Speakingofaninventionfordressingwarps:"Thenthecombinedmalcontents，whofanciedthemselvesimpregnablyentrenchedbehindtheoldlinesofdivisionoflabour，foundtheirflanksturnedandtheirdefencesrendereduselessbythenewmechanicaltactics，andwereobligedtosurrenderatdiscretion。"Withregardtotheinventionoftheself—actingmule，hesays:"Acreationdestinedtorestoreorderamongtheindustriousclasses……Thisinventionconfirmsthegreatdoctrinealreadypropounded，thatwhencapitalenlistsscienceintoherservice，therefractoryhandoflabourwillalwaysbetaughtdocility。"[130]AlthoughUre’sworkappeared30yearsago，atatimewhenthefactorysystemwascomparativelybutlittledeveloped，itstillperfectlyexpressesthespiritofthefactory，notonlybyitsundisguisedcynicism，butalsobythenalvetéwithwhichitblurtsoutthestupidcontradictionsofthecapitalistbrain。Forinstance，afterpropoundingthe"doctrine"statedabove，thatcapital，withtheaidofsciencetakenintoitspay，alwaysreducestherefractoryhandoflabourtodocility，hegrowsindignantbecause"it（physico—mechanicalscience）hasbeenaccusedoflendingitselftotherichcapitalistasaninstrumentforharassingthepoor。"Afterpreachingalongsermontoshowhowadvantageoustherapiddevelopmentofmachineryistotheworking—classes，hewarnsthem，thatbytheirobstinacyandtheirstrikestheyhastenthatdevelopment。"Violentrevulsionsofthisnature，"hesays，"displayshort—sightedmaninthecontemptiblecharacterofaself—tormentor。"Afewpagesbeforehestatesthecontrary。"Haditnotbeenfortheviolentcollisionsandinterruptionsresultingfromerroneousviewsamongthefactoryoperatives，thefactorysystemwouldhavebeendevelopedstillmorerapidlyandbeneficiallyforallconcerned。"Thenheexclaimsagain:"FortunatelyforthestateofsocietyinthecottondistrictsofGreatBritain，theimprovementsinmachineryaregradual’""It"（improvementinmachinery）"issaidtolowertherateofearningsofadultsbydisplacingaportionofthem，andthusrenderingtheirnumbersuperabundantascomparedwiththedemandfortheirlabour。
　　Itcertainlyaugmentsthedemandforthelabourofchildrenandincreasestherateoftheirwages。’Ontheotherhand，thissamedispenserofconsolationdefendsthelownessofthechildren’swagesonthegroundthatitpreventsparentsfromsendingtheirchildrenattooearlyanageintothefactory。Thewholeofhisbookisavindicationofaworking—dayofunrestrictedlength;thatParliamentshouldforbidchildrenof13yearstobeexhaustedbyworking12hoursaday，remindshisliberalsoulofthedarkestdaysofthemiddleages。ThisdoesnotpreventhimfromcallinguponthefactoryoperativestothankProvidence，whobymeansofmachineryhasgiventhemtheleisuretothinkoftheir"immortalinterests。"[131]
　　SECTION6。THETHEORYOFCOMPENSATIONASREGARDSTHEWORKPEOPLEDISPLACEDBYMACHINERY
　　JamesMill，MacCulloch，Torrens，Senior，JohnStuartMill，andawholeseriesbesides，ofbourgeoispoliticaleconomists，insistthatallmachinerythatdisplacesworkmen，simultaneouslyandnecessarilysetsfreeanamountofcapitaladequatetoemploythesameidenticalworkmen。[132]
　　Supposeacapitalisttoemploy100workmen，at£30ayeareach，inacarpetfactory。Thevariablecapitalannuallylaidoutamounts，therefore，to£3，000。Suppose，also，thathedischarges50ofhisworkmen，andemploystheremaining50withmachinerythatcostshim£1，500。Tosimplifymatters，wetakenoaccountofbuildings，coal，&c。Furthersupposethattherawmaterialannuallyconsumedcosts£3，000，bothbeforeandafterthechange。[133]Isanycapitalsetfreebythismetamorphosis？Beforethechange，thetotalsumof£6，000consistedhalfofconstant，andhalfofvariablecapital。
　　Afterthechangeitconsistsof£4，500constant（£3，000rawmaterialand£1，500machinery），and£1，500variablecapital。
　　Thevariablecapital，insteadofbeingonehalf，isonlyonequarter，ofthetotalcapital。Insteadofbeingsetfree，apartofthecapitalisherelockedupinsuchawayastoceasetobeexchangedagainstlabour—power:
