Thelifeofmodernindustrybecomesaseriesofperiodsofmoderateactivity，prosperity，over—production，crisisandstagnation。Theuncertaintyandinstabilitytowhichmachinerysubjectstheemployment，andconsequentlytheconditionsofexistence，oftheoperativesbecomenormal，owingtotheseperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle。Exceptintheperiodsofprosperity，thereragesbetweenthecapitaliststhemostfuriouscombatfortheshareofeachinthemarkets。Thisshareisdirectlyproportionaltothecheapnessofthe。product。Besidestherivalrythatthisstrugglebegetsintheapplicationofimprovedmachineryforreplacinglabour—power，andofnewmethodsofproduction，therealsocomesatimeineveryindustrialcycle，whenaforciblereductionofwagesbeneaththevalueoflabour—power，isattemptedforthepurposeofcheapeningcommodities。[156]
　　Anecessarycondition，therefore，tothegrowthofthenumberoffactoryhands，isaproportionallymuchmorerapidgrowthoftheamountofcapitalinvestedinmills。Thisgrowth，however，isconditionedbytheebbandflowoftheindustrialcycle。Itis，besides，constantlyinterruptedbythetechnicalprogressthatatonetimevirtuallysuppliestheplaceofnewworkmen，atanother，actuallydisplacesoldones。Thisqualitativechangeinmechanicalindustrycontinuallydischargeshandsfromthefactory，orshutsitsdoorsagainstthefreshstreamofrecruits，whilethepurelyquantitativeextensionofthefactoriesabsorbsnotonlythementhrownoutofwork，butalsofreshcontingents。Theworkpeoplearethuscontinuallybothrepelledandattracted，hustledfrompillartopost，while，atthesametime，constantchangestakeplaceinthesex，age，andskillofthelevies。
　　ThelotofthefactoryoperativeswillbebestdepictedbytakingarapidsurveyofthecourseoftheEnglishcottonindustry。
　　From1770to1815thistradewasdepressedorstagnantfor5yearsonly。
　　Duringthisperiodof45yearstheEnglishmanufacturershadamonopolyofmachineryandofthemarketsoftheworld。From1815to1821depression;
　　1822and1823prosperity;1824abolitionofthelawsagainstTrades’Unions，greatextensionoffactorieseverywhere;1825crisis;1826greatmiseryandriotsamongthefactoryoperatives;1827slightimprovement;1828greatincreaseinpower—looms，andinexports;1829exports，especiallytoIndia，surpassallformeryears;1830gluttedmarkets，greatdistress;1831to1833continueddepression，themonopolyofthetradewithIndiaandChinawithdrawnfromthe，EastIndiaCompany;1834greatincreaseoffactoriesandmachinery，shortnessofhands。Thenewpoorlawfurthersthemigrationofagriculturallabourersintothefactorydistricts。Thecountrydistrictssweptofchildren。Whiteslavetrade;1835greatprosperity，contemporaneousstarvationofthehand—loomweavers;1836greatprosperity;1837and1838
　　depressionandcrisis;1839revival;1840greatdepression，riots，callingoutofthemilitary;1841and1842frightfulsufferingamongthefactoryoperatives;1842themanufacturerslockthehandsoutofthefactoriesinordertoenforcetherepealoftheCornLaws。TheoperativesstreaminthousandsintothetownsofLancashireandYorkshire，aredrivenbackbythemilitary，andtheirleadersbroughttotrialatLancaster;1843
　　greatmisery;1844revival;1845greatprosperity;1846continuedimprovementatfirst，thenreaction。RepealoftheCornLaws;1847crisis，generalreductionofwagesby10andmorepercent。inhonourofthe"bigloaf";
　　1848continueddepression;Manchesterundermilitary。protection;1849
　　revival;1850prosperity;1851fallingprices，lowwages，frequentstrikes;
　　1852improvementbegins，strikescontinue，themanufacturersthreatentoimportforeignhands;1853increasingexports。Strikefor8months，andgreatmiseryatPreston;1854prosperity，gluttedmarkets;1855newsoffailuresstreaminfromtheUnitedStates，Canada，andtheEasternmarkets;
