ThemoraldegradationcausedbythecapitalisticexploitationofwomenandchildrenhasbeensoexhaustivelydepictedbyF。Engelsinhis"LagederArbeitendenKlasseEnglands，"andotherwriters，thatIneedonlymentionthesubjectinthisplace。Buttheintellectualdesolationartificiallyproducedbyconvertingimmaturehumanbeingsintomeremachinesforthefabricationofsurplus—value，astateofmindclearlydistinguishablefromthatnaturalignorancewhichkeepsthemindfallowwithoutdestroyingitscapacityfordevelopment，itsnaturalfertility，thisdesolationfinallycompelledeventheEnglishParliamenttomakeelementaryeducationacompulsoryconditiontothe"productive"employmentofchildrenunder14years，ineveryindustrysubjecttotheFactoryActs。Thespiritofcapitalistproductionstandsoutclearlyintheludicrouswordingoftheso—callededucationclausesintheFactoryActs，intheabsenceofanadministrativemachinery，anabsencethatagainmakesthecompulsionillusory，intheoppositionofthemanufacturersthemselvestotheseeducationclauses，andinthetricksanddodgestheyputinpracticeforevadingthem。"Forthisthelegislatureisalonetoblame，byhavingpassedadelusivelaw，which，whileitwouldseemtoprovidethatthechildrenemployedinfactoriesshallbeeducated，containsnoenactmentbywhichthatprofessedendcanbesecured。Itprovidesnothingmorethanthatthechildrenshalloncertaindaysoftheweek，andforacertainnumberofhours（three）ineachday，beinclosedwithinthefourwallsofaplacecalledaschool，andthattheemployerofthechildshallreceiveweeklyacertificatetothateffectsignedbyapersondesignatedbythesubscriberasaschoolmasterorschoolmistress。"[54]PrevioustothepassingoftheamendedFactoryAct，1844，ithappened，notunfrequently，thatthecertificatesofattendanceatschoolweresignedbytheschoolmasterorschoolmistresswithacross，astheythemselveswereunabletowrite。"Ononeoccasion，onvisitingaplacecalledaschool，fromwhichcertificatesofschoolattendance，hadissued，Iwassostruckwiththeignoranceofthemaster，thatIsaidtohim:’Pray，sir，canyouread？’Hisreplywas:’Aye，summat！’andasajustificationofhistighttograntcertificates，headded:’Atanyrate，I
　　ambeforemyscholars。’Theinspectors，whentheBillof1844wasinpreparation，didnotfailtorepresentthedisgracefulstateoftheplacescalledschools，certificatesfromwhichtheywereobligedtoadmitasacompliancewiththelaws，buttheyweresuccessfulonlyinobtainingthusmuch，thatsincethepassingoftheActof1844，thefiguresintheschoolcertificatemustbefilledupinthehandwritingoftheschoolmaster，whomustalsosignhisChristianandsurnameinfull。"[55]SirJohnKincaid，factoryinspectorforScotland，relatesexperiencesofthesamekind。"ThefirstschoolwevisitedwaskeptbyaMrs。AnnKillin。Uponaskinghertospellhername，shestraightwaymadeamistake，bybeginningwiththeletterC，butcorrectingherselfimmediately，shesaidhernamebeganwithaK。Onlookingathersignature，however，intheschoolcertificatebooks，Inoticedthatshespeltitinvariousways，whileherhandwritingleftnodoubtastoherunfitnesstoteach。Sheherselfalsoacknowledgedthatshecouldnotkeeptheregiste……InasecondschoolIfoundtheschoolroom15feetlong，and10feetwide，andcountedinthisspace75
　　children，whoweregobblingsomethingunintelligible"[56]Butitisnotonlyinthemiserableplacesabovereferredtothatthechildrenobtaincertificatesofschoolattendancewithouthavingreceivedinstructionofanyvalue，forinmanyschoolswherethereisacompetentteacher，hiseffortsareoflittleavailfromthedistractingcrowdofchildrenofallages，frominfantsof3yearsoldandupwards;hislivelihood，miserableatthebest，dependingonthepencereceivedfromthegreatestnumberofchildrenwhomitispossibletocramintothespace。Tothisistobeaddedscantyschoolfurniture，deficiencyofbooks，andothermaterialsforteaching，andthedepressingeffectuponthepoorchildrenthemselvesofaclose，noisome’atmosphere。