　　variablehasbeenchangedintoconstantcapital。Otherthingsremainingunchanged，thecapitalof£6，000，can，infuture，employnomorethan50men。Witheachimprovementinthemachinery，itwillemployfewer。
　　Ifthenewlyintroducedmachineryhadcostlessthandidthelabour—powerandimplementsdisplacedbyit，if，forinstance，insteadofcosting£1，500，ithadcostonly£1，000，avariablecapitalof£1，000wouldhavebeenconvertedintoconstantcapital，andlockedup;andacapitalof£500wouldhavebeensetfree。Thelattersum，supposingwagesunchanged，wouldformafundsufficienttoemployabout16outofthe50
　　mendischarged;nay，lessthan16，for，inordertobeemployedascapital，apartofthis£500mustnowbecomeconstantcapital，thusleavingonlytheremaindertobelaidoutinlabour—power。
　　But，suppose，besides，thatthemakingofthenewmachineryaffordsemploymenttoagreaternumberofmechanics，canthatbecalledcompensationtothecarpet—makers，thrownonthestreets？Atthebest，itsconstructionemploysfewermenthanitsemploymentdisplaces。Thesumof£1，500
　　thatformerlyrepresentedthewagesofthedischargedcarpet—makers，nowrepresentsintheshapeofmachinery:（1）thevalueofthemeansofproductionusedintheconstructionofthatmachinery，（2）thewagesofthemechanicsemployedinitsconstruction，and（3）thesurplus—valuefailingtotheshareoftheir"master。"Further，themachineryneednotberenewedtillitiswornout。Hence，inordertokeeptheincreasednumberofmechanicsinconstantemployment，onecarpetmanufacturerafteranothermustdisplaceworkmenbymachines。
　　Asamatteroffacttheapologistsdonotmeanthissortofsettingfree。
　　Theyhaveintheirmindsthemeansofsubsistenceoftheliberatedwork—people。
　　Itcannotbedenied，intheaboveinstance，thatthemachinerynotonlyliberates50men，thusplacingthematothers’disposal，but，atthesametime，itwithdrawsfromtheirconsumption，andsetsfree，meansofsubsistencetothevalueof£1，500。Thesimplefact，bynomeansanewone，thatmachinerycutsofftheworkmenfromtheirmeansofsubsistenceis，therefore，ineconomicparlancetantamounttothis，thatmachineryliberatesmeansofsubsistencefortheworkman，orconvertsthosemeansintocapitalforhisemployment。Themodeofexpression，yousee，iseverything。
　　Nominibusmollirelicetmala。
　　Thistheoryimpliesthatthe£1，500worthofmeansofsubsistencewascapitalthatwasbeingexpandedbythelabourofthe50mendischarged。
　　That，consequently，thiscapitalfallsoutofemploymentsosoonastheycommencetheirforcedholidays，andneverreststillithasfoundafreshinvestment，whereitcanagainbeproductivelyconsumedbythesesame50
　　men。Thatsoonerorlater，therefore，thecapitalandtheworkmenmustcometogetheragain，andthat，then，thecompensationiscomplete。Thatthesufferingsoftheworkmendisplacedbymachineryarethereforeastransientasaretherichesofthisworld。
　　Inrelationtothedischargedworkmen，the£1，500worthofmeansofsubsistenceneverwascapital。Whatreallyconfrontedthemascapital，wasthesumof£1，500，afterwardslaidoutinmachinery。Onlookingcloseritwillbeseenthatthissumrepresentedpartofthecarpetsproducedinayearbythe50dischargedmen，whichparttheyreceivedaswagesfromtheiremployerinmoneyinsteadofinkind。Withthecarpetsintheformofmoney，theyboughtmeansofsubsistencetothevalueof£1，500。
　　Thesemeans，therefore，weretothem，notcapital，butcommodities，andthey，asregardsthesecommodities，werenotwage—labourers，butbuyers。
