Anorganisedsystemofmachines，towhichmotioniscommunicatedbythetransmittingmechanismfromacentralautomaton，isthemostdevelopedformofproductionbymachinery。Herewehave，intheplaceoftheisolatedmachine，amechanicalmonsterwhosebodyfillswholefactories，andwhosedemonpower，atfirstveiledundertheslowandmeasuredmotionsofhisgiantlimbs，atlengthbreaksoutintothefastandfuriouswhirlofhiscountlessworkingorgans。
　　Thereweremulesandsteam—enginesbeforetherewereanylabourers，whoseexclusiveoccupationitwastomakemulesandsteam—engines;justasmenworeclothesbeforethereweresuchpeopleastailors。TheinventionsofVaucanson，Arkwright，Watt，andothers，were，however，practicable，onlybecausethoseinventorsfound，readytohand，aconsiderablenumberofskilledmechanicalworkmen，placedattheirdisposalbythemanufacturingperiod。Someoftheseworkmenwereindependenthandicraftsmanofvarioustrades，othersweregroupedtogetherinmanufactures，inwhich，asbefore—mentioned，divisionoflabourwasstrictlycarriedout。Asinventionsincreasedinnumber，andthedemandforthenewlydiscoveredmachinesgrewlarger，themachine—makingindustrysplitup，moreandmore，intonumerousindependentbranches，anddivisionoflabourinthesemanufactureswasmoreandmoredeveloped。Here，then，weseeinManufacturetheimmediatetechnicalfoundationofModernIndustry。Manufactureproducedthemachinery，bymeansofwhichModernIndustryabolishedthehandicraftandmanufacturingsystemsinthosespheresofproductionthatitfirstseizedupon。Thefactorysystemwasthereforeraised，inthenaturalcourseofthings，onaninadequatefoundation。
　　Whenthesystemattainedtoacertaindegreeofdevelopment，ithadtorootupthisready—madefoundation，whichinthemeantimehadbeenelaboratedontheoldlines，andtobuildupforitselfabasisthatshouldcorrespondtoitsmethodsofproduction。Justastheindividualmachineretainsadwarfishcharacter，solongasitisworkedbythepowerofmanalone，andjustasnosystemofmachinerycouldbeproperlydevelopedbeforethesteam—enginetooktheplaceoftheearliermotivepowers，animals，wind，andevenwater;so，too，ModernIndustrywascrippledinitscompletedevelopment，solongasitscharacteristicinstrumentofproduction，themachine，oweditsexistencetopersonalstrengthandpersonalskill，anddependedonthemusculardevelopment，thekeennessofsight，andthecunningofhand，withwhichthedetailworkmeninmanufactures，aridthemanuallabourersinhandicrafts，wieldedtheirdwarfishimplements’Thus，apartfromthedearnessofthemachinesmadeinthisway，acircumstancethatiseverpresenttothemindofthecapitalist，theexpansionofindustriescarriedonbymeansofmachinery，andtheinvasionbymachineryoffreshbranchesofproduction，weredependentonthegrowthofaclassofworkmen，who，owingtothealmostartisticnatureoftheiremployment，couldincreasetheirnumbersonlygradually，andnotbyleapsandbounds。Butbesidesthis，atacertainstageofitsdevelopment，ModernIndustrybecametechnologicallyincompatiblewiththebasisfurnishedforitbyhandicraftandManufacture。Theincreasingsizeoftheprimemovers，ofthetransmittingmechanism，andofthemachinesproper，thegreatercomplication，multiformityandregularityofthedetailsofthesemachines，astheymoreandmoredepartedfromthemodelofthoseoriginallymadebymanuallabour，andacquiredaform，untrammelledexceptbytheconditionsunderwhichtheyworked，[18]theperfectingoftheautomaticsystem，andtheuse，everydaymoreunavoidable，ofamorerefractorymaterial，suchasironinsteadofwood—thesolutionofalltheseproblems，whichsprangupbytheforceofcircumstances，everywheremetwithastumbling—blockinthepersonalrestrictions，whicheventhecollectivelabourerofManufacturecouldnotbreakthrough，excepttoalimitedextent。Suchmachinesasthemodernhydraulicpress，themodernpower—loom，andthemoderncardingengine，couldneverhavebeenfurnishedbyManufacture。