Ihavebeeninmanysuchschools，whereIhaveseenrowsofchildrendoingabsolutelynothing;andthisiscertifiedasschoolattendance，and，instatisticalreturns，suchchildrenaresetdownasbeingeducated。"[57]InScotlandthemanufacturerstryalltheycantodowithoutthechildrenthatareobligedtoattendschool。"ItrequiresnofurtherargumenttoprovethattheeducationalclausesoftheFactoryAct，beingheldinsuchdisfavouramongmill—owners，tendinagreatmeasuretoexcludethatclassofchildrenalikefromtheemploymentandthebenefitofeducationcontemplatedbythisAct。"[58]Horriblygrotesquedoesthisappearinprintworks，whichareregulatedby’aspecialAct。BythatAct，"everychild，beforebeingemployedinaprintworkmusthaveattendedschoolforatleast30days，andnotlessthan150hours，duringthesixmonthsimmediatelyprecedingsuchfirstdayofemployment，andduringthecontinuanceofitsemploymentintheprintworks，itmustattendforalikeperiodof30days，and150hoursduringeverysuccessiveperiodofsixmonths……Theattendanceatschoolmustbebetween8a。m。
　　and6p。m。Noattendanceoflessthan21/2hours，normorethan5hoursonanyoneday，shallbereckonedaspartofthe150hours。Underordinarycircumstancesthechildrenattendschoolmorningandafternoonfor30days，foratleast5hourseachday，andupontheexpirationofthe30days，thestatutorytotalof150hourshavingbeenattained，having，intheirlanguage，madeuptheirbook，theyreturntotheprintwork，wheretheycontinueuntilthesixmonthshaveexpired，whenanotherinstalmentofschoolattendancebecomesdue，andtheyagainseektheschooluntilthebookisagainmadeup……Manyboyshavingattendedschoolfortherequirednumberofhours，whentheyreturntoschoolaftertheexpirationoftheirsixmonths’workintheprintwork，areinthesameconditionaswhentheyfirstattendedschoolasprint—workboys，thattheyhavelostalltheygainedbytheirpreviousschoolattendance……
　　Inotherprintworksthechildren’sattendanceatschoolismadetodependaltogetherupontheexigenciesoftheworkintheestablishment。Therequisitenumberofhoursismadeupeachsixmonths，byinstalmentsconsistingoffrom3to5hoursatatime，spreadingover，perhaps，thewholesixmonths……Forinstance，theattendanceononedaymightbefrom8to11a。m。，onanotherdayfromIp。m。to4p。m。，andthechildmightnotappearatschoolagainforseveraldays，whenitwouldattendfrom3p。m。to6p。m。;thenitmightattendfor3or4daysconsecutively，orforaweek，thenitwouldnotappearinschoolfor3weeksoramonth，afterthatuponsomeodddaysatsomeoddhourswhentheoperativewhoemployeditchosetospareit;
　　andthusthechildwas，asitwere，buffetedfromschooltowork，fromworktoschool，untilthetaleof150hourswastold。"[59]
　　Bytheexcessiveadditionofwomenandchildrentotheranksoftheworkers，machineryatlastbreaksdowntheresistancewhichthemaleoperativesinthemanufacturingperiodcontinuedtoopposetothedespotismofcapital。[60]
　　B。ProlongationoftheWorking—DayIfmachinerybethemostpowerfulmeansforincreasingtheproductivenessoflabour？i。e。，forshorteningtheworking—timerequiredintheproductionofacommodity，itbecomesinthehandsofcapitalthemostpowerfulmeans，inthoseindustriesfirstinvadedbyit，forlengtheningtheworking—daybeyondallboundssetbyhumannature。Itcreates，ontheonehand，newconditionsbywhichcapitalisenabledtogivefreescopetothisitsconstanttendency，andontheotherhand，newmotiveswithwhichtowhetcapital’sappetiteforthelabourofothers;
　　Inthefirstplace，intheformofmachinery，theimplementsoflabourbecomeautomatic，thingsmovingandworkingindependentoftheworkman。
　　Theyarethenceforthanindustrialperpetuummobile，thatwouldgoonproducingforever，diditnotmeetwithcertainnaturalobstructionsintheweakbodiesandthestrongwillsofitshumanattendants。Theautomaton，ascapital，andbecauseitiscapital，isendowed，inthepersonofthecapitalist，withintelligenceandwill;itisthereforeanimatedbythelongingtoreducetoaminimumtheresistanceofferedbythatrepellentyetelasticnaturalbarrier，man。[61]Thisresistanceismoreoverlessenedbytheapparentlightnessofmachinework，andbythemorepliantanddocilecharacterofthewomenandchildrenemployedonit。[62]
