkdoesnoharmtothearticleundergoingtheprocessofproduction。
　　Thiscertaintyintheresult，andthispossibilityofinterruptingtheworkare，ofcourse，easiertobeattainedinthepurelymechanicalindustriesthaninthoseinwhichchemicalandphysicalprocessesplayapart;as，forinstance，intheearthenwaretrade，inbleaching，dyeing，baking，andinmostofthemetalindustries。Whereverthereisaworkingdaywithoutrestrictionastolength，whereverthereisnight—workandunrestrictedwasteofhumanlife，theretheslightestobstaclepresentedbythenatureoftheworktoachangeforthebetterissoonlookeduponasaneverlastingbarriererectedbyNature。NopoisonkillsverminwithmorecertaintythantheFactoryActremovessucheverlastingbarriers。Noonemadeagreateroutcryover"impossibilities"thanourfriendstheearthenwaremanufacturers。
　　In1864，however，theywerebroughtundertheAct，andwithinsixteenmonthsevery"impossibility"hadvanished。"Theimprovedmethod，"calledforthbytheAct，"ofmakingslipbypressureinsteadofbyevaporation，thenewly—constructedstovesfordryingthewareinitsgreenstate，&c。，areeacheventsofgreatimportanceinthepotteryart，andmarkanadvancewhichtheprecedingcenturycouldnotrival……Ithasevenconsiderablyreducedthetemperatureofthestovesthemselveswithaconsiderablesavingoffuel，andwithareadiereffectontheware。"[199]Inspiteofeveryprophecy，thecost—priceofearthenwaredidnotrise，butthequantityproduceddid，andtosuchanextentthattheexportforthetwelvemonths，endingDecember，1865，exceededinvalueby£138，628
　　theaverageoftheprecedingthreeyears。Inthemanufactureofmatchesitwasthoughttobeanindispensablerequirement，thatboys，evenwhileboltingtheirdinner，shouldgoondippingthematchesinmeltedphosphorus，thepoisonousvapourfromwhichroseintotheirfaces。TheFactoryAct（1864）madethesavingoftimeanecessity，andsoforcedintoexistenceadippingmachine，thevapourfromwhichcouldnotcomeincontactwiththeworkers。[200]So，atthepresenttime，inthosebranchesofthelacemanufacturenotyetsubjecttotheFactoryAct，itismaintainedthatthemeal—timescannotberegularowingtothedifferentperiodsrequiredbythevariouskindsoflacefordrying，whichperiodsvaryfromthreeminutesuptoanhourandmore。TothistheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionersanswer:
　　"Thecircumstancesofthiscasearepreciselyanalogoustothatofthepaper—stainers，dealtwithinourfirstreport。Someoftheprincipalmanufacturersinthetradeurgedthatinconsequenceofthenatureofthematerialsused，andtheirvariousprocesses，theywouldbeunable，withoutseriousloss，tostopformeal—timesatanygivenmoment。Butitwasseenfromtheevidencethat，byduecareandpreviousarrangement，theapprehendeddifficultywouldbegotover;andaccordingly，byclause6
　　ofsection6oftheFactoryActsExtensionAct，passedduringthisSessionofParliament，anintervalofeighteenmonthsisgiventothemfromthepassingoftheActbeforetheyarerequiredtoconformtothemealhours，specifiedbytheFactoryActs。"[201]HardlyhadtheActbeenpassedwhenourfriendsthemanufacturersfoundout:"TheinconveniencesweexpectedtoarisefromtheintroductionoftheFactoryActsintoourbranchofmanufacture，Iamhappytosay，havenotarisen。Wedonotfindtheproductionatallinterferedwith;inshort，weproducemoreinthesametime。"[202]ItisevidentthattheEnglishlegislature，whichcertainlynoonewillventuretoreproachwithbeingoverdosedwithgenius，hasbeenledbyexperiencetotheconclusionthatasimplecompulsorylawissufficienttoenactawayalltheso—calledimpediments，opposedbythenatureoftheprocess，totherestrictionandregulationoftheworking—day。