　　1856greatprosperity;1857crisis;1858improvement;1859greatprosperity，increaseinfactories;1860ZenithoftheEnglishcottontrade，theIndian，Australian，andothermarketssogluttedwithgoodsthatevenin1863theyhadnotabsorbedthewholelot;theFrenchTreatyofCommerce，enormousgrowthoffactoriesandmachinery;1861prosperitycontinuesforatime，reaction，theAmericanCivilWar，cottonfamine:1862to1863completecollapse。
　　Thehistoryofthecottonfamineistoocharacteristictodispensewithdwellinguponitforamoment。Fromtheindicationsastotheconditionofthemarketsoftheworldin1860and1861，weseethatthecottonfaminecameinthenickoftimeforthemanufacturers，andwastosomeextentadvantageoustothem，afactthatwasacknowledgedinthereportsoftheManchesterChamberofCommerce，proclaimedinParliamentbyPalmerstonandDerby，andconfirmedbyevents。[157]Nodoubt，amongthe2，887cottonmillsintheUnitedKingdomin1861，thereweremanyofsmallsize。AccordingtothereportofMr。A。Redgrave，outofthe2，109millsincludedinhisdistrict，392，or19%employedlessthantenhorse—powereach;345，or16%employed10H。P。，andlessthan20H。P。;while1，372employedupwardsof20H。P。[158]Themajorityofthesmallmillswereweavingsheds，builtduringtheperiodofprosperityafter1858，forthemostpartbyspeculators，ofwhomonesuppliedtheyam，anotherthemachinery，athirdthebuildings，andwereworkedbymenwhohadbeenoverlookers，orbyotherpersonsofsmallmeans。
　　Thesesmallmanufacturersmostlywenttothewall。Thesamefatewouldhaveovertakentheminthecommercialcrisisthatwasstavedoffonlybythecottonfamine。Althoughtheyformedone—thirdofthetotalnumberofmanufacturers，yettheirmillsabsorbedamuchsmallerpartofthecapitalinvestedinthecottontrade。Astotheextentofthestoppage，itappearsfromauthenticestimates，thatinOctober1862，60。3%ofthespindles，and58%oftheloomswerestanding。Thisreferstothecottontradeasawhole，and，ofcourse，requiresconsiderablemodificationforindividualdistricts。Onlyveryfewmillsworkedfulltime（60hoursaweek），theremainderworkedatintervals。Eveninthosefewcaseswherefulltimewasworked，andatthecustomaryrateofpiece—wage，theweeklywagesoftheoperativesnecessarilyshrank，owingtogoodcottonbeingreplacedbybad，SeaIslandbyEgyptian（infinespinningmills），AmericanandEgyptianbySurat，andpurecottonbymixingsofwasteandSurat。TheshorterfibreoftheSuratcottonanditsdirtycondition，thegreaterfragilityofthethread，thesubstitutionofallsortsofheavyingredientsforflourinsizingthewarps，alltheselessenedthespeedofthemachinery，orthenumberoftheloomsthatcouldbesuperintendedbyoneweaver，increasedthelabourcausedbydefectsinthemachinery，andreducedthepiece—wagebyreducingthemassoftheproductturnedoff。WhereSuratcottonwasused，thelosstotheoperativeswhenonfulltime，amountedto20，30，andmorepercent。Butbesidesthis，themajorityofthemanufacturersreducedtherateofpiece—wageby5，71/2，and10percent。Wecanthereforeconceivethesituationofthosehandswhowereemployedforonly3，31/2or4daysaweek，orforonly6hoursaday。Evenin1863，afteracomparativeimprovementhadsetin，theweeklywagesofspinnersandofweaverswere3s。4d。，3s。10d。，4s。6d。and5s。
　　1d。[159]Eveninthismiserablestateofthings，however，theinventivespiritofthemasterneverstoodstill，butwasexercisedinmakingdeductionsfromwages。Theseweretosomeextentinflictedasapenaltyfordefectsinthefinishedarticlethatwerereallyduetohisbadcottonandtohisunsuitablemachinery。
　　Moreover，wherethemanufacturerownedthecottagesoftheworkpeople，hepaidhimselfhisrentsbydeductingtheamountfromthesemiserableWages。Mr。Redgravetellsusofself—actingminders（operativeswhomanageapairofself—actingmules）"earningattheendofafortnight’sfullwork8s。11d。，andthatfromthissumwasdeductedtherentofthehouse，themanufacturer，however，returninghalftherentasagift。Theminderstookawaythesumof6s。11d。Inmanyplacestheself—actingmindersrangedfrom5s。to9s。perweek，andtheweaversfrom2s。to6s。perweek，duringthelatterpartof1862。"[160]Evenwhenworkingshorttimetherentwasfrequentlydeductedfromthewagesoftheoperatives。[161]NowonderthatinsomepartsofLancashireakindoffaminefeverbrokeout。Butmorecharacteristicthanallthis，was，therevolutionthattookplaceintheprocessofproductionattheexpenseoftheworkpeople。Experimentaincorporevili，likethoseofanatomistsonfrogs，wereformallymade。"Although，"