　　Theproductivenessofmachineryis，aswesaw，inverselyproportionaltothevaluetransferredbyittotheproduct。Thelongerthelifeofthemachine，thegreateristhemassoftheproductsoverwhichthevaluetransmittedbythemachineisspread，andthelessistheportionofthatvalueaddedtoeachsinglecommodity。Theactivelifetimeofamachineis，however，clearlydependentonthelengthoftheworking—day，oronthedurationofthedailylabour—processmultipliedbythenumberofdaysforwhichtheprocessiscarriedon。
　　Thewearandtearofamachineisnotexactlyproportionaltoitsworking—time。
　　Andevenifitwereso，amachineworking16hoursdailyfor71/2years，coversaslongaworkingperiodas，andtransmitstothetotalproductnomorevaluethan，thesamemachinewouldifitworkedonly8hoursdailyfor15years。Butinthefirstcasethevalueofthemachinewouldbereproducedtwiceasquicklyasinthelatter，andthecapitalistwould，bythisuseofthemachine，absorbin71/2yearsasmuchsurplus—valueasinthesecondcasehewouldin15。
　　Thematerialwearandtearofamachineisoftwokinds。Theonearisesfromuse，ascoinswearawaybycirculating，theotherfromnon—use，asaswordrustswhenleftinitsscabbard。Thelatterkindisduetotheelements。Theformerismoreorlessdirectlyproportional，thelattertoacertainextentinverselyproportional，totheuseofthemachine。[63]
　　Butinadditiontothematerialwearandtear，amachinealsoundergoes，whatwemaycallamoraldepreciation。Itlosesexchange—value，eitherbymachinesofthesamesortbeingproducedcheaperthanit，orbybettermachinesenteringintocompetitionwithit。[64]Inbothcases，bethemachineeversoyoungandfulloflife，itsvalueisnolongerdeterminedbythelabouractuallymaterialisedinit，butbythelabour—timerequisitetoreproduceeitheritorthebettermachine。
　　Ithas，therefore，lostvaluemoreorless。Theshortertheperiodtakentoreproduceitstotalvalue，thelessisthedangerofmoraldepreciation;
　　andthelongertheworking—day，theshorteristhatperiod。Whenmachineryisfirstintroducedintoanindustry，newmethodsofreproducingitmorecheaplyfollowblowuponblow，[65]andsodoimprovements，thatnotonlyaffectindividualpartsanddetailsofthemachine，butitsentirebuild。Itis，therefore，intheearlydaysofthelifeofmachinerythatthisspecialincentivetotheprolongationoftheworking—daymakesitselffeltmostacutely。[66]
　　Giventhelengthoftheworking—day，allothercircumstancesremainingthesame，theexploitationofdoublethenumberofworkmendemands，notonlyadoublingofthatpartofconstantcapitalwhichisinvestedinmachineryandbuildings，butalsoofthatpartwhichislaidoutinrawmaterialandauxiliarysubstances。Thelengtheningoftheworking—day，ontheotherhand，allowsofproductiononanextendedscalewithoutanyalterationintheamountofcapitallaidoutonmachineryandbuildings。[67]Notonlyisthere，therefore，anincreaseofsurplus—value，buttheoutlaynecessarytoobtainitdiminishes。Itistruethatthistakesplace，moreorless，witheverylengtheningoftheworking—day;
　　butinthecaseunderconsideration，thechangeismoremarked，becausethecapitalconvertedintotheinstrumentsoflabourpreponderatestoagreaterdegree。[68]Thedevelopmentofthefactorysystemfixesaconstantlyincreasingportionofthecapitalinaform，inwhich，ontheonehand，itsvalueiscapableofcontinualself—expansion，andinwhich，ontheotherhand，itlosesbothuse—valueandexchange—valuewheneveritlosescontactwithlivinglabour。"Whenalabourer，"saidMr。Ashworth，acottonmagnate，toProfessorNassauW。Senior，"laysdownhisspade，herendersuseless，forthatperiod，acapitalwortheighteen—pence。Whenoneofourpeopleleavesthemill，herendersuselessacapitalthathascost£100，000。"[69]Onlyfancy！making"useless"forasinglemoment，acapitalthathascost£100，000！Itis，intruth，monstrous，thatasingleoneofourpeopleshouldeverleavethefactory！Theincreaseduseofmachinery，asSenioraftertheinstructionhereceivedfromAshworthclearlyperceives，makesaconstantlyincreasinglengtheningoftheworking—day"desirable。"[70]