　　Thecircumstancethattheywere"freed"bythemachinery，fromthemeansofpurchase，changedthemfrombuyersintonon—buyers。Hencealesseneddemandforthosecommodities？voilàtout。Ifthisdiminutionbenotcompensatedbyanincreasefromsomeotherquarter，themarketpriceofthecommoditiesfalls。Ifthisstateofthingslastsforsometime，andextends，therefollowsadischargeofworkmenemployedintheproductionofthesecommodities。Someofthecapitalthatwaspreviouslydevotedtoproductionofnecessarymeansofsubsistence，hastobecomereproducedinanotherform。Whilepricesfall，andcapitalisbeingdisplaced，thelabourersemployedintheproductionofnecessarymeansofsubsistenceareintheirturn"freed"fromapartoftheirwages。Instead，therefore，ofprovingthat，whenmachineryfreestheworkmanfromhismeansofsubsistence，itsimultaneouslyconvertsthosemeansintocapitalforhisfurtheremployment，ourapologists，withtheircut—and—driedlawofsupplyanddemand，prove，onthecontrary，thatmachinerythrowsworkmenonthestreets;notonlyinthatbranchofproductioninwhichitisintroduced，butalsointhosebranchesinwhichitisnotintroduced。
　　Therealfacts，whicharetravestiedbytheoptimismofeconomists，areasfollows:Thelabourers，whendrivenoutoftheworkshopbythemachinery，arethrownuponthelabour—market，andthereaddtothenumberofworkmenatthedisposalofthecapitalists。InPartVII。ofthisbookitwillbeseenthatthiseffectofmachinery，which，aswehaveseen，isrepresentedtobeacompensationtotheworking—class，isonthecontraryamostfrightfulscourge。ForthepresentIwillonlysaythis:Thelabourersthatarethrownoutofworkinanybranchofindustry，cannodoubtseekforemploymentinsomeotherbranch。Iftheyfindit，andthusrenewthebondbetweenthemandthemeansofsubsistence，thistakesplaceonlybytheintermediaryofanewandadditionalcapitalthatisseekinginvestment;notatallbytheintermediaryofthecapitalthatformerlyemployedthemandwasafterwardsconvertedintomachinery。Andevenshouldtheyfindemployment，whatapoorlook—outistheirs！Crippledastheyarebydivisionoflabour，thesepoordevilsareworthsolittleoutsidetheiroldtrade，thattheycannotfindadmissionintoanyindustries，exceptafewofinferiorkind，thatareover—suppliedwithunderpaidworkmen。[134]Further，everybranchofindustryattractseachyearanewstreamofmen，whofurnishacontingentfromwhichtofillupvacancies，andtodrawasupplyforexpansion。Sosoonasmachinerysetsfreeapartoftheworkmenemployedinagivenbranchofindustry，thereservemenarealsodivertedintonewchannelsofemployment，andbecomeabsorbedinotherbranches;
　　meanwhiletheoriginalvictims，duringtheperiodoftransition，forthemostpartstarveandperish。
　　Itisanundoubtedfactthatmachinery，assuch，isnotresponsiblefor"settingfree"theworkmanfromthemeansofsubsistence。Itcheapensandincreasesproductioninthatbranchwhichitseizeson，andatfirstmakesnochangeinthemassofthemeansofsubsistenceproducedinotherbranches。Hence，afteritsintroduction，thesocietypossessesasmuch，ifnotmore，ofthenecessariesoflifethanbefore，forthelabourersthrownoutofwork;andthatquiteapartfromtheenormousshareoftheannualproducewastedbythenon—workers。Andthisisthepointreliedonbyourapologists！Thecontradictionsandantagonismsinseparablefromthecapitalistemploymentofmachinery，donotexist，theysay，sincetheydonotariseoutofmachinery，assuch，butoutofitscapitalistemployment！
　　Sincethereforemachinery，consideredalone，shortensthehoursoflabour，but，whenintheserviceofcapital，lengthensthem;sinceinitselfitlightenslabour，butwhenemployedbycapital，heightenstheintensityoflabour;sinceinitselfitisavictoryofmanovertheforcesofNature，butinthehandsofcapital，makesmantheslaveofthoseforces;sinceinitselfitincreasesthewealthoftheproducers，butinthehandsofcapital，makesthempaupers—forallthesereasonsandothersbesides，saysthebourgeoiseconomistwithoutmoreado，itisclearasnoon—daythatallthesecontradictionsareameresemblanceofthereality，andthat，asamatteroffact，theyhaveneitheranactualnoratheoreticalexistence。
　　Thushesaveshimselffromallfurtherpuzzlingofthebrain，andwhatismore，implicitlydeclareshisopponenttobestupidenoughtocontendagainst，notthecapitalisticemploymentofmachinery，butmachineryitself。
　　Nodoubtheisfarfromdenyingthattemporaryinconveniencemayresultfromthecapitalistuseofmachinery。Butwhereisthemedalwithoutitsreverse！Anyemploymentofmachinery，exceptbycapital，istohimanimpossibility。
