[39]"Itisnotsufficientthatthecapital"（thewritershouldhavesaidthenecessarymeansofsubsistenceandofproduction）"requiredforthesubdivisionofhandicraftsshouldbeinreadinessinthesociety:itmustalsobeaccumulatedinthehandsoftheemployersinsufficientlylargequantitiestoenablethemtoconducttheiroperationsonalargescale……Themorethedivisionincreases，themoredoestheconstantemploymentofagivennumberoflabourersrequireagreateroutlayofcapitalintools，rawmaterial，&c。"（Storch:
　　"Coursd’Econ。Polit。"ParisEd。，t。I。，pp。250，251。）"Laconcentrationdesinstrumentsdeproductionetladivisiondutravailsontaussiinséparablesl’unedeI’autrequelesont，danslerégimepolitique，laconcentrationdespouvoirspublicsetladivisiondesintérêtsprivés。"
　　（KarlMarx，l。c。，p。134。）
　　[40]DugaldStewartcallsmanufacturinglabourers"livingautomatons……employedinthedetailsofthework。"（I。c。，p。318。）
　　[41]Incorals，eachindividualis，infact，thestomachofthewholegroup;
　　butitsuppliesthegroupwithnourishment，insteadof，liketheRomanpatrician，withdrawingit。
　　[42]"L’ouvrierquiportedanssesbrastoutunmétier，peutallerpartoutexercersonindustrieettrouverdesmoyensdesubsister:l’autre（themanufacturinglabourer）n’estqu’unaccessoirequi，séparé
　　desesconfrères，n’aplusnicapacité，niindépendance，etquisetrouveforced’accepterlaloiqu’onjugeàproposdeluiimposer。"（Storch，l。c。，Petersb。edit。，1815，t。I。，p。204。）
　　[43]A。Ferguson，l。c。，p。281:"Theformermayhavegainedwhattheotherhaslost。"
　　[44]"Themanofknowledgeandtheproductivelabourercometobewidelydividedfromeachother，andknowledge，insteadofremainingthehandmaidoflabourinthehandofthelabourertoincreasehisproductivepowers……hasalmosteverywherearrayeditselfagainstlabour……systematicallydeludingandleadingthem（thelabourers）astrayinordertorendertheirmuscularpowersentirelymechanicalandobedient。"（W。Thompson:"AnInquiryintothePrinciplesoftheDistributionofWealth。"London，1824，p。274。）
　　[45]A。Ferguson，l。c。，p。280。
　　[46]J。D。Tuckett:"AHistoryofthePastandPresentStateoftheLabouringPopulation。"Lond。，1846。
　　[47]A。Smith:"WealthofNations，"Bk。v。，ch。i，art。ii。BeingapupilofA。Fergusonwhoshowedthedisadvantageouseffectsofdivisionoflabour，AdamSmithwasperfectlyclearonthispoint。Intheintroductiontohiswork，whereheexprofessopraisesdivisionoflabour，heindicatesonlyinacursorymannerthatitisthesourceofsocialinequalities。
　　Itisnottillthe5thBook，ontheRevenueoftheState，thathereproducesFerguson。Inmy"MisèredelaPhilosophie，"IhavesufficientlyexplainedthehistoricalconnexionbetweenFerguson，A。Smith，Lemontey，andSay，asregardstheircriticismsofDivisionofLabour，andhaveshown，forthefirsttime，thatDivisionofLabouraspractisedinmanufactures，isaspecificformofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。
　　[48]Fergusonhadalreadysaid，l。c。，p。281:"Andthinkingitself，inthisageofseparations，maybecomeapeculiarcraft。"
　　[49]G。Garnier，vol。V。ofhistranslationofA。Smith，pp。4—5。
　　[50]Ramazzini，professorofpracticalmedicineatPadua，publishedin1713
　　hiswork"Demorbisartificum，"whichwastranslatedintoFrench1781，reprinted1841inthe"EncyclopédiedesSciencesMédicales。
　　7meDis。AuteursClassiques。"TheperiodofModernMechanicalIndustryhas，ofcourse，verymuchenlargedhiscatalogueoflabour’sdiseases。
　　See"Hygiènephysiqueetmoraledel’ouvrierdanslesgrandesvillesengénéraletdanslavilledeLyonenparticulier。ParleDr。A。L。Fonteret，Paris，1858，"and"DieKrankheiten，welcheverschiednenStänden，AlternundGeschlechterneigenthümlichsind。6Vols。