　　saysMr。Redgrave，"Ihavegiventheactualearningsoftheoperativesintheseveralmills，itdoesnotfollowthattheyearnthesameamountweekbyweek。Theoperativesaresubjecttogreatfluctuationfromtheconstantexperimentalisingofthemanufacturers……theearningsoftheoperativesriseandfallwiththequalityofthecottonmixings;sometimestheyhavebeenwithin15percent。offormerearnings，andthen，inaweekortwo，theyhavefallenofffrom50to60percent。"[162]Theseexperimentswerenotmadesolelyattheexpenseoftheworkman’smeansofsubsistence。Hisfivesensesalsohadtopaythepenalty。"ThepeoplewhoareemployedinmakingupSuratcottoncomplainverymuch。Theyinformme，onopeningthebalesofcottonthereisanintolerablesmell，whichcausessickness……Inthemixing，scribblingandcardingrooms，thedustanddirtwhicharedisengaged，irritatetheairpassages，andgiverisetocoughanddifficultyofbreathing。Adiseaseoftheskin，nodoubtfromtheirritationofthedirtcontainedintheSuratcotton，alsoprevails……Thefibrebeingsoshort，agreatamountofsize，bothanimalandvegetable，isused……Bronchitisismoreprevalentowingtothedust。Inflammatorysorethroatiscommon，fromthesamecause。
　　Sicknessanddyspepsiaareproducedbythefrequentbreakingoftheweft，whentheweaversuckstheweftthroughtheeyeoftheshuttle。"Ontheotherhand，thesubstitutesforflourwereaFortunatus’pursetothemanufacturers，byincreasingtheweightoftheyarn。Theycaused"15lbs。
　　ofrawmaterialtoweigh26lbs。afteritwaswoven。"[163]IntheReportofInspectorsofFactoriesfor30thApril，1864，wereadasfollows:"Thetradeisavailingitselfofthisresourceatpresenttoanextentwhichisevendiscreditable。Ihaveheardongoodauthorityofaclothweighing8lbs。whichwasmadeof51/4lbs。cottonand23/4lbs。
　　size;andofanotherclothweighing51/4lbs。，ofwhich2lbs。wassize。
　　Thesewereordinaryexportshirtings。Inclothsofotherdescriptions，asmuchas50percent。sizeissometimesadded;sothatamanufacturermay，anddoestrulyboast，thatheisgettingrichbysellingclothforlessmoneyperpoundthanhepaidforthemereyarnofwhichtheyarecomposed。"[164]Buttheworkpeoplehadtosuffer，notonlyfromtheexperimentsofthemanufacturersinsidethemills，andofthemunicipalitiesoutside，notonlyfromreducedwagesandabsenceofwork，fromwantandfromcharity，andfromtheeulogisticspeechesoflordsandcommons。
　　"Unfortunatefemaleswho，inconsequenceofthecottonfamine，wereatitscommencementthrownoutofemployment，andhavetherebybecomeoutcastsofsociety;andnow，thoughtradehasrevived，andworkisplentiful，continuemembersofthatunfortunateclass，andarelikelytocontinueso。TherearealsointheboroughmoreyouthfulprostitutesthanIhaveknownforthelast25years。"[165]
　　Wefindthen，inthefirst45yearsoftheEnglishcottontrade，from1770to1815，only5yearsofcrisisandstagnation;butthiswastheperiodofmonopoly。Thesecondperiodfrom1815to1863counts，duringits48
　　years，only20yearsofrevivalandprosperityagainst28ofdepressionandstagnation。Between1815and1830thecompetitionwiththecontinentofEuropeandwiththeUnitedStatessetsin。After1833，theextensionoftheAsiaticmarketsisenforcedby"destructionofthehumanrace"（thewholesaleextinctionofIndianhand—loomweavers）。AftertherepealoftheCornLaws，from1846to1863，thereare8yearsofmoderateactivityandprosperityagainst9yearsofdepressionandstagnation。
　　Theconditionoftheadultmaleoperatives，evenduringtheyearsofprosperity，maybejudgedfromthenotesubjoined。[166]
　　SECTION8REVOLUTIONEFFECTEDINMANUFACTURE，HANDICRAFTS，ANDDOMESTICINDUSTRY
　　BYMODERNINDUSTRY