　　Machineryproducesrelativesurplus—value;notonlybydirectlydepreciatingthevalueoflabour—power，andbyindirectlycheapeningthesamethroughcheapeningthecommoditiesthatenterintoitsreproduction，butalso，whenitisfirstintroducedsporadicallyintoanindustry，byconvertingthelabouremployedbytheownerofthatmachinery，intolabourofahigherdegreeandgreaterefficacy，byraisingthesocialvalueofthearticleproducedaboveitsindividualvalue，andthusenablingthecapitalisttoreplacethevalueofaday’slabour—powerbyasmallerportionofthevalueofaday’sproduct。Duringthistransitionperiod，whentheuseofmachineryisasortofmonopoly，theprofitsarethereforeexceptional，andthecapitalistendeavourstoexploitthoroughly"thesunnytimeofthishisfirstlove，"
　　byprolongingtheworking—dayasmuchaspossible。Themagnitudeoftheprofitwhetshisappetiteformoreprofit。
　　Astheuseofmachinerybecomesmoregeneralinaparticularindustry，thesocialvalueoftheproductsinksdowntoitsindividualvalue，andthelawthatsurplus—valuedoesnotarisefromthelabour—powerthathasbeenreplacedbythemachinery，butfromthelabour—poweractuallyemployedinworkingwiththemachinery，assertsitself。Surplus—valuearisesfromvariablecapitalalone，andwesawthattheamountofsurplus—valuedependsontwofactors，viz。，therateofsurplus—valueandthenumberoftheworkmensimultaneouslyemployed。Giventhelengthoftheworking—day，therateofsurplus—valueisdeterminedbytherelativedurationofthenecessarylabourandofthesurplus—labourinaday。Thenumberofthelabourerssimultaneouslyemployeddepends，onitsside，ontheratioofthevariabletotheconstantcapital。Now，howevermuchtheuseofmachinerymayincreasethesurplus—labourattheexpenseofthenecessarylabourbyheighteningtheproductivenessoflabour，itisclearthatitattainsthisresult，onlybydiminishingthenumberofworkmenemployedbyagivenamountofcapital。Itconvertswhatwasformerlyvariablecapital，investedinlabour—power，intomachinerywhich，beingconstantcapital，doesnotproducesurplus—value。
　　Itisimpossible，forinstance，tosqueezeasmuchsurplus—valueoutof2asoutof24labourers。Ifeachofthese24mengivesonlyonehourofsurplus—labourin12，the24mengivetogether24hoursofsurplus—labour，while24hoursisthetotallabourofthetwomen。Hence，theapplicationofmachinerytotheproductionofsurplus—valueimpliesacontradictionwhichisimmanentinit，sinceofthetwofactorsofthesurplus—valuecreatedbyagivenamountofcapital，one，therateofsurplus—value，cannotbeincreased，exceptbydiminishingtheother，thenumberofworkmen。Thiscontradictioncomestolight，assoonasbythegeneralemploymentofmachineryinagivenindustry，thevalueofthemachine—producedcommodityregulatesthevalueofallcommoditiesofthesamesort;anditisthiscontradiction，thatinitsturn，drivesthecapitalist，withouthisbeingconsciousofthefact，[71]toexcessivelengtheningoftheworking—day，inorderthathemaycompensatethedecreaseintherelativenumberoflabourersexploited，byanincreasenotonlyoftherelative，butoftheabsolutesurplus—labour。
　　If，then，thecapitalisticemploymentofmachinery，ontheonehand，suppliesnewandpowerfulmotivestoanexcessivelengtheningoftheworking—day，andradicallychanges，aswellthemethodsoflabour，asalsothecharacterofthesocialworkingorganism，insuchamannerastobreakdownalloppositiontothistendency，ontheotherhanditproduces，partlybyopeningouttothecapitalistnewstrataoftheworking—class，previouslyinaccessibletohim，partlybysettingfreethelabourersitsupplants，asurplusworkingpopulation，[72]whichiscompelledtosubmittothedictationofcapital。HencethatremarkablephenomenoninthehistoryofModernIndustry，thatmachinerysweepsawayeverymoralandnaturalrestrictiononthelengthoftheworking—day。Hence，too，theeconomicparadox，thatthemostpowerfulinstrumentforshorteninglabour—time，becomesthemostunfailingmeansforplacingeverymomentofthelabourer’stimeandthatofhisfamily，atthedisposalofthecapitalistforthepurposeofexpandingthevalueofhiscapital。"