　　Exploitationoftheworkmanbythemachineistherefore，withhim，identicalwithexploitationofthemachinebytheworkman。Whoever，therefore，exposestherealstateofthingsinthecapitalisticemploymentofmachinery，isagainstitsemploymentinanyway，andisanenemyofsocialprogress！[135]ExactlythereasoningofthecelebratedBillSykes。"Gentlemenofthejury，nodoubtthethroatofthiscommercialtravellerhasbeencut。Butthatisnotmyfault，itisthefaultoftheknife。Mustwe，forsuchatemporaryinconvenience，abolishtheuseoftheknife？Onlyconsider！wherewouldagricultureandtradebewithouttheknife？Isitnotassalutaryinsurgery，asitisknowinginanatomy？Andinadditionawillinghelpatthefestiveboard？Ifyouabolishtheknife？youhurlusbackintothedepthsofbarbarism。;[136]
　　Althoughmachinerynecessarilythrowsmenoutofworkinthoseindustriesintowhichitisintroduced，yetitmay，notwithstandingthis，bringaboutanincreaseofemploymentinotherindustries。Thiseffect，however，hasnothingincommonwiththeso—calledtheoryofcompensation。
　　Sinceeveryarticleproducedbyamachineischeaperthanasimilararticleproducedbyhand，wededucethefollowinginfalliblelaw:Ifthetotalquantityofthearticleproducedbymachinery，beequaltothetotalquantityofthearticlepreviouslyproducedbyahandicraftorbymanufacture，andnowmadebymachinery，thenthetotallabourexpendedisdiminished。Thenewlabourspentontheinstrumentsoflabour，onthemachinery，onthecoal，andsoon，mustnecessarilybelessthanthelabourdisplacedbytheuseofthemachinery;otherwisetheproductofthemachinewouldbeasdear，ordearer，thantheproductofthemanuallabour。But，asamatteroffact，thetotalquantityofthearticleproducedbymachinerywithadiminishednumberofworkmen，insteadofremainingequalto，byfarexceedsthetotalquantityofthehand—madearticlethathasbeendisplaced。Supposethat400，000yardsofclothhavebeenproducedonpower—loomsbyfewerweaversthancouldweave100，000yardsbyhand。Inthequadrupledproductthereliesfourtimesasmuchrawmaterial。Hencetheproductionofrawmaterialmustbequadrupled。Butasregardstheinstrumentsoflabour，suchasbuildings，coal，machinery，andsoon，itisdifferent;thelimituptowhichtheadditionallabourrequiredfortheirproductioncanincrease，varieswiththedifferencebetweenthequantityofthemachine—madearticle，andthequantityofthesamearticlethatthesamenumberofworkmencouldmakebyhand。
　　Hence，astheuseofmachineryextendsinagivenindustry，theimmediateeffectistoincreaseproductionintheotherindustriesthatfurnishthefirstwithmeansofproduction。Howfaremploymentistherebyfoundforanincreasednumberofmen，depends，giventhelengthoftheworking—dayandtheintensityoflabour，onthecompositionofthecapitalemployed，i。e。，ontheratioofitsconstanttoitsvariablecomponent。Thisratio，initsturn，variesconsiderablywiththeextenttowhichmachineryhasalreadyseizedon，oristhenseizingon，thosetrades。ThenumberofthemencondemnedtoworkincoalandmetalminesincreasedenormouslyowingtotheprogressoftheEnglishfactorysystem;butduringthelastfewdecadesthisincreaseofnumberhasbeenlessrapid，owingtotheuseofnewmachineryinmining。[137]Anewtypeofworkmanspringsintolifealongwiththemachine，namely，itsmaker。Wehavealreadylearntthatmachineryhaspossesseditselfeven。ofthisbranchofproductiononascalethatgrowsgreatereveryday。[138]Astorawmaterial，[139]thereisnottheleastdoubtthattherapidstridesofcottonspinning，notonlypushedonwithtropicalluxuriancethegrowthofcottonintheUnitedStates，andwithittheAfricanslavetrade，butalsomadethebreedingofslavesthechiefbusinessoftheborderslave—states。When，in1790，thefirstcensusofslaveswastakenintheUnitedStates，theirnumberwas697，000;in1861ithadnearlyreachedfourmillions。Ontheotherhand，itisnolesscertainthattheriseoftheEnglishwoollenfactories，togetherwiththegradualconversionofarablelandintosheeppasture，brought，aboutthesuperfluityofagriculturallabourersthatledtotheirbeingdriveninmassesintothetowns。Ireland，havingduringthelasttwentyyearsreduceditspopulationbynearlyonehalf，isatthismomentundergoingtheprocessofstillfurtherreducingthenumberofitsinhabitants，soasexactlytosuittherequirementsofitslandlordsandoftheEnglishwoollenmanufacturers。