　　Ulm，1860，"andothers。In1854theSocietyofArtsappointedaCommissionofInquiryintoindustrialpathology。Thelistofdocumentscollectedbythiscommissionistobeseeninthecatalogueofthe"TwickenhamEconomicMuseum。"Veryimportantaretheofficial"ReportsonPublicHealth。"SeealsoEduardReich，M。D。"UeberdieEntartungdesMenschen，"Erlangen，1868。
　　[51]（D。Urquhart:"FamiliarWords。"Lond。，1855，p。119。）Hegelheldveryhereticalviewsondivisionoflabour。Inhis"Rechtsphilosophie"hesays:"Bywelleducatedmenweunderstandinthefirstinstance，thosewhocandoeverythingthatothersdo。"
　　[52]Thesimplebeliefintheinventivegeniusexercisedaprioribytheindividualcapitalistindivisionoflabour，existsnow—a—daysonlyamongGermanprofessors，ofthestampofHerrRoscher，who，torecompensethecapitalistfromwhoseJovianheaddivisionoflaboursprangreadyformed，dedicatestohim"variouswages"（diverseArbeitslöhne）。Themoreorlessextensiveapplicationofdivisionoflabourdependsonlengthofpurse，notongreatnessofgenius。
　　[53]Theolderwriters，likePettyandtheanonymousauthorof"AdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，"bringoutthecapitalistcharacterofdivisionoflabourasappliedinmanufacturemorethanA。Smithdoes。
　　[54]Amongstthemodernsmaybeexceptedafewwritersofthe18thcentury，likeBeccariaandJamesHarris，whowithregardtodivisionoflabouralmostentirelyfollowtheancients。Thus，Beccaria:"Ciascunoprovacoll’esperienza，cheapplicandolamanoel’ingegnosempreallostessogenerediopereediprodutte，eglipiùfacili，piùabbondantiemigliorinetracarisultati，diquellocheseciascunoisolatamentelecosetutteasenecessariesoltantofacesse……Dividendosiintalmanieraperlacomuneeprivatautilitàgliuominiinvarieclassiecondizioni。"（CesareBeccaria:"ElementidiEcon:Pubblica，"ed。Custodi，ParteModerna，t。
　　xi，p。29。）JamesHarris，afterwardsEarlofMalmesbury，celebratedforthe"Diaries"ofhisembassyatSt。Petersburg，saysinanotetohis"DialogueConcerningHappiness，"Lond。，1741，reprintedafterwardsin"ThreeTreatises，3Ed。，Lond。，1772:"Thewholeargumenttoprovesocietynatural（i。e。，bydivisionofemployments）……istakenfromthesecondbookofPlato’sRepublic。"
　　[55]Thus，intheOdysseyxiv。，228，[Greek:"Allosgart’alloisinanerepiterpetaiergois"]andArchilochusinSextusEmpiricus，[greek:"allosalloep’ergokardieniainetai"。]
　　[56][Greek:"Poll’epistaioergo，kakosd’epistanopanta。"]EveryAthenianconsideredhimselfsuperiorasaproducerofcommoditiestoaSpartan;
　　forthelatterintimeofwarhadmenenoughathisdisposalbutcouldnotcommandmoney，asThucydidesmakesPericlessayinthespeechincitingtheAthenianstothePeloponnesianwar:[Greek:"somasiteetoimoteroioiautourgoitonanthroponekremasipolemein"]（Thuc。:1，I。c。41。）Nevertheless，evenwithregardtomaterialproduction，[Greek:autarkeia]，asopposedtodivisionoflabourremainedtheirideal，[Greek:"par’ongarto，eu，paratoutonkaitoautarkes。"]Itshouldbementionedherethatatthedateofthefallofthe30Tyrantstherewerestillnot5，000Athenianswithoutlandedproperty。
　　[57]WithPlato，divisionoflabourwithinthecommunityisadevelopmentfromthemultifariousrequirements，andthelimitedcapacitiesofindividuals。
　　Themainpointwithhimis，thatthelabourermustadapthimselftothework，nottheworktothelabourer;whichlatterisunavoidable，ifhecarriesonseveraltradesatonce，thusmakingoneortheotherofthemsubordinate。[Greek:"Ougaretheleitoprattomenontentouprattoniosscholenperimenein，all’anagketonprattontatoprattomenoepakolootheinmeenparergoumerei。Anagke。Ekdetoutonpleioteekastagignetaikaikallionkairaon，otaneisenkaiaphysinkaienkairoscholentonallonagon，pratte。"]（Rep。1。2。Ed。Baiter，Orelli，&c。）SoinThucydides，l。c。，c。142:"Seafaringisanartlikeanyother，andcannot，ascircumstancesrequire，becarriedonasasubsidiaryoccupation;nay，othersubsidiaryoccupationscannotbecarriedonalongsideofthisone。"