　　A。OverthrowofCo—operationBasedonHandicraft，andontheDivisionofLabourWehaveseenhowmachinerydoesawaywithco—operationbasedonhandicrafts，andwithmanufacturebasedonthedivisionofhandicraftlabour。Anexampleofthefirstsortisthemowing—machine;itreplacesco—operationbetweenmowers。Astrikingexampleofthesecondkind，istheneedle—makingmachine。
　　AccordingtoAdamSmith，10men，inhisday，madeinco—operation，over48，000needlesa—day。Ontheotherhand，asingleneedle—machinemakes145，000inaworking—dayof11hours。Onewomanoronegirlsuperintendsfoursuchmachines，andsoproducesnearupon600，000needlesinaday，andupwardsof3，000，000inaweek。[167]Asinglemachine，whenittakestheplaceofco—operationorofmanufacture，mayitselfserveasthebasisofanindustryofahandicraftcharacter。Still，suchareturntohandicraftsisbutatransitiontothefactorysystem，which，asarule，makesitsappearancesosoonasthehumanmusclesarereplaced，forthepurposeofdrivingthemachines，byamechanicalmotivepower，suchassteamorwater。
　　Hereandthere，butinanycaseonlyforatime，anindustrymaybecarriedon，onasmallscale，bymeansofmechanicalpower。Thisiseffectedbyhiringsteam—power，asisdoneinsomeoftheBirminghamtrades，orbytheuseofsmallcaloric—engines，asinsomebranchesofweaving。[168]IntheCoventrysilkweavingindustrytheexperimentof"cottagefactories"wastried。Inthecentreofasquaresurroundedbyrowsofcottages，anengine—housewasbuiltandtheengineconnectedbyshaftswiththeloomsinthecottages。Inallcasesthepowerwashiredatsomuchperloom。Therentwaspayableweekly，whethertheloomsworkedornot。Eachcottageheldfrom2to6looms;somebelongedtotheweaver，somewereboughtoncredit，somewerehired。Thestrugglebetweenthesecottagefactoriesandthefactoryproper，lastedover12years。Itendedwiththecompleteruinofthe300cottagefactories。[169]Whereverthenatureoftheprocessdidnotinvolveproductiononalargescale，thenewindustriesthathavesprungupinthelastfewdecades，suchasenvelopemaking，steel—penmaking，&c。，have，asageneralrule，firstpassedthroughthehandicraftstage，andthenthemanufacturingstage，asshortphasesoftransitiontothefactorystage。
　　Thetransitionisverydifficultinthosecaseswheretheproductionofthearticlebymanufactureconsists，notofaseriesofgraduatedprocesses，butofagreatnumberofdisconnectedones。Thiscircumstanceformedagreathindrancetotheestablishmentofsteel—penfactories。Nevertheless，about15yearsago，amachinewasinventedthatautomaticallyperformed6separateoperationsatonce。Thefirststeel—pensweresuppliedbythehandicraftsystem，intheyear1820，at£74s。thegross;in1830
　　they—weresuppliedbymanufactureat8s。，andtodaythefactorysystemsuppliesthemtothetradeatfrom2s。to6d。thegross。[170]
　　B。ReactionoftheFactorySystemonManufactureandDomesticIndustriesAlongwiththedevelopmentofthefactorysystemandoftherevolutioninagriculturethataccompaniesit，productioninalltheotherbranchesofindustrynotonlyextends，butaltersitscharacter。Theprinciple，carriedoutinthefactorysystem，ofanalysingtheprocessofproductionintoitsconstituentphases，andofsolvingtheproblemsthusproposedbytheapplicationofmechanics，ofchemistry，andofthewholerangeofthenaturalsciences，becomesthedeterminingprincipleeverywhere。Hence，machinerysqueezesitselfintothemanufacturingindustriesfirstforonedetailprocess，thenforanother。Thusthesolidcrystaloftheirorganisation，basedontheolddivisionoflabour，becomesdissolved，andmakeswayforconstantchanges。Independentlyofthis，aradicalchangetakesplaceinthecompositionofthecollectivelabourer，achangeofthepersonsworkingincombination。Incontrastwiththemanufacturingperiod，thedivisionoflabouristhenceforthbased，whereverpossible，ontheemploymentofwomen，ofchildrenofallages，andofunskilledlabourers，inoneword，oncheaplabour，asitischaracteristicallycalledinEngland。Thisisthecasenotonlywithallproductiononalargescale，whetheremployingmachineryornot，butalsowiththeso—calleddomesticindustry，whethercarriedoninthehousesoftheworkpeopleorinsmallworkshops。