　　Whenmachineryisappliedtoanyofthepreliminaryorintermediatestagesthroughwhichthesubjectoflabourhastopassonitswaytocompletion，thereisanincreasedyieldofmaterialinthosestages，andsimultaneouslyanincreaseddemandforlabourinthehandicraftsormanufacturessuppliedbytheproduceofthemachines。Spinningbymachinery，forexample，suppliedyarnsocheaplyandsoabundantlythatthehand—loomweaverswere，atfirst，abletoworkfulltimewithoutincreasedoutlay。Theirearningsaccordinglyrose。[140]Henceaflowofpeopleintothecotton—weavingtrade，tillatlengththe800，000
　　weavers，calledintoexistencebytheJenny，thethrostleandthemule，wereoverwhelmedbythepower—loom。Soalso，owingtotheabundanceofclothingmaterialsproducedbymachinery，thenumberoftailors，seamstressesandneedlewomen，wentonincreasinguntiltheappearanceofthesewing—machine。
　　Inproportionasmachinery，withtheaidofarelativelysmallnumberofworkpeople，increasesthemassofrawmaterials，intermediateproducts，instrumentsoflabour，&c。，theworking—upoftheserawmaterialsandintermediateproductsbecomessplitupintonumberlessbranches;socialproductionincreasesindiversity。Thefactorysystemcarriesthesocialdivisionoflabourimmeasurablyfurtherthandoesmanufacture，foritincreasestheproductivenessoftheindustriesitseizesupon，inafarhigherdegree。
　　Theimmediateresultofmachineryistoaugmentsurplus—valueandthemassofproductsinwhichsurplus—valueisembodied。And，asthesubstancesconsumedbythecapitalistsandtheirdependentsbecomemoreplentiful，sotoodotheseordersofsociety。Theirgrowingwealth，andtherelativelydiminishednumberofworkmenrequiredtoproducethenecessariesoflifebeget，simultaneouslywiththeriseofnewandluxuriouswants，themeansofsatisfyingthosewants。Alargerportionoftheproduceofsocietyischangedintosurplus—produce，andalargerpartofthesurplus—produceissuppliedforconsumptioninamultiplicityofrefinedshapes。Inotherwords，theproductionofluxuriesincreases。[141]Therefinedandvariedformsoftheproductsarealsoduetonewrelationswiththemarketsoftheworld，relationsthatarecreatedbyModernIndustry。
　　Notonlyaregreaterquantitiesofforeignarticlesofluxuryexchangedforhomeproducts，butagreatermassofforeignrawmaterials，ingredients，andintermediateproducts，areusedasmeansofproductioninthehomeindustries。Owingtotheserelationswiththemarketsoftheworld，thedemandforlabourincreasesinthecarryingtrades，whichsplitupintonumerousvarieties。[142]
　　Theincreaseofthemeansofproductionandsubsistence，accompaniedbyarelativediminutioninthenumberoflabourers，causesanincreaseddemandforlabourinmakingcanals，docks，tunnels，bridges，andsoon，worksthatcanonlybearfruitinthefarfuture。Entirelynewbranchesofproduction，creatingnewfieldsoflabour，arealsoformed，asthedirectresulteitherofmachineryorofthegeneralindustrialchangesbroughtaboutbyit。Buttheplaceoccupiedbythesebranchesinthegeneralproductionis，eveninthemostdevelopedcountries，farfromimportant。Thenumberoflabourersthatfindemploymentinthemisdirectlyproportionaltothedemand，createdbythoseindustries，forthecrudestformofmanuallabour。
　　Thechiefindustriesofthiskindare，atpresent，gas—works，telegraphs，photography，steamnavigation，andrailways。Accordingtothecensusof1861forEnglandandWales，wefindinthegasindustry（gas—works，productionofmechanicalapparatus，servantsof。thegascompanies，&c），15，211persons;intelegraphy，2，399;inphotography，2，366;steamnavigation，3，570;andinrailways，70，599，ofwhomtheunskilled"navvies，"