　　Aradicalchangeinthemodeofproductioninonesphereofindustryinvolvesasimilarchangeinotherspheres。Thishappensatfirstinsuchbranchesofindustryasareconnectedtogetherbybeingseparatephasesofaprocess，andyetareisolatedbythesocialdivisionoflabour，insuchaway，thateachofthemproducesanindependentcommodity。Thusspinningbymachinerymadeweavingbymachineryanecessity，andbothtogethermadethemechanicalandchemicalrevolutionthattookplaceinbleaching，printing，anddyeing，imperative。Sotoo，ontheotherhand，therevolutionincotton—spinningcalledforththeinventionofthegin，forseparatingtheseedsfromthecottonfibre;itwasonlybymeansofthisinvention，thattheproductionofcottonbecamepossibleontheenormousscaleatpresentrequired。[19]Butmoreespecially，therevolutioninthemodesofproductionofindustryandagriculturemadenecessaryarevolutioninthegeneralconditionsofthesocialprocessofproduction，i。e。，inthemeansofcommunicationandoftransport。Inasocietywhosepivot，touseanexpressionofFourier，wasagricultureonasmallscale，withitssubsidiarydomesticindustries，andtheurbanhandicrafts，themeansofcommunicationandtransportweresoutterlyinadequatetotheproductiverequirementsofthemanufacturingperiod，withitsextendeddivisionofsociallabour，itsconcentrationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，andoftheworkmen，anditscolonialmarkets，thattheybecameinfactrevolutionised。InthesamewaythemeansofcommunicationandtransporthandeddownfromthemanufacturingperiodsoonbecameunbearabletrammelsonModernIndustry，withitsfeverishhasteofproduction，itsenormousextent，itsconstantflingingofcapitalandlabourfromonesphereofproductionintoanother，anditsnewly—createdconnexionswiththemarketsofthewholeworld。Hence，apartfromtheradicalchangesintroducedintheconstructionofsailingvessels，themeansofcommunicationandtransportbecamegraduallyadaptedtothemodesofproductionofmechanicalindustry，bythecreationofasystemofriversteamers，railways，oceansteamers，andtelegraphs。Butthe’。hugemassesofironthathadnowtobeforged，tobewelded，tobecut，tobebored，andtobeshaped，demanded，ontheirpart，cyclopeanmachines，fortheconstructionofwhichthemethodsofthemanufacturingperiodwereutterlyinadequate。
　　ModernIndustryhadthereforeitselftotakeinhandthemachine，itscharacteristicinstrumentofproduction，andtoconstructmachinesbymachines。
　　Itwasnottillitdidthis，thatitbuiltupforitselfafittingtechnicalfoundation，andstoodonitsownfeet。Machinery，simultaneouslywiththeincreasinguseofit，inthefirstdecadesofthiscentury，appropriated，bydegrees，thefabricationofmachinesproper。Butitwasonlyduringthedecadepreceding1866，thattheconstructionofrailwaysandoceansteamersonastupendousscalecalledintoexistencethecyclopeanmachinesnowemployedintheconstructionofprimemovers。
　　Themostessentialconditiontotheproductionofmachinesbymachineswasaprimemovercapableofexertinganyamountofforce，andyetunderperfectcontrol。Suchaconditionwasalreadysuppliedbythesteam—engine。
　　Butatthesametimeitwasnecessarytoproducethegeometricallyaccuratestraightlines，planes，circles，cylinders，cones，andspheres，requiredinthedetailpartsofthemachines。ThisproblemHenryMaudsleysolvedinthefirstdecadeofthiscenturybytheinventionofthesliderest，atoolthatwassoonmadeautomatic，andinamodifiedformwasappliedtootherconstructivemachinesbesidesthelathe，forwhichitwasoriginallyintended。Thismechanicalappliancereplaces，notsomeparticulartool，butthehanditself，whichproducesagivenformbyholdingandguidingthecuttingtoolalongtheironorothermaterialoperatedupon。Thusitbecamepossibletoproducetheformsoftheindividualpartsofmachinery"withadegreeofease，accuracy，andspeed，thatnoaccumulatedexperienceofthehandofthemostskilledworkmancouldgive。"[20]
　　Ifwenowfixourattentiononthatportionofthemachineryemployedintheconstructionofmachines，whichconstitutestheoperatingtool，wefindthemanualimplementsre—appearing，butonacyclopeanscale。Theoperatingpartoftheboringmachineisanimmensedrilldrivenbyasteam—engine;