Thismodernso—calleddomesticindustryhasnothing，exceptthename，incommonwiththeold—fashioneddomesticindustry，theexistenceofwhichpre—supposesindependenturbanhandicrafts，independentpeasantfarming，andaboveall，adwelling—houseforthelabourerandhisfamily。Thatold—fashionedindustryhasnowbeenconvertedintoanoutsidedepartmentofthefactory，themanufactory，orthewarehouse。Besidesthefactoryoperatives，themanufacturingworkmenandthehandicraftsman，whomitconcentratesinlargemassesatonespot，anddirectlycommands，capitalalsosetsinmotion，bymeans，ofinvisiblethreads，anotherarmy;thatoftheworkersinthedomesticindustries，whodwellinthelargetownsand—arealsoscatteredoverthefaceofthecountry。Anexample:TheshirtfactoryofMessrs。TillieatLondonderry，whichemploys1，000operativesinthefactoryitself，and9，000peoplespreadupanddownthecountryandworkingintheirownhouses。[171]
　　Theexploitationofcheapandimmaturelabour—poweriscarriedoutinamoreshamelessmannerinmodernManufacturethaninthefactoryproper。
　　Thisisbecausethetechnicalfoundationofthefactorysystem，namely，thesubstitutionofmachinesformuscularpower，andthelightcharacterofthelabour，isalmostentirelyabsentinManufacture，andatthesametimewomenandover—youngchildrenaresubjected，inamostunconscionableway，totheinfluenceofpoisonousorinjurioussubstances。Thisexploitationismoreshamelessintheso—calleddomesticindustrythaninmanufactures，andthatbecausethepowerofresistanceinthelabourersdecreaseswiththeirdissemination;becauseawholeseriesofplunderingparasitesinsinuatethemselvesbetweentheemployerandtheworkman;becauseadomesticindustryhasalwaystocompeteeitherwiththefactorysystem，orwithmanufacturinginthesamebranchofproduction;becausepovertyrobstheworkmanoftheconditionsmostessentialtohislabour，ofspace，lightandventilation;
　　becauseemploymentbecomesmoreandmoreirregular;and，finally，becauseinthesethelastresortsofthemassesmade"redundant"byModernIndustryandAgriculture，competitionforworkattainsitsmaximum。Economyinthemeansofproduction，firstsystematicallycarriedoutinthefactorysystem，andthere，fromtheverybeginning，coincidentwiththemostrecklesssquanderingoflabour—power，androbberyoftheconditionsnormallyrequisiteforlabour？thiseconomynowshowsitsantagonisticandmurderoussidemoreandmoreinagivenbranchofindustry，thelessthesocialproductivepoweroflabourandthetechnicalbasisforacombinationofprocessesaredevelopedinthatbranch。
　　C。ModernManufactureInowproceed，byafewexamples，toillustratetheprincipleslaiddownabove。Asamatteroffact，thereaderisalreadyfamiliarwithnumerousinstancesgiveninthechapterontheworking—day。InthehardwaremanufacturesofBirminghamandtheneighbourhood，thereareemployed，mostlyinveryheavywork，30，000childrenandyoungpersons，besides10，000women。Theretheyaretobeseenintheunwholesomebrass—foundries，buttonfactories，enamelling，galvanising，andlackeringworks。[172]Owingtotheexcessivelabouroftheirworkpeople，bothadultandnon—adult，certainLondonhouseswherenewspapersandbooksareprinted，havegottheill—omenednameof"slaughterhouses。"[173]Similarexcessesarepractisedinbook—binding，wherethevictimsarechieflywomen，girls，andchildren;youngpersonshavetodoheavyworkinrope—walksandnight—workinsaltmines，candlemanufactories，andchemicalworks;