If，"dreamedAristotle，thegreatestthinkerofantiquity，"ifeverytool，whensummoned，orevenofitsownaccord，coulddotheworkthatbefitsit，justasthecreationsofDaedalusmovedofthemselves，orthetripodsofHephaestoswentoftheirownaccordtotheirsacredwork，iftheweavers’shuttlesweretoweaveofthemselves，thentherewouldbenoneedeitherofapprenticesforthemasterworkers，orofslavesforthelords。"[73]AndAntipatros，aGreekpoetofthetimeofCicero，hailedtheinventionofthewater—wheelforgrindingcorn，aninventionthatistheelementaryformofallmachinery，asthegiveroffreedomtofemaleslaves，andthebringerbackofthegoldenage。[74]Oh！thoseheathens！Theyunderstood，asthelearnedBastiat，andbeforehimthestillwiserMacCullochhavediscovered，nothingofPoliticalEconomyandChristianity。Theydidnot，forexample，comprehendthatmachineryisthesurestmeansoflengtheningtheworking—day。Theyperhapsexcusedtheslaveryofoneonthegroundthatitwasameanstothefulldevelopmentofanother。Buttopreachslaveryofthemasses，inorderthatafewcrudeandhalf—educatedparvenus，mightbecome"eminentspinners，""extensivesausage—makers，"and"influentialshoe—blackdealers，"todothis，theylackedthebumpofChristianity。
　　C。IntensificationofLabourTheimmoderatelengtheningoftheworking—day，producedbymachineryinthehandsofcapital，leadstoareactiononthepartofsociety，theverysourcesofwhoselifearemenaced;and，thence，toanormalworking—daywhoselengthisfixedbylaw。Thenceforthaphenomenon。thatwehavealreadymetwith，namely，theintensificationoflabour，developsintogreatimportance。
　　Ouranalysisofabsolutesurplus—valuehadreferenceprimarilytotheextensionordurationofthelabour，itsintensitybeingassumedasgiven。Wenowproceedtoconsiderthesubstitutionofamoreintensifiedlabourforlabourofmoreextensiveduration，andthe—degreeoftheformer。
　　Itisself—evident，thatinproportionastheuseofmachineryspreads，andtheexperienceofaspecialclassofworkmenhabituatedtomachineryaccumulates，therapidityandintensityoflabourincreaseasanaturalconsequence。ThusinEngland，duringhalfacentury，lengtheningoftheworking—daywenthandinhandwithincreasingintensityoffactorylabour。Neverthelessthereaderwillclearlysee，thatwherewehavelabour，notcarriedonbyfitsandstarts，butrepeateddayafterdaywithunvaryinguniformity，apointmustinevitablybereached，whereextensionoftheworking—dayandintensityofthelabourmutuallyexcludeoneanother，insuchawaythatlengtheningoftheworking—daybecomescompatibleonlywithalowerdegreeofintensity，andahigherdegreeofintensity，onlywithashorteningoftheworking—day。Sosoonasthegraduallysurgingrevoltoftheworking—classcompelledParliamenttoshortencompulsorilythehoursoflabour，andtobeginbyimposinganormalworking—dayonfactoriesproper，sosoonconsequentlyasanincreasedproductionofsurplus—valuebytheprolongationoftheworking—daywasonceforallputastopto，fromthatmomentcapitalthrewitselfwithallitsmightintotheproductionofrelativesurplus—value，byhasteningonthefurtherimprovementofmachinery。
　　Atthesametimeachangetookplaceinthenatureofrelativesurplus—value。
　　Generallyspeaking，themodeofproducingrelativesurplus—valueconsistsinraisingtheproductivepoweroftheworkman，soastoenablehimtoproducemoreinagiventimewiththesameexpenditureoflabour。Labour—timecontinuestotransmitasbeforethesamevaluetothetotalproduct，butthisunchangedamountofexchange—valueisspreadovermoreuse—value;