　　withoutthismachine，ontheotherhand，thecylindersoflargesteam—enginesandofhydraulicpressescouldnotbemade。Themechanicallatheisonlyacyclopeanreproductionoftheordinaryfoot—lathe;theplaningmachine，anironcarpenter，thatworksonironwiththesametoolsthatthehumancarpenteremploysonwood;theinstrumentthat，ontheLondonwharves，cutstheveneers，isagiganticrazor;thetooloftheshearingmachine，whichshearsironaseasilyasatailor’sscissorscutcloth，isamonsterpairofscissors;andthesteam—hammerworkswithanordinaryhammerhead，butofsuchaweightthatnotThorhimselfcouldwieldit。[21]Thesesteam—hammersareaninventionofNasmyth，andthereisonethatweighsover6tonsandstrikeswithaverticalfallof7feet，onananvilweighing36tons。Itismerechild’s—playforittocrushablockofgraniteintopowder，yetitisnolesscapableofdriving，withasuccessionoflighttaps，anailintoapieceofsoftwood。[22]
　　Theimplementsoflabour，intheformofmachinery，necessitatethesubstitutionofnaturalforcesforhumanforce，andtheconsciousapplicationofscience，insteadofruleofthumb。InManufacture，theorganisationofthesociallabour—processispurelysubjective;itisacombinationofdetaillabourers;initsmachinerysystem，ModernIndustryhasaproductiveorganismthatispurelyobjective，inwhichthelabourerbecomesamereappendagetoanalreadyexistingmaterialconditionofproduction。Insimpleco—operation，andeveninthatfoundedondivisionoflabour，thesuppressionoftheisolated，bythecollective，workmanstillappearstobemoreorlessaccidental。Machinery，withafewexceptionstobementionedlater，operatesonlybymeansofassociatedlabour，orlabourincommon。Hencetheco—operativecharacterofthelabour—processis，inthelattercase，atechnicalnecessitydictatedbytheinstrumentoflabouritself。
　　SECTION2THEVALUETRANSFERREDBYMACHINERYTOTHEPRODUCT
　　Wesawthattheproductiveforcesresultingfromco—operationanddivisionoflabourcostcapitalnothing。Theyarenaturalforcesofsociallabour。
　　Soalsophysicalforces，likesteam，water，&c。，whenappropriatedtoproductiveprocesses，costnothing。Butjustasamanrequireslungstobreathewith，soherequiressomethingthatisworkofman’shand，inordertoconsumephysicalforcesproductively。Awater—wheelisnecessarytoexploittheforceofwater，andasteam—enginetoexploittheelasticityofsteam。Oncediscovered，thelawofthedeviationofthemagneticneedleinthefieldofanelectriccurrent，orthelawofthemagnetisationofiron，aroundwhichanelectriccurrentcirculates，costneverapenny。[23]Buttheexploitationoftheselawsforthepurposesmoftelegraphy，&c。，necessitatesacostlyandextensiveapparatus。Thetool，aswehaveseen，isnotexterminatedbythemachine。Frombeingadwarfimplementofthehumanorganism，itexpandsandmultipliesintotheimplementofamechanismcreatedbyman。Capitalnowsetsthelabourertowork，notwithamanualtool，butwithamachinewhichitselfhandlesthetools。Although，therefore，itisclearatthefirstglancethat，byincorporatingbothstupendousphysicalforces，andthenaturalsciences，withtheprocessofproduction，ModernIndustryraisestheproductivenessoflabourtoanextraordinarydegree，itisbynomeansequallyclear，thatthisincreasedproductiveforceisnot，ontheotherhand，purchasedbyanincreasedexpenditureoflabour。Machinery，likeeveryothercomponentofconstantcapital，createsnonewvalue，butyieldsupitsownvaluetotheproductthatitservestobeget。Insofarasthemachinehasvalue，and，inconsequence，partswithvaluetotheproduct，itformsanelementinthevalueofthatproduct。
　　Insteadofbeingcheapened，theproductismadedearerinproportiontothevalueofthemachine。Anditisclearasnoon—day，thatmachinesandsystemsofmachinery，thecharacteristicinstrumentsoflabourofModernIndustry，areincomparablymoreloadedwithvaluethantheimplementsusedinhandicraftsandmanufactures。