Hence，ontheintroductionoftheFactoryActintoagivenindustry，aperiodvaryingfromsixtoeighteenmonthsisfixedwithinwhichitisincumbentonthemanufacturerstoremovealltechnicalimpedimentstotheworkingoftheAct。Mirabeau’s"Impossible！nemeditesjamaiscebêtedemot！"isparticularlyapplicabletomoderntechnology。ButthoughtheFactoryActsthusartificiallyripenthematerialelementsnecessaryfortheconversionofthemanufacturingsystemintothefactorysystem，yetatthesametime，owingtothenecessitytheyimposeforgreateroutlayofcapital，theyhastenonthedeclineofthesmallmasters，andtheconcentrationofcapital。[203]
　　Besidesthepurelytechnicalimpedimentsthatareremovablebytechnicalmeans，theirregularhabitsoftheworkpeoplethemselvesobstructtheregulationofthehoursoflabour。Thisisespeciallythecasewherepiece—wagepredominates，andwherelossoftimeinonepartofthedayorweekcanbemadegoodbysubsequentover—time，orbynight—work，aprocesswhichbrutalisestheadultworkman，andruinshiswifeandchildren。[204]Althoughthisabsenceofregularityintheexpenditureoflabour—powerisanaturalandrudereactionagainstthetediumofmonotonousdrudgery，itoriginates，also，toamuchgreaterdegreefromanarchyinproduction，anarchythatinitsturnpre—supposesunbridledexploitationoflabour—powerbythecapitalist。Besidesthegeneralperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle，andthespecialfluctuationsinthemarketstowhicheachindustryissubject，wemayalsoreckonwhatiscalled"theseason，"dependenteitherontheperiodicityoffavourableseasonsoftheyearfornavigation;oronfashion，andthesuddenplacingoflargeordersthathavetobeexecutedintheshortestpossibletime。Thehabitofgivingsuchordersbecomesmorefrequentwiththeextensionofrailwaysandtelegraphs。"Theextensionoftherailwaysystemthroughoutthecountryhastendedverymuchtoencouragegivingshortnotice。PurchasersnowcomeupfromGlasgow，Manchester，andEdinburghonceeveryfortnightorsotothewholesalecitywarehouseswhichwesupply，andgivesmallordersrequiringimmediateexecution，insteadofbuyingfromstockastheyusedtodo。Yearsagowewerealwaysabletoworkintheslacktimes，soastomeetdemandofthenextseason，butnownoonecansaybeforehandwhatwillbethedemandthen。"[205]
　　InthosefactoriesandmanufactoriesthatarenotyetsubjecttotheFactoryActs，themostfearfulover—workprevailsperiodicallyduringwhatiscalledtheseason，inconsequenceofsuddenorders。Intheoutsidedepartmentofthefactory，ofthemanufactory，andofthewarehouse，theso—calleddomesticworkers，whoseemploymentisatthebestirregular，areentirelydependentfortheirrawmaterialandtheirordersonthecapriceofthecapitalist，who，inthisindustry，isnothamperedbyanyregardfordepreciationofhisbuildingsandmachinery，andrisksnothingbyastoppageofwork，buttheskinoftheworkerhimself。Herethenhesetshimselfsystematicallytoworktoformanindustrialreserveforcethatshallbereadyatamoment’snotice;duringonepartoftheyearhedecimatesthisforcebythemostinhumantoil，duringtheotherpart，heletsitstarveforwantofwork。"Theemployersavailthemselvesofthehabitualirregularityinthehomework，whenanyextraworkiswantedatapush，sothattheworkgoesontill11，and12p。m。or2a。m。，orastheusualphraseis，"allhours，"andthatinlocalitieswhere"thestenchisenoughtoknockyoudown，yougotothedoor，perhaps，andopenit，butshuddertogofurther。"[206]"Theyarecuriousmen，"saidoneofthewitnesses，ashoemaker，speakingofthemasters，"theythinkitdoesaboynoharmtoworktoohardforhalftheyear，ifheisnearlyidlefortheotherhalf。"[207]