　　hencethevalueofeachsinglecommoditysinks。Otherwise，however，sosoonasthecompulsoryshorteningofthehoursoflabourtakesplace。Theimmenseimpetusitgivesthedevelopmentofproductivepower，andtoeconomyinthemeansofproduction，imposesontheworkmanincreasedexpenditureoflabourinagiventime，heightenedtensionoflabour—power，andcloserfillingupoftheporesoftheworking—day，orcondensationoflabourtoadegreethatisattainableonlywithinthelimitsoftheshortenedworking—day。Thiscondensationofagreatermassoflabourintoagivenperiodthenceforwardcountsforwhatitreallyis，agreaterquantityoflabour。Inadditiontoameasureofitsextension，i。e。，duration，labournowacquiresameasureofitsintensityorofthedegreeofitscondensationordensity。[75]Thedenserhourofthetenhours’working—daycontainsmorelabour，i。e。，expendedlabour—power。thanthemoreporoushourofthetwelvehours’working—day。
　　Theproductthereforeofoneoftheformerhourshasasmuchormorevaluethanhastheproductof11/5ofthelatterhours。Apartfromtheincreasedyieldofrelativesurplus—valuethroughtheheightenedproductivenessoflabour，thesamemassofvalueisnowproducedforthecapitalistsayby31/3hoursofsurplus—labour，and62/3hoursofnecessarylabour，aswaspreviouslyproducedbyfourhoursofsurplus—labourandeighthoursofnecessarylabour。
　　Wenowcometothequestion:Howisthelabourintensified？
　　Thefirsteffectofshorteningtheworking—dayresultsfromtheself—evidentlaw，thattheefficiencyoflabour—powerisinaninverseratiotothedurationofitsexpenditure。Hence，withincertainlimitswhatislostbyshorteningthedurationisgainedbytheincreasingtensionoflabour—power。
　　Thattheworkmanmoreoverreallydoesexpendmorelabour—power，isensuredbythemodeinwhichthecapitalistpayshim。[76]Inthoseindustries，suchaspotteries，wheremachineryplayslittleornopart，theintroductionoftheFactoryActshasstrikinglyshownthatthemereshorteningoftheworking—dayincreasestoawonderfuldegreetheregularity，uniformity，order，continuity，andenergyofthelabour。[77]Itseemed，however，doubtfulwhetherthiseffectwasproducedinthefactoryproper，wherethedependenceoftheworkmanonthecontinuousanduniformmotionofthemachineryhadalreadycreatedthestrictestdiscipline。Hence，whenin1844thereductionoftheworking—daytolessthantwelvehourswasbeingdebated，themastersalmostunanimouslydeclared"thattheiroverlookersinthedifferentroomstookgoodcarethatthehandslostnotime，"that"theextentofvigilanceandattentiononthepartoftheworkmenwashardlycapableofbeingincreased，"
　　and，therefore，thatthespeedofthemachineryandotherconditionsremainingunaltered，"toexpectinawell—managedfactoryanyimportantresultfromincreasedattentionoftheworkmenwasanabsurdity。"[78]Thisassertionwascontradictedbyexperiments。Mr。RobertGardnerreducedthehoursoflabourinhistwolargefactoriesatPreston，onandafterthe20thApril，1844，fromtwelvetoelevenhoursaday。Theresultofaboutayear’sworkingwasthat"thesameamountofproductforthesamecostwasreceived，andtheworkpeopleasawholeearnedinelevenhoursasmuchwagesastheydidbeforeintwelve。"[79]Ipassovertheexperimentsmadeinthespinningandcardingrooms，becausetheywereaccompaniedbyanincreaseof2%inthespeedofthemachines。
　　Butintheweavingdepartment，where，moreover，manysortsoffiguredfancyarticleswerewoven，therewasnottheslightestalterationintheconditionsofthework。Theresultwas:"From6thJanuaryto20thApril，1844，withatwelvehours’day，averageweeklywagesofeachhand10s。11/2d。，from20thAprilto29thJune，1844，withdayofelevenhours，averageweeklywages10s。31/2d。"[80]Herewehavemoreproducedinelevenhoursthanpreviouslyintwelve，andentirelyinconsequenceofmoresteadyapplicationandeconomyoftimebytheworkpeople。Whiletheygotthesamewagesandgainedonehourofsparetime，thecapitalistgotthesameamountproducedandsavedthecostofcoal，gas，andothersuchitems，foronehour。Similarexperiments，andwiththelikesuccess，werecarriedoutinthemillsofMessrs。HorrocksandJacson。[81]
　　Theshorteningofthehoursoflabourcreates，tobeginwith，thesubjectiveconditionsforthecondensationoflabour，byenablingtheworkmantoexertmorestrengthinagiventime。Sosoonasthatshorteningbecomescompulsory，machinerybecomesinthehandsofcapitaltheobjectivemeans，systematicallyemployedforsqueezingoutmorelabourinagiventime。Thisiseffectedintwoways:byincreasingthespeedofthemachinery，andbygivingtheworkmanmoremachinerytotent。Improvedconstructionofthemachineryisnecessary，partlybecausewithoutitgreaterpressurecannotbeputontheworkman，andpartlybecausetheshortenedhoursoflabourforcethecapitalisttoexercisethestrictestwatchoverthecostofproduction。