　　Inthefirstplace，itmustbeobservedthatthemachinery，whilealwaysenteringasawholeintothelabour—process，entersintothevalue—begettingprocessonlybybits。Itneveraddsmorevaluethanitloses，onanaverage，bywearandtear。Hencethereisagreatdifferencebetweenthevalueofamachine，andthevaluetransferredinagiventimebythatmachinetotheproduct。Thelongerthelifeofthemachineinthelabour—process，thegreateristhatdifference。Itistrue，nodoubt，aswehavealreadyseen，thateveryinstrumentoflabourentersasawholeintothelabour—process，andonlypiece—meal，proportionallytoitsaveragedailylossbywearandtear，intothevalue—begettingprocess。Butthisdifferencebetweentheinstrumentasawholeanditsdailywearandtear，ismuchgreaterinamachinethaninatool，becausethemachine，beingmadefrommoredurablematerial，hasalongerlife;becauseitsemployment，beingregulatedbystrictlyscientificlaws，allowsofgreatereconomyinthewearandtearofitsparts，andinthematerialsitconsumes;andlastly，becauseitsfieldofproductionisincomparablylargerthanthatofatool。Aftermakingallowance，bothinthecaseofthemachineandofthetool，fortheiraveragedailycost，thatisforthevaluetheytransmittotheproductbytheiraveragedailywearandtear，andfortheirconsumptionofauxiliarysubstance，suchasoil，coal，andsoon，theyeachdotheirworkgratuitously，justliketheforcesfurnishedbyNaturewithoutthehelpofman。Thegreatertheproductivepowerofthemachinerycomparedwiththatofthetool，thegreateristheextentofitsgratuitousservicecomparedwiththatofthetool。InModernIndustrymansucceededforthefirsttimeinmakingtheproductofhispastlabourworkonalargescalegratuitously，liketheforcesofNature。[24]
　　IntreatingofCo—operationandManufacture，itwasshownthatcertaingeneralfactorsofproduction，suchasbuildings，are，incomparisonwiththescatteredmeansofproductionoftheisolatedworkman，economisedbybeingconsumedincommon，andthattheythereforemaketheproductcheaper。
　　Inasystemofmachinery，notonlyistheframeworkofthemachineconsumedincommonbyitsnumerousoperatingimplements，buttheprimemover，togetherwithapartofthetransmittingmechanism，isconsumedincommonbythenumerousoperativemachines。
　　Giventhedifferencebetweenthevalueofthemachinery，andthevaluetransferredbyitinadaytotheproduct，theextenttowhichthislattervaluemakestheproductdearer，dependsinthefirstinstance，uponthesizeoftheproduct;sotosay，uponitsarea。Mr。Baynes，ofBlackburn，inalecturepublishedin1858，estimatesthat"eachrealmechanicalhorse—power[25]willdrive450self—actingmulespindles，withpreparation，or200throstlespindles，or15loomsfor40inchclothwiththeappliancesforwarping，sizing，&c。"Inthefirstcase，itistheday’sproduceof450mulespindles，inthesecond，of200throstlespindles，inthethird，of15
　　power—looms，overwhichthedailycostofonehorse—power，andthewearandtearofthemachinerysetinmotionbythatpower，arespread;sothatonlyaveryminutevalueistransferredbysuchwearandteartoapoundofyarnorayardofcloth。Thesameisthecasewiththesteam—hammermentionedabove。Sinitsdailywearandtear，itscoal—consumption，&c。，arespreadoverthestupendousmassesofironhammeredbyitinaday，onlyasmallvalueisaddedtoahundredweightofiron;butthatvaluewouldbeverygreat，ifthecyclopeaninstrumentwereemployedindrivinginnails。
　　Givenamachine’scapacityforwork，thatis，thenumberofitsoperatingtools，or，whereitisaquestionofforce，theirmass，theamountofitsproductwilldependonthevelocityofitsworkingparts，onthespeed，forinstance，ofthespindles，oronthenumberofblowsgivenbythehammerinaminute。Manyofthesecolossalhammersstrikeseventytimesinaminute，andRyder’spatentmachineforforgingspindleswithsmallhammersgivesasmanyas700strokesperminute。
　　Giventherateatwhichmachinerytransfersitsvaluetotheproduct，theamountofvaluesotransferreddependsonthetotalvalueofthemachinery。[26]Thelesslabouritcontains，thelessvalueitimpartstotheproduct。
　　Thelessvalueitgivesup，somuchthemoreproductiveitis，andsomuchthemoreitsservicesapproximatetothoseofnaturalforces。Buttheproductionofmachinerybymachinerylessensitsvaluerelativelytoitsextensionandefficacy。
　　Ananalysisandcomparisonofthepricesofcommoditiesproducedbyhandicraftsormanufactures，andofthepricesofthesamecommoditiesproducedbymachinery，showsgenerally，that，intheproductofmachinery，thevalueduetotheinstrumentsoflabourincreasesrelatively，butdecreasesabsolutely。Inotherwords，itsabsoluteamountdecreases，butitsamount，relativelytothetotalvalueoftheproduct，ofapoundofyarn，forinstance，increases。[27]