　　moreorlesspermanentlyemployed，andthewholeadministrativeandcommercialstaff，makeupabout28，000。Thetotalnumberofpersons，therefore，employedinthesefivenewindustriesamountsto94，145。
　　Lastly，theextraordinaryproductivenessofmodernindustry，accompaniedasitisbybothamoreextensiveandamoreintenseexploitationoflabour—powerinallotherspheresofproduction，allowsoftheunproductiveemploymentofalargerandlargerpartoftheworking—class，andtheconsequentreproduction，onaconstantlyextendingscale，oftheancientdomesticslavesunderthenameofaservantclass，includingmen—servants，women—servants，lackeys，&c。Accordingtothecensusof1861，thepopulationofEnglandandWaleswas20，066，244;ofthese，9，776，259males，and10，289，965females。
　　Ifwedeductfromthispopulationallwhoaretoooldortooyoungforwork，allunproductivewomen，youngpersonsandchildren，the"ideological"
　　classes，suchasgovernmentofficials，priests，lawyers，soldiers，&c。;
　　further，allwhohavenooccupationbuttoconsumethelabourofothersintheformofrent，interest，&c。;and，lastly，paupers，vagabonds，andcriminals，thereremaininroundnumberseightmillionsofthetwosexesofeveryage，includinginthatnumbereverycapitalistwhoisinanywayengagedinindustry，commerce，orfinance。Amongthese8millionsare:
　　PERSONSAgriculturallabourers（includingshepherds，farmservants，andmaidservantslivinginthehousesoffarmers）……1，098，261Allwhoareemployedincotton，woollen，worsted，flax，hemp，silk，andjutefactories，instockingmakingandlacemakingbymachinery……642，607[143]Allwhoareemployedincoalminesandmetalmines……565，835Allwhoareemployedinmetalworks（blastfurnaces，rollingmills，&c。），andmetalmanufacturesofeverykind……396，998[144]Theservantclass……1，208，648[145]Allthepersonsemployedintextilefactoriesandinmines，takentogether，number1，208，442;thoseemployedintextilefactoriesandmetalindustries，takentogether，number1，039，605;inbothcaseslessthanthenumberofmoderndomesticslaves。Whatasplendidresultofthecapitalistexploitationofmachinery！
　　SECTION7REPULSIONANDATTRACTIONOFWORKPEOPLEBYTHEFACTORYSYSTEM。CRISESIN
　　THECOTTONTRADE
　　Allpoliticaleconomistsofanystandingadmitthattheintroductionofnewmachineryhasabanefuleffectontheworkmenintheoldhandicraftsandmanufactureswithwhichthismachineryatfirstcompetes。Almostallofthembemoantheslaveryofthefactoryoperative。Andwhatisthegreattrump—cardthattheyplay？Thatmachinery，afterthehorrorsoftheperiodofintroductionanddevelopmenthavesubsided，insteadofdiminishing，inthelongrunincreasesthenumberoftheslavesoflabour！Yes，PoliticalEconomyrevelsinthehideoustheory，hideoustoevery"philanthropist"
　　whobelievesintheeternalNature—ordainednecessityforcapitalistproduction，thatafteraperiodofgrowthandtransition，evenitscrowningsuccess，thefactorysystembasedonmachinery，grindsdownmoreworkpeoplethanonitsfirstintroductionitthrowsonthestreets。[146]
　　Itistruethatinsomecases，aswesawfrominstancesofEnglishworstedandsilkfactories，anextraordinaryextensionofthefactorysystemmay，atacertainstageofitsdevelopment，beaccompaniednotonlybyarelative，butbyanabsolutedecreaseinthenumberofoperativesemployed。Intheyear1860，whenaspecialcensusofallthefactoriesintheUnitedKingdomwastakenbyorderofParliament，thefactoriesinthosepartsofLancashire，Cheshire，andYorkshire，includedinthedistrictofMr。Baker，thefactoryinspector，numbered652;570ofthesecontained85，622power—looms，6，819，146spindles（exclusiveofdoublingspindles），employed27，439horse—power（steam），and1，390（water），and94，119persons。Intheyear1865，thesamefactoriescontained，looms95，163，spindles7，025，031，hadasteam—powerof28，925
　　horses，andawater—powerof1，445horses，andemployed88，913persons。