　　youngpeopleareworkedtodeathatturningtheloomsinsilkweaving，whenitisnotcarriedonbymachinery。[174]Oneofthemostshameful，themostdirty，andtheworstpaidkindsoflabour，andoneonwhichwomenandyounggirlsarebypreferenceemployed，isthesortingofrags。ItiswellknownthatGreatBritain，apartfromitsownimmensestoreofrags，istheemporiumfortheragtradeofthewholeworld。TheyflowinfromJapan，fromthemostremoteStatesofSouthAmerica，andfromtheCanaryIslands。ButthechiefsourcesoftheirsupplyareGermany，France，Russia，Italy，Egypt，Turkey，Belgium，andHolland。Theyareusedformanure，formakingbedflocks，forshoddy，andtheyserveastherawmaterialofpaper。Therag—sortersarethemediumforthespreadofsmall—poxandotherinfectiousdiseases，andtheythemselvesarethefirstvictims。[175]Aclassicalexampleofover—work，ofhardandinappropriatelabour，andofitsbrutalisingeffectsontheworkmanfromhischildhoodupwards，isaffordednotonlybycoal—miningandminersgenerally，butalsobytileandbrickmaking，inwhichindustrytherecentlyinventedmachineryis，inEngland，usedonlyhereandthere。BetweenMayandSeptembertheworklastsfrom5inthemorningtill8intheevening，andwherethedryingisdoneintheopenair，itoftenlastsfrom4inthemorningtill9intheevening。Workfrom5inthemorningtill7intheeveningisconsidered"reduced"and"moderate。"Bothboysandgirlsof6andevenof4yearsofageareemployed。Theyworkforthesamenumberofhours，oftenlonger，thantheadults。Theworkishardandthesummerheatincreasestheexhaustion。
　　Inacertaintile—fieldatMosley，e。g。，ayoungwoman，24yearsofage，wasinthehabitofmaking2，000tilesaday，withtheassistanceof2
　　littlegirls，whocarriedtheclayforher，andstackedthetiles。Thesegirlscarrieddaily10tonsuptheslipperysidesoftheclaypits，fromadepthof30feet，andthenforadistanceof210feet。"Itisimpossibleforachildtopassthroughthepurgatoryofatile—fieldwithoutgreatmoraldegradation……thelowlanguage，whichtheyareaccustomedtohearfromtheirtenderestyears，thefilthy，indecent，andshamelesshabits，amidstwhich，unknowing，andhalfwild，theygrowup，maketheminafter—lifelawless，abandoned，dissolute……Afrightfulsourceofdemoralisationisthemodeofliving。Eachmoulder，whoisalwaysaskilledlabourer，andthechiefofagroup，supplieshis7subordinateswithboardandlodginginhiscottagesWhethermembersofhisfamilyornot，themen，boys，andgirlsallsleepinthecottage，whichcontainsgenerallytwo，exceptionally3rooms，allonthegroundfloor，andbadlyventilated。Thesepeoplearesoexhaustedaftertheday’shardwork，thatneithertherulesofhealth，ofcleanliness，norofdecencyareintheleastobserved。Manyofthesecottagesaremodelsofuntidiness，dirt，anddust……Thegreatestevilofthesystemthatemploysyounggirlsonthissortofwork，consistsinthis，that，asarule，itchainsthemfastfromchildhoodforthewholeoftheirafter—lifetothemostabandonedrabble。Theybecomerough，foul—mouthedboys，beforeNaturehastaughtthemthattheyarewomen。Clothedinafewdirtyrags，thelegsnakedfarabovetheknees，hairandfacebesmearedwithdirt，theylearntotreatallfeelingsofdecencyandofshamewithcontempt。Duringmeal—timestheylieatfulllengthinthefields，orwatchtheboysbathinginaneighbouringcanal。Theirheavyday’sworkatlengthcompleted，theyputonbetterclothes，andaccompanythementothepublichouses。"Thatexcessiveinsobrietyisprevalentfromchildhoodupwardsamongthewholeofthisclass，isonlynatural。"Theworstisthatthebrickmakersdespairofthemselves。Youmightaswell，saidoneofthebetterkindtoachaplainofSouthallfield，trytoraiseandimprovethedevilasabrickie，sir！"[176]
　　Astothemanner，inwhichcapitaleffectsaneconomyintherequisitesoflabour，inmodernManufacture（inwhichIincludeallworkshopsoflargersize，exceptfactoriesproper），officialandmostamplematerialbearingonitistobefoundinthePublicHealthReportsIV。（1863）andVI。（1864）。
　　ThedescriptionoftheWorkshops，moreespeciallythoseoftheLondonprintersandtailors，surpassesthemostloathsomephantasiesofourromancewriters—
　　Theeffectonthehealthoftheworkpeopleisself—evident。Dr。Simon，thechiefmedicalofficerofthePrivyCouncilandtheofficialeditorofthe"PublicHealthReports，"says:"InmyfourthReport（1863）Ishowed，howitispracticallyimpossiblefortheworkpeopletoinsistuponthatwhichistheirfirstsanitaryright，viz。，therightthat，nomatterwhattheworkforwhichtheiremployerbringsthemtogether，thelabour，sofarasitdependsuponhim，shouldbefreedfromallavoidablyunwholesomeconditions。Ipointedout，thatwhiletheworkpeoplearepracticallyincapableofdoingthemselvesthissanitaryjustice，theyareunabletoobtainanyeffectivesupportfromthepaidadministrationsofthesanitarypolice……Thelifeofmyriadsofworkmenandworkwomenisnowuselesslytorturedandshortenedbythenever—endingphysicalsufferingthattheirmereoccupationbegets。"[177]InillustrationofthewayinwhichtheworkroomsinfluencethestateofhealthDr。Simongivesthefollowingtableofmortality。[178]