Ifthework，saysPlato，hastowaitforthelabourer，thecriticalpointintheprocessismissedandthearticlespoiled，[Greek:"ergoukairondiollytai。"]ThesamePlatonicideaisfoundrecurringintheprotestoftheEnglishbleachersagainsttheclauseintheFactoryActthatprovidesfixedmealtimesforalloperatives。Theirbusinesscannotwaittheconvenienceoftheworkmen，for"inthevariousoperationsofsingeing，washing，bleaching，mangling，calendering，anddyeing，noneofthemcanbestoppedatagivenmomentwithoutriskofdamage……toenforcethesamedinnerhourforalltheworkpeoplemightoccasionallysubjectvaluablegoodstotheriskofdangerbyincompleteoperations。"Leplatonismeoùva—t—ilsenicher！
　　[58]Xenophonsays，itisnotonlyanhonourtoreceivefoodfromthetableoftheKingofPersia，butsuchfoodismuchmoretastythanotherfood。
　　"Andthereisnothingwonderfulinthis，forastheotherartsarebroughttospecialperfectioninthegreattowns，sotheroyalfoodispreparedinaspecialway。Forinthesmalltownsthesamemanmakesbedsteads，doors，ploughs，andtables:often，too，hebuildshousesintothebargain，andisquitecontentifhefindscustomsufficientforhissustenance。
　　Itisaltogetherimpossibleforamanwhodoessomanythingstodothemallwell。Butinthegreattowns，whereeachcanfindmanybuyers，onetradeissufficienttomaintainthemanwhocarriesiton。Nay，thereisoftennotevenneedofonecompletetrade，butonemanmakesshoesformen，anotherforwomen。Hereandthereonemangetsalivingbysewing，anotherbycuttingoutshoes;onedoesnothingbutcutoutclothes，anothernothingbutsewthepiecestogether。Itfollowsnecessarilythen，thathewhodoesthesimplestkindofwork，undoubtedlydoesitbetterthananyoneelse。Soitiswiththeartofcooking。"（Xen。Cyrop。I。viii。，c。2。）Xenophonherelaysstressexclusivelyupontheexcellencetobeattainedinuse—value，althoughhewellknowsthatthegradationsofthedivisionoflabourdependontheextentofthemarket。
　　[59]He（Busiris）dividedthemallintospecialcastes……commandedthatthesameindividualsshouldalwayscarryonthesametrade，forheknewthattheywhochangetheiroccupationsbecomeskilledinnone;butthatthosewhoconstantlysticktooneoccupationbringittothehighestperfection。
　　Intruth，weshallalsofindthatinrelationtotheartsandhandicrafts，theyhaveoutstrippedtheirrivalsmorethanamasterdoesabungler;andthecontrivancesformaintainingthemonarchyandtheotherinstitutionsoftheirStatearesoadmirablethatthemostcelebratedphilosopherswhotreatofthissubjectpraisetheconstitutionoftheEgyptianStateaboveallothers。（Isocrates，Busiris，c。8。）
　　[60]Cf。DiodorusSiculus。
　　[61]Ure，l。c。，p。20。
　　[62]ThisismorethecaseinEnglandthaninFrance，andmoreinFrancethaninHolland。
　　ChapterFifteenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIV:
　　ProductionofRelativeSurplus—ValueCHAPTERFIFTEEN:
　　MACHINERYANDMODERNINDUSTRY
　　ContentsSection1—TheDevelopmentofMachinerySection2—TheValueTransferredbyMachinerytotheProductSection3—TheProximateEffectsofMachineryontheWorkmanA。AppropriationofSupplementaryLabour—PowerbyCapital。TheEmploymentofWomenandChildrenB。ProlongationoftheWorking—DayC。IntensificationofLabourSection4—TheFactorySection5—TheStrifeBetweenWorkmanandMachineSection6—TheTheoryofCompensationasRegardstheWorkpeopleDisplacedbyMachinerySection7—RepulsionandAttractionofWorkpeoplebytheFactorySystem。CrisesintheCottonTradeSection8—RevolutionEffectedinManufacture，Handicrafts，andDomesticIndustrybyModernIndustryA。OverthrowofCo—operationBasedonHandicraftandontheDivisionofLabourB。ReactionoftheFactorySystemonManufactureandDomesticIndustriesC。ModernManufactureD。ModernDomesticIndustryE。PassageofModernManufacture，andDomesticIndustryintoModernMechanicalIndustry。TheHasteningofthisRevolutionbytheApplicationoftheFactoryActstothoseIndustriesSection9—TheFactoryActs。SanitaryandEducationalClausesofthesame。TheirGeneralExtensioninEnglandSection10—ModernIndustryandAgricultureSECTION1THEDEVELOPMENTOFMACHINERY