　　Between1860and1865，therefore，theincreaseinloomswas11%，inspindles3%，andinengine—power3%，whilethenumberofpersonsemployeddecreased51/2%。[147]Between1852and1862，considerableextensionoftheEnglishwoollenmanufacturetookplace，whilethenumberofhandsemployedinitremainedalmoststationary，showinghowgreatlytheintroductionofnewmachineshadsupersededthelabourofprecedingperiods。[148]Incertaincases，theincreaseinthenumberofhandsemployedisonlyapparent;thatis，itisnotduetotheextensionofthefactoriesalreadyestablished，buttothegradualannexationofconnectedtrades;forinstance，theincreaseinpower—looms，andinthehandsemployedbythembetween1838and1856，was，inthecottontrade，simplyowingtotheextensionofthisbranchofindustry;butintheothertradestotheapplicationofsteam—powertothecarpet—loom，totheribbon—loom，andtothelinen—loom，whichpreviouslyhadbeenworkedbythepowerofmen。[149]Hencetheincreaseofthehandsintheselattertradeswasmerelyasymptomofadiminutioninthetotalnumberemployed。Finally，wehaveconsideredthisquestionentirelyapartfromthefact，thateverywhere，exceptinthemetalindustries，youngpersons（under18），andwomenandchildrenformthepreponderatingelementintheclassoffactoryhands。
　　Nevertheless，inspiteofthemassofhandsactuallydisplacedandvirtuallyreplacedbymachinery，wecanunderstandhowthefactoryoperatives，throughthebuildingofmoremillsandtheextensionofoldonesinagivenindustry，maybecomemorenumerousthanthemanufacturingworkmenandhandicraftsmanthathavebeendisplaced。Suppose，forexample，thatintheoldmodeofproduction，acapitalof£500isemployedweekly，two—fifthsbeingconstantandthree—fifthsvariablecapital，i。e。，£200beinglaidoutinmeansofproduction，and£300，say£1perman，inlabour—power。Ontheintroductionofmachinerythecompositionofthiscapitalbecomesaltered。Wewillsupposeittoconsistoffour—fifthsconstantandone—fifthvariable，whichmeansthatonly£100isnowlaidoutinlabour—power。Consequently，two—thirdsoftheworkmenaredischarged。
　　Ifnowthebusinessextends，andthetotalcapitalemployedgrowsto£1，500
　　underunchangedconditions，thenumberofoperativesemployedwillincreaseto300，justasmanyasbeforetheintroductionofthemachinery。Ifthecapitalfurthergrowsto£2，000，400menwillbeemployed，orone—thirdmorethanundertheoldsystem。Theirnumbershave，inpointoffact，increasedby100，butrelatively，i。e。，inproportiontothetotalcapitaladvanced，theyhavediminishedby800，forthe£2，000capitalwould，intheoldstateofthings，haveemployed1，200insteadof400men。Hence，arelativedecreaseinthenumberofhandsisconsistentwithanactualincrease。
　　Weassumedabovethatwhilethetotalcapitalincreases，itscompositionremainsthesame，becausetheconditionsofproductionremainconstant。
　　Butwehavealreadyseenthat，witheveryadvanceintheuseofmachinery，theconstantcomponentofcapital，thatpartwhichconsistsofmachinery，rawmaterial，&c。，increases，whilethevariablecomponent，thepartlaidoutinlabour—power，decreases。Wealsoknowthatinno，othersystemofproductionisimprovementsocontinuous，andthecompositionofthecapitalemployedsoconstantlychangingasinthefactorysystem。Thesechangesare，however，continuallyinterruptedbyperiodsofrest，duringwhichthereisamerequantitativeextensionofthefactoriesontheexistingtechnicalbasis。Duringsuchperiodstheoperativesincreaseinnumber……Thus，in1835，thetotalnumberofoperativesinthecotton，woollen，worsted，flax，andsilkfactoriesoftheUnitedKingdomwasonly354，684;whilein1861thenumberofthepower—loomweaversalone（ofbothsexesandofallages，fromeightyearsupwards），amountedto230，654。Certainly，thisgrowthappearslessimportantwhenweconsiderthatin1838thehand—loomweaverswiththeirfamiliesstillnumbered800，000，[150]nottomentionthosethrownoutofworkinAsia，andontheContinentofEurope。
　　InthefewremarksIhavestilltomakeonthispoint，Ishallrefertosomeactuallyexistingrelations，theexistenceofwhichourtheoreticalinvestigationhasnotyetdisclosed。