　　Inthesamewayastechnicalimpediments，so，too，those"usageswhichhavegrownwiththegrowthoftrade"wereandstillareproclaimedbyinterestedcapitalistsasobstaclesduetothenatureofthework。ThiswasafavouritecryofthecottonlordsatthetimetheywerefirstthreatenedwiththeFactoryActs。Althoughtheirindustrymorethananyotherdependsonnavigation，yetexperiencehasgiventhemthelie。Sincethen，everypretendedobstructiontobusinesshasbeentreatedbytheFactoryinspectorsasameresham。[208]ThethoroughlyconscientiousinvestigationsoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommissionprovethattheeffectoftheregulationofthehoursofwork，insomeindustries，wastospreadthemassoflabourpreviouslyemployedmoreevenlyoverthewholeyear[208a]thatthisregulationwasthefirstrationalbridleonthemurderous，meaninglesscapricesoffashion，[208b]capricesthatconsortsobadlywiththesystemofmodernindustry;thatthedevelopmentofoceannavigationandofthemeansofcommunicationgenerally，hassweptawaythetechnicalbasisonwhichseason—workwasreallysupported，[209]andthatallotherso—calledunconquerabledifficultiesvanishbeforelargerbuildings，additionalmachinery，increaseinthenumberofworkpeopleemployed，[210]andthealterationscausedbyalltheseinthemodeofconductingthewholesaletrade。[211]Butforallthat，capitalneverbecomesreconciledtosuchchanges？andthisisadmittedoverandoveragainbyitsownrepresentatives？except"underthepressureofaGeneralActofParliamenp;[212]forthecompulsoryregulationofthehoursoflabour。
　　SECTION9THEFACTORYACTS。SANITARYANDEDUCATIONALCLAUSESOFTHESAME。THEIRGENERAL
　　EXTENSIONINENGLAND
　　Factorylegislation，thatfirstconsciousandmethodicalreactionofsocietyagainstthespontaneouslydevelopedformoftheprocessofproduction，is，aswehaveseen，justasmuchthenecessaryproductofmodernindustryascottonyam，self—actors，andtheelectrictelegraph。BeforepassingtotheconsiderationoftheextensionofthatlegislationinEngland，weshallshortlynoticecertainclausescontainedintheFactoryActs，andnotrelatingtothehoursofwork。
　　Apartfromtheirwording，whichmakesiteasyforthecapitalisttoevadethem，thesanitaryclausesareextremelymeagre，and，infact，limitedtoprovisionsforwhitewashingthewalls，forinsuringcleanlinessinsomeothermatters，forventilation，andforprotectionagainstdangerousmachinery。
　　Inthethirdbookweshallreturnagaintothefanaticaloppositionofthemasterstothoseclauseswhichimposeduponthemaslightexpenditureonappliancesforprotectingthelimbsoftheirworkpeople，anoppositionthatthrowsafreshandglaringlightontheFree—tradedogma，accordingtowhich，inasocietywithconflictinginterests，eachindividualnecessarilyfurthersthecommonwealbyseekingnothingbuthisownpersonaladvantage！
　　Oneexampleisenough。Thereaderknowsthatduringthelast20years，theflaxindustryhasverymuchextended，andthat，withthatextension，thenumberofscutchingmillsinIrelandhasincreased。In1864therewereinthatcountry1，800ofthesemills。Regularlyinautumnandwinterwomenand"youngpersons，"thewives，sons，anddaughtersoftheneighbouringsmallfarmers，aclassofpeopletotallyunaccustomedtomachinery，aretakenfromfieldlabourtofeedtherollersofthescotchingmillswithflax。Theaccidents，bothasregardsnumberandkind，arewhollyunexampledinthehistoryofmachinery。Inonescotchingmill，atKildinan，nearCork，thereoccurredbetween1852and1856，sixfatalaccidentsandsixtymutilations;
　　everyoneofwhichmighthavebeenpreventedbythesimplestappliances，atthecostofafewshillings。Dr。W。White，thecertifyingsurgeonforfactoriesatDownpatrick，statesinhisofficialreport，datedthe15thDecember，1865:"Theseriousaccidentsatthescotchingmillsareofthemostfearfulnature。Inmanycasesaquarterofthebodyistomfromthetrunk，andeitherinvolvesdeath，orafutureofwretchedincapacityandsuffering。Theincreaseofmillsinthecountrywill，ofcourse，extendthesedreadfulresults，anditwillbeagreatbooniftheyarebroughtunderthelegislature。Iamconvincedthatbypropersupervisionofscutchingmillsavastsacrificeoflifeandlimbwouldbeaverted。"[213]