　　JohnStuartMillsaysinhis"PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy":"Itisquestionableifallthemechanicalinventionsyetmadehavelightenedtheday’stoilofanyhumanbeing。"[1]Thatis，however，bynomeanstheaimofthecapitalisticapplicationofmachinery。Likeeveryotherincreaseintheproductivenessoflabour，machineryisintendedtocheapencommodities，and，byshorteningthatportionoftheworking—day，inwhichthelabourerworksforhimself，tolengthentheotherportionthathegives，withoutanequivalent，tothecapitalist。
　　Inshort，itisameansforproducingsurplus—value。
　　Inmanufacture，therevolutioninthemodeofproductionbeginswiththelabour—power，inmodernindustryitbeginswiththeinstrumentsoflabour。Ourfirstinquirythenis，howtheinstrumentsoflabourareconvertedfromtoolsintomachines，orwhatisthedifferencebetweenamachineandtheimplementsofahandicraft？Weareonlyconcernedherewithstrikingandgeneralcharacteristics;forepochsinthehistoryofsocietyarenomoreseparatedfromeachotherbyhardandfastlinesofdemarcation，thanaregeologicalepochs。
　　Mathematiciansandmechanicians，andinthistheyarefollowedbyafewEnglisheconomists，callatoolasimplemachine，andamachineacomplextool。Theyseenoessentialdifferencebetweenthem，andevengivethenameofmachinetothesimplemechanicalpowers，thelever，theinclinedplane，thescrew，thewedge，&c。[2]Asamatteroffact，everymachineisacombinationofthosesimplepowers，nomatterhowtheymaybedisguised。Fromtheeconomicstandpointthisexplanationisworthnothing，becausethehistoricalelementiswanting。Anotherexplanationofthedifferencebetweentoolandmachineisthatinthecaseofatool，manisthemotivepower，whilethemotivepowerofamachineissomethingdifferentfromman，as，forinstance，ananimal，water，wind，andsoon。[3]Accordingtothis，aploughdrawnbyoxen，whichisacontrivancecommontothemostdifferentepochs，wouldbeamachine，whileClaussen’scircularloom，which，workedbyasinglelabourer，weaves96，000picksperminute，wouldbeameretool。Nay，thisveryloom，thoughatoolwhenworkedbyhand，would，ifworkedbysteam，beamachine。Andsincetheapplicationofanimalpowerisoneofman’searliestinventions，productionbymachinerywouldhaveprecededproductionbyhandicrafts。Whenin1735，JohnWyattbroughtouthisspinningmachine，andbegantheindustrialrevolutionofthe18thcentury，notaworddidhesayaboutanassdrivingitinsteadofaman，andyetthispartfelltotheass。Hedescribeditasamachine"tospinwithoutfingers。"[4]
　　Allfullydevelopedmachineryconsistsofthreeessentiallydifferentparts，themotormechanism，thetransmittingmechanism，andfinallythetoolorworkingmachine。Themotormechanismisthatwhichputsthewholeinmotion。Iteithergeneratesitsownmotivepower，likethesteam—engine，thecaloricengine，theelectromagneticmachine，&c。，oritreceivesitsimpulsefromsomealreadyexistingnaturalforce，likethewater—wheelfromaheadofwater，thewind—millfromwind，&c。Thetransmittingmechanism，composedoffly—wheels，shafting，toothedwheels，pullies，straps，ropes，bands，pinions，andgearingofthemostvariedkinds，regulatesthemotion，changesitsform。wherenecessary，asforinstance，fromlineartocircular，anddividesanddistributesitamongtheworkingmachines。