　　Theimprovementsinthesteam—enginehaveincreasedthepistonspeed，andatthesametimehavemadeitpossible，bymeansofagreatereconomyofpower，todrivewiththesameorevenasmallerconsumptionofcoalmoremachinerywiththesameengine。Theimprovementsinthetransmittingmechanismhavelessenedfriction，and，whatsostrikinglydistinguishesmodernfromtheoldermachinery，havereducedthediameterandweightoftheshaftingtoaconstantlydecreasingminimum。Finally，theimprovementsintheoperativemachineshave，whilereducingtheirsize，increasedtheirspeedandefficiency，asinthemodernpower—loom;or，whileincreasingthesizeoftheirframework，havealsoincreasedtheextentandnumberoftheirworkingparts，asinspinning—mules，orhaveaddedtothespeedoftheseworkingpartsbyimperceptiblealterationsofdetail，suchasthosewhichtenyearsagoincreasedthespeedofthespindlesinself—actingmulesbyone—fifth。
　　Thereductionoftheworking—dayto12hoursdatesinEnglandfrom1832。
　　In1836amanufacturerstated:"Thelabournowundergoneinthefactoriesismuchgreaterthanitusedtobe……comparedwiththirtyorfortyyearsago……owingtothegreaterattentionandactivityrequiredbythegreatlyincreasedspeedwhichisgiventothemachinery。"[82]Intheyear1844，LordAshley，nowLordShaftesbury，madeintheHouseofCommonsthefollowingstatements，supportedbydocumentaryevidence:
　　"Thelabourperformedbythoseengagedintheprocessesofmanufacture，isthreetimesasgreatasinthebeginningofsuchoperations。Machineryhasexecuted，nodoubt，theworkthatwoulddemandthesinewsofmillionsofmen;butithasalsoprodigiouslymultipliedthelabourofthose。whoaregovernedbyitsfearfulmovements……In1815，thelabouroffollowingapairofmulesspinningcottonofNo。40？reckoning12hourstotheworking—day？involvedanecessityofwalking8miles。In1832，thedistancetravelledinfollowingapairofmules，spinningcottonyarnofthesamenumber，was20miles，andfrequentlymore。In1835"（query？1815or1825？）"thespinnerputupdaily，oneachofthesemules，820stretches，makingatotalof1，640stretchesinthecourseoftheday。In1832，thespinnerputuponeachmule2，200stretches，makingatotalof4，400。In1844，2，400stretches，makingatotalof4，800;andinsomecasestheamountoflabourrequiredisevenstillgreater……Ihaveanotherdocumentsenttomein1842，statingthatthelabourisprogressivelyincreasing—increasingnotonlybecausethedistancetobetravelledisgreatsp;butbecausethequantityofgoodsproducedismultiplied，whilethehandsarefewerinproportionthanbefore;and，moreover，becauseaninferiorspeciesofcottonisnowoftenspun，whichitismoredifficulttowork……Inthecarding—roomtherehasalsobeenagreatincreaseoflabour。Onepersontheredoestheworkformerlydividedbetweentwo。Intheweaving—room，whereavastnumberofpersonsareemployed，andprincipallyfemales……
　　thelabourhasincreasedwithinthelastfewyearsfully10percent。，owingtotheincreasedspeedofthemachineryinspinning。In1838，thenumberofhanksspunperweekwas18，000，in1843itamountedto21，000。
　　In1819，thenumberofpicksinpower—loom—weavingperminutewas60？in1842itwas140，showingavastincreaseoflabour。;[83]
　　Inthefaceofthisremarkableintensityoflabourwhichhadalreadybeenreachedin1844undertheTwelveHours’Act，thereappearedtobeajustificationfortheassertionmadeatthattimebytheEnglishmanufacturers，thatanyfurtherprogressinthatdirectionwasimpossible，andthereforethateveryfurtherreductionofthehoursoflabourmeantalessenedproduction。
　　TheapparentcorrectnessoftheirreasonswillbebestshownbythefollowingcontemporarystatementbyLeonardHorner，thefactoryinspector，theireverwatchfulcensor。