　　Itisevidentthatwheneveritcostsasmuchlabourtoproduceamachineasissavedbytheemploymentofthatmachine，thereisnothingbutatranspositionoflabour;consequentlythetotallabourrequiredtoproduceacommodityisnotlessenedortheproductivenessoflabourisnotincreased。
　　Itisclear，however，thatthedifferencebetweenthelabouramachinecosts，andthelabouritsaves，inotherwords，thatthedegreeofitsproductivenessdoesnotdependonthedifferencebetweenitsownvalueandthevalueoftheimplementitreplaces。Aslongasthelabourspentonamachine，andconsequentlytheportionofitsvalueaddedtotheproduct，remainssmallerthanthevalueaddedbytheworkmantotheproductwithhistool，thereisalwaysadifferenceoflaboursavedinfavourofthemachine。Theproductivenessofamachineisthereforemeasuredbythehumanlabour—poweritreplaces。AccordingtoMr。Baynes，2operativesarerequiredforthe450mulespindles，inclusiveofpreparationmachinery，[28]thataredrivenbyone—horsepower;eachself—actingmulespindle，workingtenhours，produces13ouncesofyarn（averagenumberofthickness）;consequently21/2operativesspinweekly3655/8lbs。ofyarn。Hence，leavingwasteononeside，366lbs。ofcottonabsorb，duringtheirconversionintoyarn，only150hours’labour，orfifteendays’labouroftenhourseach。Butwithaspinning—wheel，supposingthehand—spinnertoproducethirteenouncesofyarninsixtyhours，thesameweightofcottonwouldabsorb2，700days’
　　labouroftenhourseach，or27，000hours’labour。[29]Whereblockprinting，theoldmethodofprintingcalicobyhand，hasbeensupersededbymachineprinting，asinglemachineprints，withtheaidofonemanorboy，asmuchcalicooffourcolonesinonehour，asitformerlytook200mentodo。[30]BeforeEliWhitneyinventedthecottonginin1793，theseparationoftheseedfromapoundofcottoncostanaverageday’slabour。Bymeansofhisinventiononenegresswasenabledtoclean100lbs。daily;
　　andsincethen，theefficacyoftheginhasbeenconsiderablyincreased。
　　Apoundofcottonwool，previouslycosting50centstoproduce，includedafterthatinventionmoreunpaidlabour，andwasconsequentlysoldwithgreaterprofit，at10cents。InIndiatheyemployforseparatingthewoolfromtheseed，aninstrument，halfmachine，halftool，calledachurka;withthisonemanandawomancanclean28lbs。
　　daily。WiththechurkainventedsomeyearsagobyDr。Forbes，onemanandaboyproduce250lbs。daily。Ifoxen，steam，orwater，beusedfordrivingit，onlyafewboysandgirlsasfeedersarerequired。Sixteenofthesemachinesdrivenbyoxendoasmuchworkinadayasformerly750peopledidonanaverage。[31]
　　Asalreadystated，asteam—ploughdoesasmuchworkinonehouratacostofthree—pence，as66menatacostof15shillings。Ireturntothisexampleinordertoclearupanerroneousnotion。The15shillingsarebynomeanstheexpressioninmoneyofallthelabourexpendedinonehourbythe66men。Iftheratioofsurplus—labourtonecessarylabourwere100%，these66menwouldproduceinonehouravalueof30shillings，althoughtheirwages，15shillings，representonlytheirlabourforhalfanhour。
　　Suppose，then，amachinecostasmuchasthewagesforayearofthe150
　　menitdisplaces，say£3，000;this£3，000isbynomeanstheexpressioninmoneyofthelabouraddedtotheobjectproducedbythese150menbeforetheintroductionofthemachine，butonlyofthatportionoftheiryear’slabourwhichwasexpendedforthemselvesandrepresentedbytheirwages。Ontheotherhand，the£3，000，themoney—valueofthemachine，expressesallthelabourexpendedonitsproduction，nomatterinwhatproportionthislabourconstituteswagesfortheworkman，andsurplus—valueforthecapitalist。Therefore，thoughamachinecostasmuchasthelabour—powerdisplacedbyitcosts，yetthelabourmaterialisedinitiseventhenmuchlessthanthelivinglabouritreplaces。[32]