　　Thesetwofirstpartsofthewholemechanismarethere，solelyforputtingtheworkingmachinesinmotion，bymeansofwhichmotionthesubjectoflabourisseizeduponandmodifiedasdesired。Thetoolorworkingmachineisthatpartofthemachinerywithwhichtheindustrialrevolutionofthe18thcenturystarted。Andtothisdayitconstantlyservesassuchastarting—point，wheneverahandicraft，oramanufacture，isturnedintoanindustrycarriedonbymachinery。
　　Onacloserexaminationoftheworkingmachineproper，wefindinit，asageneralrule，thoughoften，nodoubt，underveryalteredforms，theapparatusandtoolsusedbythehandicraftsmanormanufacturingworkman;
　　withthisdifference，thatinsteadofbeinghumanimplements，theyaretheimplementsofamechanism，ormechanicalimplements。Eithertheentiremachineisonlyamoreorlessalteredmechanicaleditionoftheoldhandicrafttool，as，forinstance，thepower—loom，[5]ortheworkingpartsfittedintheframeofthemachineareoldacquaintances，asspindlesareinamule，needlesinastocking—loom，sawsinasawing—machine，andknivesinachoppingmachine。Thedistinctionbetweenthesetoolsandthebodyproperofthemachine，existsfromtheirverybirth;fortheycontinueforthemostparttobeproducedbyhandicraft，orbymanufacture，andareafterwardsfittedintothebodyofthemachine，whichistheproductofmachinery。[6]Themachineproperisthereforeamechanismthat，afterbeingsetinmotion，performswithitstoolsthesameoperationsthatwereformerlydonebytheworkmanwithsimilartools。Whetherthemotivepowerisderivedfromman，orfromsomeothermachine，makesnodifferenceinthisrespect。Fromthemomentthatthetoolproperistakenfromm—an，andfittedintoamechanism，amachinetakestheplaceofamereimplement。Thedifferencestrikesoneatonce，eveninthosecaseswheremanhimselfcontinuestobetheprimemover。Thenumberofimplementsthathehimselfcanusesimultaneously，islimitedbythenumberofhisownnaturalinstrumentsofproduction，bythenumberofhisbodilyorgans。InGermany，theytriedatfirsttomakeonespinnerworktwospinning—wheels，thatis，toworksimultaneouslywithbothhandsandbothfeet。Thiswastoodifficult。Later，atreddlespinning—wheelwithtwospindleswasinvented，butadeptsinspinning，whocouldspintwothreadsatonce，werealmostasscarceastwo—headedmen。TheJenny，ontheotherhand，evenatitsverybirth，spunwith12—18
　　spindles，andthestocking—loomknitswithmanythousandneedlesatonce。
　　Thenumberoftoolsthatamachinecanbringintoplaysimultaneously，isfromtheveryfirstemancipatedfromtheorganiclimitsthathedgeinthetoolsofahandicraftsman。
　　Inmanymanualimplementsthedistinctionbetweenmanasmeremotivepower，andmanastheworkmanoroperatorproperlysocalled，isbroughtintostrikingcontrast。Forinstance，thefootismerelytheprimemoverofthespinning—wheel，whilethehand，workingwiththespindle，anddrawingandtwisting，performstherealoperationofspinning。Itisthislastpartofthehandicraftsman’simplementthatisfirstseizeduponbytheindustrialrevolution，leavingtotheworkman，inadditiontohisnewlabourofwatchingthemachinewithhiseyesandcorrectingitsmistakeswithhishands，themerelymechanicalpartofbeingthemovingpower。Ontheotherhand，implements，inregardtowhichmanhasalwaysactedasasimplemotivepower，as，forinstance，byturningthecrankofamill，[7]bypumping，bymovingupanddownthearmofabellows，bypoundingwithamortar，&c。，suchimplementssooncallfortheapplicationofanimals，water[8]andwindasmotivepowers。Hereandthere，longbeforetheperiodofmanufacture，andalso，tosomeextent，duringthatperiod，theseimplementspassoverintomachines，butwithoutcreatinganyrevolutioninthemodeofproduction。