　　"Now，asthequantityproducedmust，inthemain，beregulatedbythespeedofthemachinery，itmustbetheinterestofthemill—ownertodriveitattheutmostrateofspeedconsistentwiththesefollowingconditions，viz。，thepreservationofthemachineryfromtoorapiddeterioration;thepreservationofthequalityofthearticlemanufactured;andthecapabilityoftheworkmantofollowthemotionwithoutagreaterexertionthanhecansustainforaconstancy。Oneofthemostimportantproblems，therefore，whichtheownerofafactoryhastosolveistofindoutthemaximumspeedatwhichhecanrun，withadueregardtotheaboveconditions。Itfrequentlyhappensthathefindshehasgonetoofast，thatbreakagesandbadworkmorethancounterbalancetheincreasedspeed，andthatheisobligedtoslackenhispace。Ithereforeconcluded，thatasanactiveandintelligentmill—ownerwouldfindoutthesafemaximum，itwouldnotbepossibletoproduceasmuchinelevenhoursasintwelve。
　　Ifurtherassumedthattheoperativepaidbypiecework，wouldexerthimselftotheutmostconsistentwiththepowerofcontinuingatthesamerate。
　　"[84]Horner，therefore，cametotheconclusionthatareductionoftheworking—hoursbelowtwelvewouldnecessarilydiminishproduction？[85]Hehimself，tenyearslater，citeshisopinionof1845inproofofhowmuchheunder—estimatedinthatyeartheelasticityofmachinery，andofman’slabour—power，bothofwhicharesimultaneouslystretchedtoanextremebythecompulsoryshorteningoftheworking—day。
　　WenowcometotheperiodthatfollowstheintroductionoftheTenHours’
　　Actin1847intotheEnglishcotton，woollen，silk，andflaxmills。
　　"Thespeedofthespindleshasincreaseduponthrostles500，anduponmules1，000revolutionsaminute，i。e。，thespeedofthethrostlespindle，whichin1839was4，500timesaminute，isnow（1862）5，000;andofthemulespindle，thatwas5，000，isnow6，000timesaminute，amountingintheformercasetoone—tenth，andinthesecondcasetoone—fifthadditionalincrease。"[86]JamesNasmyth，theeminentcivilengineerofPatricroft，nearManchester，explainedinalettertoLeonardHorner，writtenin1852，thenatureoftheimprovementsinthesteam—enginethathadbeenmadebetweentheyears1848and1852。
　　Afterremarkingthatthehorse—powerofsteam—engines，beingalwaysestimatedintheofficialreturnsaccordingtothepowerofsimilarenginesin1828，[87]isonlynominal，andcanserveonlyasanindexoftheirrealpower，hegoesontosay:"Iamconfidentthatfromthesameweightofsteam—enginemachinery，wearenowobtainingatleast50percent。moredutyorworkperformedontheaverage，andthatinmanycasestheidenticalsteam—engineswhichinthedaysoftherestrictedspeedof220feetperminute，yielded50horsepower，arenowyieldingupwardsof100……""Themodernsteam—engineof100horse—poweriscapableofbeingdrivenatamuchgreaterforcethanformerly，arisingfromimprovementsinitsconstruction，thecapacityandconstructionoftheboilers，&c……""Althoughthesamenumberofhandsareemployedinproportiontothehorse—powerasatformerperiods，therearefewerhandsemployedinproportiontothemachinery。"[88]"Intheyear1850，thefactoriesoftheUnitedKingdomemployed134，217
　　nominalhorse—powertogivemotionto25，638，716spindlesand301，445looms。
　　Thenumberofspindlesandloomsin1856wasrespectively33，503，580oftheformer，and369，205ofthelatter，which，reckoningtheforceofthenominalhorse—powerrequiredtobethesameasin1850，wouldrequireaforceequalto175，000horses，buttheactualpowergiveninthereturnfor1856is161，435，lessbyabove10，000horsesthan，calculatinguponthebasisofthereturnof1850，thefactoriesoughttohaverequiredin1856。"[89]"ThefactsthusbroughtoutbytheReturn（of1856）appeartobethatthefactorysystemisincreasingrapidly;thatalthoughthesamenumberofhandsareemployedinproportiontothehorse—powerasatformerperiods，therearefewerhandsemployedinproportiontothemachinery;thatthesteam—engineisenabledtodriveanincreasedweightofmachinerybyeconomyofforceandothermethods，andthatanincreasedquantityofworkcanbeturnedoffbyimprovementsinmachinery，andinmethodsofmanufacture，byincreaseofspeedofthemachinery，andbyavarietyofothercauses。"[90]