　　Theuseofmachineryfortheexclusivepurposeofcheapeningtheproduct，islimitedinthisway，thatlesslabourmustbeexpendedinproducingthemachinerythanisdisplacedbytheemploymentofthatmachinery，Forthecapitalist，however，thisuseisstillmorelimited。Insteadofpayingforthelabour，heonlypaysthevalueofthelabour—poweremployed;therefore，thelimittohisusingamachineisfixedbythedifferencebetweenthevalueofthemachineandthevalueofthelabour—powerreplacedbyit。
　　Sincethedivisionoftheday’sworkintonecessaryandsurplus—labourdiffersindifferentcountries，andeveninthesamecountryatdifferentperiods，orindifferentbranchesofindustry;andfurther，sincetheactualwageofthelaboureratonetimesinksbelowthevalueofhislabour—power，atanotherrisesaboveit，itispossibleforthedifferencebetweenthepriceofthemachineryandthepriceofthelabour—powerreplacedbythatmachinerytovaryverymuch，althoughthedifferencebetweenthequantityoflabourrequisitetoproducethemachineandthetotalquantityreplacedbyit，remainconstant。[33]Butitistheformerdifferencealonethatdeterminesthecost，tothecapitalist，ofproducingacommodity，and，throughthepressureofcompetition，influenceshisaction。Hencetheinventionnow—a—daysofmachinesinEnglandthatareemployedonlyinNorthAmerica;justasinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies，machineswereinventedinGermanytobeusedonlyinHolland，andjustasmanyaFrenchinventionoftheeighteenthcenturywasexploitedinEnglandalone。Intheoldercountries，machinery，whenemployedinsomebranchesofindustry，createssucharedundancyoflabourinotherbranchesthatintheselatterthefallofwagesbelowthevalueoflabour—powerimpedestheuseofmachinery，and，fromthestandpointofthecapitalist，whoseprofitcomes，notfromadiminutionofthelabouremployed，butofthelabourpaidfor，rendersthatusesuperfluousandoftenimpossible。
　　InsomebranchesofthewoollenmanufactureinEnglandtheemploymentofchildrenhasduringrecentyearsbeenconsiderablydiminished，andinsomecaseshasbeenentirelyabolished。Why？BecausetheFactoryActsmadetwosetsofchildrennecessary，oneworkingsixhours，theotherfour，oreachworkingfivehours。Buttheparentsrefusedtosellthe"half—timers"
　　cheaperthanthe"full—timers。"Hencethesubstitutionofmachineryforthe"half—timers。"[34]Beforethelabourofwomenandofchildrenunder10yearsofagewasforbiddeninmines，capitalistsconsideredtheemploymentofnakedwomenandgirls，oftenincompanywithmen，sofarsanctionedbytheirmoralcode，andespeciallybytheirledgers，thatitwasonlyafterthepassingoftheActthattheyhadrecoursetomachinery。TheYankeeshaveinventedastone—breakingmachine。
　　TheEnglishdonotmakeuseofit，becausethe"wretch"[35]whodoesthisworkgetspaidforsuchasmallportionofhislabour，thatmachinerywouldincreasethecostofproductiontothecapitalist。[36]InEnglandwomenarestilloccasionallyusedinsteadofhorsesforhaulingcanalboats，[37]becausethelabourrequiredtoproducehorsesandmachinesisanaccuratelyknownquantity，whilethatrequiredtomaintainthewomenofthesurplus—populationisbelowallcalculation。Hencenowheredowefindamoreshamefulsquanderingofhumanlabour—powerforthemostdespicablepurposesthaninEngland，thelandofmachinery。
　　SECTION3THEPROXIMATEEFFECTSOFMACHINERYONTHEWORKMAN
　　Thestarting—pointofModernIndustryis，aswehaveshown，therevolutionintheinstrumentsoflabour，andthisrevolutionattainsitsmosthighlydevelopedformintheorganisedsystemofmachineryinafactory。Beforeweinquirehowhumanmaterialisincorporatedwiththisobjectiveorganism，letusconsidersomegeneraleffectsofthisrevolutiononthelabourerhimself。
　　A。AppropriationofSupplementaryLabour—powerbyCapital。TheEmploymentofWomenandChildrenInsofarasmachinerydispenseswithmuscularpower，itbecomesameansofemployinglabourersofslightmuscularstrength，andthosewhosebodilydevelopmentisincomplete，butwhoselimbsareallthemoresupple。Thelabourofwomenandchildrenwas，therefore，thefirstthingsoughtforbycapitalistswhousedmachinery。Thatmightysubstituteforlabourandlabourerswasforthwithchangedintoameansforincreasingthenumberofwage—labourersbyenrolling，underthedirectswayofcapital，everymemberoftheworkman’sfamily，withoutdistinctionofageorsex。Compulsoryworkforthecapitalistusurpedtheplace，notonlyofthechildren’splay，butalsooffreelabourathomewithinmoderatelimitsforthesupportofthefamily。[38]