　　Whatcouldpossiblyshowbetterthecharacterofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，thanthenecessitythatexistsforforcinguponit，byActsofParliament，thesimplestappliancesformaintainingcleanlinessandhealth？InthepotteriestheFactoryActof1864"haswhitewashedandcleansedupwardsof200workshops，afteraperiodofabstinencefromanysuchcleaning，inmanycasesof20years，andinsome，entirely，"（thisisthe"abstinence"
　　ofthecapitalist！）"inwhichwereemployed27，800artisans，hithertobreathingthroughprotracteddaysandoftennightsoflabour，amephiticatmosphere，andwhichrenderedanotherwisecomparativelyinnocuousoccupation，pregnantwithdiseaseanddeath。TheActhasimprovedtheventilationverymuch。"[214]Atthesametime，thisportionoftheActstrikinglyshowsthatthecapitalistmodeofproduction，owingtoitsverynature，excludesallrationalimprovementbeyondacertainpoint。IthasbeenstatedoverandoveragainthattheEnglishdoctorsareunanimousindeclaringthatwheretheworkiscontinuous，500cubicfeetistheveryleastspacethatshouldbeallowedforeachperson。Now，iftheFactoryActs，owingtotheircompulsoryprovisions，indirectlyhastenontheconversionofsmallworkshopsintofactories，thusindirectlyattackingtheproprietaryrightsofthesmallercapitalists，andassuringamonopolytothegreatones，so，ifitweremadeobligatorytoprovidetheproperspaceforeachworkmanineveryworkshop，thousandsofsmallemployerswould，atonefullswoop，beexpropriateddirectly！Theveryrootofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，i。e。，theself—expansionofallcapital，largeorsmall，bymeansofthe"free"purchaseandconsumptionoflabour—power，wouldbeattacked。Factorylegislationisthereforebroughttoadeadlockbeforethese500cubicfeetofbreathingspace。Thesanitaryofficers，theindustrialinquirycommissioners，thefactoryinspectors，allharp，overandoveragain，uponthenecessityforthose500cubicfeet，andupontheimpossibilityofwringingthemoutofcapital。Theythus，infact，declarethatconsumptionandotherlungdiseasesamongtheworkpeoplearenecessaryconditionstotheexistenceofcapital。[215]
　　PaltryastheeducationclausesoftheActappearonthewhole，yettheyproclaimelementaryeducationtobeanindispensableconditiontotheemploymentofchildren。[216]Thesuccessofthoseclausesprovedforthefirsttimethepossibilityofcombiningeducationandgymnastics[217]withmanuallabour，and，consequently，ofcombiningmanuallabourwitheducationandgymnastics。Thefactoryinspectorssoonfoundoutbyquestioningtheschoolmasters，thatthefactorychildren，althoughreceivingonlyonehalftheeducationoftheregulardayscholars，yetlearntquiteasmuchandoftenmore。"Thiscanbeaccountedforbythesimplefactthat，withonlybeingatschoolforonehalfoftheday，theyarealwaysfresh，andnearlyalwaysreadyandwillingtoreceiveinstruction。Thesystemonwhichtheywork，halfmanuallabour，andhalfschool，renderseachemploymentarestandarelieftotheother;consequently，botharefarmorecongenialtothechild，thanwouldbethecasewerehekeptconstantlyatone。Itisquiteclearthataboywhohasbeenatschoolallthemorning，cannot（inhotweatherparticularly）copewithonewhocomesfreshandbrightfromhiswork。"[218]FurtherinformationonthispointwillbefoundinSenior’sspeechattheSocialScienceCongressatEdinburghin1863。