　　Numberofpersonsofallagesemployedintherespectiveindustries。Industriescomparedasregardshealth。Death—rateper100，000menintherespectiveindustriesbetweenthestatedagesAge25—35。Age35—45。Age45—55。
　　958，265AgricultureinEngland&Wales7438051，145
　　22，301men12，379womenLondontailors9581，2622，093
　　13，803Londonprinters8941，7472，367
　　D。ModernDomesticIndustryInowcometotheso—calleddomesticindustry。Inordertogetanideaofthehorrorsofthissphere，inwhichcapitalconductsitsexploitationinthebackgroundofmodernmechanicalindustry，onemustgototheapparentlyquiteidyllictradeofnail—making，[179]carriedoninafewremotevillagesofEngland。Inthisplace，however，itwillbeenoughtogiveafewexamplesfromthosebranchesofthelace—makingandstraw—plaitingindustriesthatarenotyetcarriedonbytheaidofmachinery，andthatasyetdonotcompetewithbranchescarriedoninfactoriesorinmanufactories。
　　Ofthe150，000personsemployedinEnglandintheproductionoflace，about10，000fallundertheauthorityoftheFactoryAct，1861。Almostthewholeoftheremaining140，000arewomen，youngpersons，andchildrenofbothsexes，themalesex，however，beingweaklyrepresented。Thestateofhealthofthischeapmaterialforexploitationwillbeseenfromthefollowingtable，computedbyDr。Trueman，physiciantotheNottinghamGeneralDispensary。Outof686femalepatientswhowerelace—makers，mostofthembetweentheagesof17and24，thenumberofconsumptiveoneswere:1852。？1in45;1857。？1in13。;1853。？1in28;1858。？1in15。1854。？1in17;1859。？1in9。;1855。？1in18;1860。？1in8。;1856。？1in15;1861。？1in8;[180]Thisprogressintherateofconsumptionoughttosufficeforthemostoptimistofprogressists，andforthebiggesthawkerofliesamongtheFree—tradebagmenofGermany。
　　TheFactoryActof1861regulatestheactualmakingofthelace，sofarasitisdonebymachinery，andthisistheruleinEngland。Thebranchesthatwearenowabouttoexamine，solelywithregardtothoseoftheworkpeoplewhoworkathome，andnotthosewhoworkinmanufactoriesorwarehouses，fallintotwodivisions，viz。（1），finishing;（2），mending。Theformergivesthefinishingtouchestothemachine—madelace，andincludesnumeroussub—divisions。
　　Thelacefinishingisdoneeitherinwhatarecalled"mistresses’houses，"
　　orbywomenintheirownhouses，withorwithoutthehelpoftheirchildren。
　　Thewomenwhokeepthe"mistresses’houses"arethemselvespoor。Theworkroomisinaprivatehouse。Themistressestakeordersfrommanufacturers，orfromwarehousemen，andemployasmanywomen，girls，andyoungchildrenasthesizeoftheirroomsandthefluctuatingdemandofthebusinesswillallow。Thenumberoftheworkwomenemployedintheseworkroomsvariesfrom20to40insome，andfrom10to20inothers。Theaverageageatwhichthechildrencommenceworkissixyears，butinmanycasesitisbelowfive。Theusualworking—hoursarefrom8inthemorningtilleightintheevening，with11/2hoursformeals，whicharetakenatirregularintervals，andofteninthefoulworkrooms。Whenbusinessisbrisk，thelabourfrequentlylastsfrom8oreven6o’clockinthemorningtill10，11，or12o’clockatnight。InEnglishbarrackstheregulationspaceallottedtoeachsoldieris500—600cubicfeet，andinthemilitaryhospitals1，200cubicfeet。
　　Butinthosefinishingstiestherearebut67to100cubicfeettoeachperson。Atthesametimetheoxygenoftheairisconsumedbygas—lights。
　　Inordertokeepthelaceclean，andalthoughtheflooristiledorgagged，thechildrenareoftencompelled，eveninwinter，topullofftheirshoes。