　　Thevalueoflabour—powerwasdetermined，notonlybythelabour—timenecessarytomaintaintheindividualadultlabourer，butalsobythatnecessarytomaintainhisfamily。Machinery，bythrowingeverymemberofthatfamilyontothelabour—market，spreadsthevalueoftheman’slabour—poweroverhiswholefamily。Itthusdepreciateshislabour—power。Topurchasethelabour—powerofafamilyoffourworkersmay，perhaps，costmorethanitformerlydidtopurchasethelabour—poweroftheheadofthefamily，but，inreturn，fourdays’labourtakestheplaceofone，andtheirpricefallsinproportiontotheexcessofthesurplus—labouroffouroverthesurplus—labourofone。Inorderthatthefamilymaylive，fourpeoplemustnow，notonlylabour，butexpendsurplus—labourforthecapitalist。Thuswesee，thatmachinery，whileaugmentingthehumanmaterialthatformstheprincipalobjectofcapital’sexploitingpower，[39]atthesametimeraisesthedegreeofexploitation。
　　Machineryalsorevolutionisesoutandoutthecontractbetweenthelabourerandthecapitalist，whichformallyfixestheirmutualrelations。Takingtheexchangeofcommoditiesasourbasis，ourfirstassumptionwasthatcapitalistandlabourermetasfreepersons，asindependentownersofcommodities;
　　theonepossessingmoneyandmeansofproduction，theotherlabour—power。
　　Butnowthecapitalistbuyschildrenandyoungpersonsunderage。Previously，theworkmansoldhisownlabour—power，whichhedisposedofnominallyasafreeagent。Nowhesellswifeandchild。Hehasbecomeaslave—dealer。[40]Thedemandforchildren’slabouroftenresemblesinformtheinquiriesfornegroslaves，suchaswereformerlytobereadamongtheadvertisementsinAmericanjournals。"Myattention，"
　　saysanEnglishfactoryinspector，"wasdrawntoanadvertisementinthelocalpaperofoneofthemostimportantmanufacturingtownsofmydistrict，ofwhichthefollowingisacopy:Wanted，12to20youngpersons，notyoungerthanwhatcanpassfor13years。Wages，4shillingsaweek。Apply&c。"[41]Thephrase"whatcanpassfor13years，"hasreferencetothefact，thatbytheFactoryAct，childrenunder13yearsmayworkonly6hours。Asurgeonofficiallyappointedmustcertifytheirage。Themanufacturer，therefore，asksforchildrenwholookasiftheywe’realready13yearsold。Thedecrease，oftenbyleapsandboundsinthenumberofchildrenunder13yearsemployedinfactories，adecreasethatisshowninanastonishingmannerbytheEnglishstatisticsofthelast20years，wasforthemostpart，accordingtotheevidenceofthefactoryinspectorsthemselves，theworkofthecertifyingsurgeons，whooverstatedtheageofthechildren，agreeablytothecapitalist’sgreedforexploitation，andthesordidtraffickingneedsoftheparents。
　　InthenotoriousdistrictofBethnalGreen，apublicmarketisheldeveryMondayandTuesdaymorning，wherechildrenofbothsexesfrom9yearsofageupwards，hirethemselvesouttothesilkmanufacturers。"Theusualtermsare1s。8d。aweek（thisbelongstotheparents）and’2d。formyselfandtea。’Thecontractisbindingonlyfortheweek。Thesceneandlanguagewhilethismarketisgoingonarequitedisgraceful。"[42]IthasalsooccurredinEngland，thatwomenhavetaken"childrenfromtheworkhouseandletanyonehavethemoutfor2s。6d。aweek。"[43]Inspiteoflegislation，thenumberofboyssoldinGreatBritainbytheirparentstoactaslivechimney—sweepingmachines（althoughthereexistplentyofmachinestoreplacethem）exceeds2，000。[44]Therevolutioneffectedbymachineryinthejuridicalrelationsbetweenthebuyerandtheselleroftabour—power，causingthetransactionasawholetolosetheappearanceofacontractbetweenfreepersons，affordedtheEnglishParliamentanexcuse，foundedonjuridicalprinciples，fortheinterferenceofthestatewithfactories。Wheneverthelawlimitsthelabourofchildrento6hoursinindustriesnotbeforeinterferedwith，thecomplaintsofthemanufacturersarealwaysrenewed。