Hethereshows，amongstotherthings，howthemonotonousanduselesslylongschoolhoursofthechildrenoftheupperandmiddleclasses，uselesslyaddtothelabouroftheteacher，"whilehenotonlyfruitlesslybutabsolutelyinjuriously，wastesthetime，health，andenergyofthechildren。"[219]FromtheFactorysystembudded，asRobertOwenhasshownusindetail，thegermoftheeducationofthefuture，aneducationthatwill，inthecaseofeverychildoveragivenage，combineproductivelabourwithinstructionandgymnastics，notonlyasoneofthemethodsofaddingtotheefficiencyofproduction，butastheonlymethodofproducingfullydevelopedhumanbeings。
　　ModernIndustry，aswehaveseen，sweepsawaybytechnicalmeansthemanufacturingdivisionoflabour，underwhicheachmanisboundhandandfootforlifetoasingledetail—operation。Atthesametime，thecapitalisticformofthatindustryreproducesthissamedivisionoflabourinastillmoremonstrousshape;inthefactoryproper，byconvertingtheworkmanintoalivingappendageofthemachine;andeverywhereoutsidetheFactory，partlybythesporadicuseofmachineryandmachineworkers，[220]partlybyre—establishingthedivisionoflabouronafreshbasisbythegeneralintroductionofthelabourofwomenandchildren，andofcheapunskilledlabour。
　　TheantagonismbetweenthemanufacturingdivisionoflabourandthemethodsofModernIndustrymakesitselfforciblyfelt。Itmanifestsitself，amongstotherways，inthefrightfulfactthatagreatpartofthechildrenemployedinmodernfactoriesandmanufactures，arefromtheirearliestyearsrivetedtothemostsimplemanipulations，andexploitedforyears，withoutbeingtaughtasinglesortofworkthatwouldafterwardsmakethemofuse，eveninthesamemanufactoryorfactory。IntheEnglishletter—pressprintingtrade，forexample，thereexistedformerlyasystem，correspondingtothatintheoldmanufacturesandhandicrafts，ofadvancingtheapprenticesfromeasytomoreandmoredifficultwork。Theywentthroughacourseofteachingtilltheywerefinishedprinters。Tobeabletoreadandwritewasforeveryoneofthemarequirementoftheirtrade。Allthiswaschangedbytheprintingmachine。Itemploystwosortsoflabourers，onegrownup，renters，theother，boysmostlyfrom11to17yearsofagewhosesolebusinessiseithertospreadthesheetsofpaperunderthemachine，ortotakefromittheprintedsheets。Theyperformthiswearytask，inLondonespecially，for14，15，and16hoursatastretch，duringseveraldaysintheweek，andfrequentlyfor36hours，withonly2hours’restformealsandsleep。[221]Agreatpartofthemcannotread，andtheyare，asarule，uttersavagesandveryextraordinarycreatures。"Toqualifythemfortheworkwhichtheyhavetodo，theyrequirenointellectualtraining;thereislittleroominitforskill，andlessforjudgment;theirwages，thoughratherhighforboys，donotincreaseproportionatelyastheygrowup，andthemajorityofthemcannotlookforadvancementtothebetterpaidandmoreresponsiblepostofmachineminder，becausewhileeachmachinehasbutoneminder，ithasatleasttwo，andoftenfourboysattachedtoit。"[222]Assoonastheygettoooldforsuchchild’swork，thatisabout17atthelatest，theyaredischargedfromtheprintingestablishments。Theybecomerecruitsofcrime。Severalattemptstoprocurethememploymentelsewhere，wererenderedofnoavailbytheirignoranceandbrutality，andbytheirmentalandbodilydegradation。
　　Aswiththedivisionoflabourintheinteriorofthemanufacturingworkshops，soitiswiththedivisionoflabourintheinteriorofsociety。