　　Solongas，inagivenbranchofindustry，thefactorysystemextendsitselfattheexpenseoftheoldhandicraftsorofmanufacture，theresultisassureasistheresultofanencounterbetweenanarmyfurnishedwithbreach—loaders，andonearmedwithbowsandarrows。Thisfirstperiod，duringwhichmachineryconquersitsfieldofaction，isofdecisiveimportanceowingtotheextraordinaryprofitsthatithelpstoproduce。Theseprofitsnotonlyformasourceofacceleratedaccumulation，butalsoattractintothefavouredsphereofproductionalargepartoftheadditionalsocialcapitalthatisbeingconstantlycreated，andiseveronthelook—outfornewinvestments。Thespecialadvantagesofthisfirstperiodoffastandfuriousactivityarefeltineverybranchofproductionthatmachineryinvades。Sosoon，however，asthefactorysystemhasgainedacertainbreadthoffootingandadefinitedegreeofmaturity，and，especially，sosoonasitstechnicalbasis，machinery，isitselfproducedbymachinery;sosoonascoalminingandironmining，themetalindustries，andthemeansoftransporthavebeenrevolutionised;sosoon，inshort，asthegeneralconditionsrequisiteforproductionbythemodernindustrialsystemhavebeenestablished，thismodeofproductionacquiresanelasticity，acapacityforsuddenextensionbyleapsandboundsthatfindsnohindranceexceptinthesupplyofrawmaterialandinthedisposaloftheproduce。
　　Ontheonehand，theimmediateeffectofmachineryistoincreasethesupplyofrawmaterialinthesameway，forexample，asthecottonginaugmentedtheproductionofcotton。[151]Ontheotherhand，thecheapnessofthearticlesproducedbymachinery，andtheimprovedmeansoftransportandcommunicationfurnishtheweaponsforconqueringforeignmarkets。Byruininghandicraftproductioninothercountries，machineryforciblyconvertsthemintofieldsforthesupplyofitsrawmaterial。InthiswayEastIndiawascompelledtoproducecotton，wool，hemp，jute，andindigoforGreatBritain。[152]Byconstantlymakingapartofthehands"supernumerary，"modernindustry，inallcountrieswhereithastakenroot，givesaspurtoemigrationandtothecolonisationofforeignlands，whicharetherebyconvertedintosettlementsforgrowingtherawmaterialofthemothercountry;justasAustralia，forexample，wasconvertedintoacolonyforgrowingwool。[153]Anewandinternationaldivisionoflabour，adivisionsuitedtotherequirementsofthechiefcentresofmodernindustryspringsup，andconvertsonepartoftheglobeintoachieflyagriculturalfieldofproduction，forsupplyingtheotherpartwhichremainsachieflyindustrialfield。Thisrevolutionhangstogetherwithradicalchangesinagriculturewhichweneednotherefurtherinquireinto。[154]
　　OnthemotionofMr。Gladstone，theHouseofCommonsordered，onthe17thFebruary，1867，areturnofthetotalquantitiesofgrain，corn，andflour，ofallsorts，importedinto，andexportedfrom，theUnitedKingdom，betweentheyears1831and1866。Igivebelowasummaryoftheresult。
　　Theflourisgiveninquartersofcorn。（SeetheTableonp。42。6。）
　　QUINQUENNIALPERIODSANDTHEYEAR1866
　　ANNUALAVERAGE1831—18351836—18401841—18451846—18501851—18551856—18601861—18651866
　　Import1，096，3732，389，7292，843，8658，776，5528，345，23710，913，61215，009，87116，457，340
　　Export225，263251，770139，056155，461307，491341，150302，754216，218
　　Excessofimportoverexport871，1102，137，9592，704，8098，621，0918，037，74610，572，46214，707，11716，241，122
　　POPULATION
　　Yearlyaverageineachperiod24，621，10725，929，50727，262，56927，797，59827，572，92328，391，54429，381，46029，935，404
　　Averagequantityofcornetc，。inqrs。，consumedannuallyperheadoverandabovethehomeproduceconsumed0。0360。0820。0990。3100。2910。3720。5010。543Theenormouspower，inherentinthefactorysystem，ofexpandingbyjumps，andthedependenceofthatsystemonthemarketsoftheworld，necessarilybegetfeverishproduction，followedbyover—fillingofthemarkets，whereuponcontractionofthemarketsbringsoncripplingofproduction。