　　TheyallegethatnumbersoftheparentswithdrawtheirchildrenfromtheindustrybroughtundertheAct，inordertosellthemwhere"freedomoflabour"stillrules，i。e。，wherechildrenunder13yearsarecompelledtoworklikegrown—uppeople，andthereforecanbegotridofatahigherprice。Butsincecapitalisbynaturealeveller，sinceitexactsineverysphereofproductionequalityintheconditionsoftheexploitationoflabour，thelimitationbylawofchildren’slabour，inonebranchofindustry，becomesthecauseofitslimitationinothers。
　　Wehavealreadyalludedtothephysicaldeteriorationaswellofthechildrenandyoung—personsasofthewomen，whommachinery，firstdirectlyinthefactoriesthatshootuponitsbasis，andthenindirectlyinalltheremainingbranchesofindustry，subjectstotheexploitationofcapital。
　　Inthisplace，therefore，wedwellonlyononepoint，theenormousmortality，duringthefirstfewyearsoftheirlife，ofthechildrenoftheoperatives。
　　InsixteenoftheregistrationdistrictsintowhichEnglandisdivided，thereare，forevery100，000childrenaliveundertheageofoneyear，only9，000deathsinayearonanaverage（inonedistrictonly7，047）;
　　in24districtsthedeathsareover10，000，butunder11，000;in39districts，over11，000，butunder12，000;in48districtsover12，000，butunder13，000;
　　in22districtsover20，000;in25districtsover21，000;in17over22，000;in11over23，000;inHoo，Wolverhampton，Ashton—under—Lyne，andPreston，over24，000;inNottingham，Stockport，andBradford，over25，000;inWisbeach，16，000;andinManchester，26，125。[45]Aswasshownbyanofficialmedicalinquiryintheyear1861，thehighdeath—ratesare，apartfromlocalcauses，principallyduetotheemploymentofthemothersawayfromtheirhomes，andtotheneglectandmaltreatment，consequentonherabsence，suchas，amongstothers，insufficientnourishment，unsuitablefood，anddosingwithopiates;besidesthis，therearisesanunnaturalestrangementbetweenmotherandchild，andasaconsequenceintentionalstarvingandpoisoningofthechildren。[46]Inthoseagriculturaldistricts，"whereaminimumintheemploymentofwomenexists，thedeath—rateisontheotherhandverylow。"[47]TheInquiryCommissionof1861led，however，totheunexpectedresult，thatinsomepurelyagriculturaldistrictsborderingontheNorthSea，thedeath—rateofchildrenunderoneyearoldalmostequalledthatoftheworstfactorydistricts。Dr。JulianHunterwasthereforecommissionedtoinvestigatethisphenomenononthespot。Hisreportisincorporatedwiththe"SixthReportonPublicHealth。"[48]Uptothattimeitwassupposed，thatthechildrenweredecimatedbymalaria，andotherdiseasespeculiartolow—lyingandmarshydistricts。Buttheinquiryshowedtheveryopposite，namely，thatthesamecausewhichdroveawaymalaria，theconversionoftheland，fromamorassinwinterandascantypastureinsummer，intofruitfulcornland，createdtheexceptionaldeath—rateoftheinfants。[49]The70medicalmen，whomDr。Hunterexaminedinthatdistrict，were"wonderfullyinaccord"onthispoint。Infact，therevolutioninthemodeofcultivationhadledtotheintroductionoftheindustrialsystem。Marriedwomen，whoworkingangsalongwithboysandgirls，are，forastipulatedsumofmoney，placedatthedisposalofthefarmer，byamancalledthe"undertaker，"
　　whocontractsforthewholegang。"Thesegangswillsometimestravelmanymilesfromtheirownvillage;theyaretobemetmorningandeveningontheroads，dressedinshortpetticoats，withsuitablecoatsandboots，andsometimestrousers，lookingwonderfullystrongandhealthy，buttaintedwithacustomaryimmoralityandheedlessofthefatalresultswhichtheirloveofthisbusyandindependentlifeisbringingontheirunfortunateoffspringwhoarepiningathome。"[50]Everyphenomenonofthefactorydistrictsisherereproduced，including，buttoagreaterextent，ill—disguisedinfanticide，anddosingchildrenwithopiates。[51]"Myknowledgeofsuchevils，"saysDr。Simon，themedicalofficerofthePrivyCouncilandeditorinchiefoftheReportsonPublicHealth，"mayexcusetheprofoundmisgivingwithwhichIregardanylargeindustrialemploymentofadultwomen。"[52]"Happyindeed，"exclaimsMr。Baker，thefactoryinspector，inhisofficialreport，"happyindeedwillitbeforthemanufacturingdistrictsofEngland，wheneverymarriedwomanhavingafamilyisprohibitedfromworkinginanytextileworksatall。"[53]