　　Solongashandicraftandmanufactureformthegeneralgroundworkofsocialproduction，thesubjectionoftheproducertoonebranchexclusively，thebreakingupofthemultifariousnessofhisemployment，[223]isanecessarystepinthedevelopment。Onthatgroundworkeachseparatebranchofproductionacquiresempiricallytheformthatistechnicallysuitedtoit，slowlyperfectsit，and，sosoonasagivendegreeofmaturityhasbeenreached，rapidlycrystallisesthatform。Theonlything，thathereandtherecausesachange，besidesnewrawmaterialsuppliedbycommerce，isthegradualalterationoftheinstrumentsoflabour。Buttheirform，too，oncedefinitelysettledbyexperience，petrifies，asisprovedbytheirbeinginmanycaseshandeddowninthesameformbyonegenerationtoanotherduringthousandsofyears。Acharacteristicfeatureis，that，evendownintotheeighteenthcentury，thedifferenttradeswerecalled"mysteries"（mystères）;[224]intotheirsecretsnonebutthosedulyinitiatedcouldpenetrate。ModernIndustryrenttheveilthatconcealedfrommentheirownsocialprocessofproduction，andthatturnedthevarious，spontaneouslydividedbranchesofproductionintosomanyriddles，notonlytooutsiders，buteventothe。initiated。Theprinciplewhichitpursued，ofresolvingeachprocessintoitsconstituentmovements，withoutanyregardtotheirpossibleexecutionbythehandofman，createdthenewmodernscienceoftechnology。Thevaried，apparentlyunconnected，andpetrifiedformsoftheindustrialprocessesnowresolvedthemselvesintosomanyconsciousandsystematicapplicationsofnaturalsciencetotheattainmentofgivenusefuleffects。
　　Technologyalsodiscoveredthefewmainfundamentalformsofmotion，which，despitethediversityoftheinstrumentsused，arenecessarilytakenbyeveryproductiveactionofthehumanbody;justasthescienceofmechanicsseesinthemostcomplicatedmachinerynothingbutthecontinualrepetitionofthesimplemechanicalpowers。
　　ModernIndustryneverlooksuponandtreatstheexistingformofaprocessasfinal。Thetechnicalbasisofthatindustryisthereforerevolutionary，whileallearliermodesofproductionwereessentiallyconservative。[225]Bymeansofmachinery，chemicalprocessesandothermethods，itiscontinuallycausingchangesnotonlyinthetechnicalbasisofproduction，butalsointhefunctionsofthelabourer，andinthesocialcombinationsofthelabour—process。Atthesametime，ittherebyalsorevolutionisesthedivisionoflabourwithinthesociety，andincessantlylaunchesmassesofcapitalandofworkpeoplefromonebranchofproductiontoanother。ButifModernIndustry，byitsverynature，thereforenecessitatesvariationoflabour，fluencyoffunction，universalmobilityofthelabourer，ontheotherhand，initscapitalisticform，itreproducestheolddivisionoflabourwithitsossifiedparticularisations。WehaveseenhowthisabsolutecontradictionbetweenthetechnicalnecessitiesofModernIndustry，andthesocialcharacterinherentinitscapitalisticform，dispelsallfixityandsecurityinthesituationofthelabourer;howitconstantlythreatens，bytakingawaytheinstrumentsoflabour，tosnatchfromhishandshismeansofsubsistence，[226]and，bysuppressinghisdetail—function，tomakehimsuperfluous，Wehaveseen，too，howthisantagonismventsitsrageinthecreationofthatmonstrosity，anindustrialreservearmy，keptinmiseryinordertobealwaysatthedisposalofcapital;intheincessanthumansacrificesfromamongtheworking—class，inthemostrecklesssquanderingoflabour—powerandinthedevastationcausedbyasocialanarchywhichturnseveryeconomicprogressintoasocialcalamity。Thisisthenegativeside。Butif，ontheonehand，variationofworkatpresentimposesitselfafterthemannerofanoverpoweringnaturallaw，andwiththeblindlydestructiveactionofanaturallawthatmeetswithresistance[227]atallpoints，ModernIndustry，ontheotherhand，throughitscatastrophesimposesthenecessityofrecognising，asafundamentallawofproduction，variationofwork，consequentlyfitnessofthelabourerforvariedwork，consequentlythegreatestpossibledevelopmentofhisvariedaptitudes。