　　"ItisnotatalluncommoninNottinghamtofind14to20childrenhuddledtogetherinasmallroom，of，perhaps，notmorethan12feetsquare，andemployedfor15hoursoutofthe24，atworkthatofitselfisexhausting，fromitswearinessandmonotony，andisbesidescarriedonundereverypossibleunwholesomecondition……Eventheveryyoungestchildrenworkwithastrainedattentionandarapiditythatisastonishing，hardlyevergivingtheirfingersrestorgloweringtheirmotion。
　　Ifaquestionbeaskedthem，theyneverraisetheireyesfromtheirworkfromfearoflosingasinglemoment。"The"longstick"isusedbythemistressesasastimulantmoreandmoreastheworkinghoursareprolonged。"Thechildrengraduallytireandbecomeasrestlessasbirdstowardstheendoftheirlongdetentionatanoccupationthatismonotonous，eye—straining，andexhaustingfromtheuniformityinthepostureofthebody。Theirworkislikeslavery。"[181]Whenwomenandtheirchildrenworkathome，whichnow—a—daysmeansinahiredroom，ofteninagarret，thestateofthingsis，ifpossible，stillworse。Thissortofworkisgivenoutwithinacircleof80milesradiusfromNottingham。Onleavingthewarehousesat9or10o’clockatnight，thechildrenareoftengivenabundleoflacetotakehomewiththemandfinish。ThePhariseeofacapitalistrepresentedbyoneofhisservants，accompaniesthisaction，ofcourse，withtheunctuousphrase:"That’sformother，"yetheknowswellenoughthatthepoorchildrenmustsitupandhelp。[182]
　　Pillowlace—makingischieflycarriedoninEnglandintwoagriculturaldistricts;one，theHonitonlacedistrict，extendingfrom20to30milesalongthesouthcoastofDevonshire，andincludingafewplacesinNorthDevon;theothercomprisingagreatpartofthecountiesofBuckingham，Bedford，andNorthampton，andalsotheadjoiningportionsofOxfordshireandHuntingdonshire。Thecottagesoftheagriculturallabourersaretheplaceswheretheworkisusuallycarriedon。Manymanufacturersemployupwardsof3，000oftheselace—makers，whoarechieflychildrenandyoungpersonsofthefemalesexexclusively。Thestateofthingsdescribedasincidentaltolacefinishingishererepeated，savethatinsteadofthe"mistresses’houses，"wefindwhatarecalled"lace—schools，"keptbypoorwomenintheircottages。Fromtheirfifthyearandoftenearlier，untiltheirtwelfthorfifteenthyear，thechildrenworkintheseschools;duringthefirstyeartheveryyoungonesworkfromfourtoeighthours，andlateron，fromsixinthemorningtilleightandteno’clockatnight。"Theroomsaregenerallytheordinarylivingroomsofsmallcottages，thechimneystoppeduptokeepoutdraughts，theinmateskeptwarmbytheirownanimalheatalone，andthisfrequentlyinwinter。
　　Inothercases，theseso—calledschool—roomsarelikesmallstore—roomswithoutfire—places……Theover—crowdinginthesedensandtheconsequentvitiationoftheairareoftenextreme。Addedtothisistheinjuriouseffectofdrains，privies，decomposingsubstances，andotherfilthusualinthepurlieusofthesmallercottages。"Withregardtospace:"Inonelace—school18girlsandamistress，35cubicfeettoeachperson;inanother，wherethesmellwasunbearable，18personsand241/2cubicfeetperhead。Inthisindustryaretobefoundemployedchildrenof2and21/2years。"[183]
　　Wherelace—makingendsinthecountiesofBuckinghamandBedford，straw—plaitingbegins，andextendsoveralargepartofHertfordshireandthewesterlyandnortherlypartsofEssex。In1861，therewere40，043personsemployedinstraw—plaitingandstraw—hatmaking;ofthese3，815weremalesofallages，therestfemales，ofwhom14，913，includingabout7，000children，wereunder20yearsofage。Intheplaceofthelace—schoolswefindherethe"straw—plaitschools。"Thechildrencommencetheirinstructioninstraw—plaitinggenerallyintheir4th，oftenbetweentheir3rdand4thyear。Education，ofcourse，theygetnone。Thechildrenthemselvescalltheelementaryschools，"naturalschools，"todistinguishthemfromtheseblood—suckinginstitutions，inwhichtheyarekeptatworksimplytogetthroughthetask，generally30yardsdaily，prescribedbytheirhalf—starvedmothers。Thesesamemothersoftenmakethemworkathome，afterschoolisover，till10，11，and12