　　Itbecomesevident，intheperiodofModernIndustry，thattheseimplements，evenundertheirformofmanualtools，arealreadymachines。Forinstance，thepumpswithwhichtheDutch，in1836—7，emptiedtheLakeofHarlem，wereconstructedontheprincipleofordinarypumps;theonlydifferencebeing，thattheirpistonsweredrivenbycyclopeansteam—engines，insteadofbymen。Thecommonandveryimperfectbellowsoftheblacksmithis，inEngland，occasionallyconvertedintoablowing—engine，byconnectingitsarmwithasteam—engine。Thesteam—engineitself，suchasitwasatitsinvention，duringthemanufacturingperiodatthecloseofthe17thcentury，andsuchasitcontinuedtobedownto1780，[9]didnotgiverisetoanyindustrialrevolution。Itwas，onthecontrary，theinventionofmachinesthatmadearevolutionintheformofsteam—enginesnecessary。Assoonasman，insteadofworkingwithanimplementonthesubjectofhislabour，becomesmerelythemotivepowerofanimplement—machine，itisamereaccidentthatmotivepowertakesthedisguiseofhumanmuscle;
　　anditmayequallywelltaketheformofwind，waterorsteam。Ofcourse，thisdoesnotpreventsuchachangeofformfromproducinggreattechnicalalterationsinthemechanismthatwasoriginallyconstructedtobedrivenbymanalone。Now—a—days，allmachinesthathavetheirwaytomake，suchassewing—machines，bread—makingmachines，&c。，are，unlessfromtheirverynaturetheiruseonasmallscaleisexcluded，constructedtobedrivenbothbyhumanandbypurelymechanicalmotivepower。
　　Themachine，whichisthestarting—pointoftheindustrialrevolution，supersedestheworkman，whohandlesasingletool，byamechanismoperatingwithanumberofsimilartools，andsetinmotionbyasinglemotivepower，whatevertheformofthatpowermaybe？[10]Herewehavethemachine，butonlyasanelementaryfactorofproductionbymachinery。
　　Increaseinthesizeofthemachine，andinthenumberofitsworkingtools，callsforamoremassivemechanismtodriveit;andthismechanismrequires，inordertoovercomeitsresistance，amightiermovingpowerthanthatofman，apartfromthefactthatmanisaveryimperfectinstrumentforproducinguniformcontinuedmotion。Butassumingthatheisactingsimplyasamotor，thatamachinehastakentheplaceofhistool，itisevidentthathecanbereplacedbynaturalforces。Ofallthegreatmotorshandeddownfromthemanufacturingperiod，horse—poweristheworst，partlybecauseahorsehasaheadofhisown，partlybecauseheiscostly，andtheextenttowhichheisapplicableinfactoriesisveryrestricted。[11]NeverthelessthehorsewasextensivelyusedduringtheinfancyofModernIndustry。Thisisproved，aswellbythecomplaintsofcontemporaryagriculturists，asbytheterm"horse—power，"whichhassurvivedtothisdayasanexpressionformechanicalforce。
　　Windwastooinconstantanduncontrollable，andbesides，inEngland，thebirthplaceofModernIndustry，theuseofwater—powerpreponderatedevenduringthemanufacturingperiod。Inthe17thcenturyattemptshadalreadybeenmadetoturntwopairsofmillstoneswithasinglewater—wheel。Buttheincreasedsizeofthegearingwastoomuchforthewater—power，whichhadnowbecomeinsufficient，andthiswasoneofthecircumstancesthatledtoamoreaccurateinvestigationofthelawsoffriction。Inthesamewaytheirregularitycausedbythemotivepowerinmillsthatwereputinmotionbypushingandpullingalever，ledtothetheory，andtheapplication，ofthefly—wheel，whichafterwardsplayssoimportantapartinModernIndustry。[12]Inthisway，duringthemanufacturingperiod，weredevelopedthefirstscientificandtechnicalelementsofModernMechanicalIndustry。Arkwright’sthrostle—spinningmillwasfromtheveryfirstturnedbywater。Butforallthat，theuseofwater，asthepredominantmotivepower，wasbesetwithdifficulties。Itcouldnotbeincreasedatwill，itfailedatcertainseasonsoftheyear，and，aboveall，itwasessentiallylocal。[13]NottilltheinventionofWatt’ssecondandso—calleddouble—actingsteam—engine，wasaprimemoverfound，thatbegotitsownforcebytheconsumptionofcoalandwater，whosepowerwasentirelyunderman’scontrol，thatwasmobileandameansoflocomotion，thatwasurbanandnot，likethewaterwheel，rural，thatpermittedproductiontobeconcentratedintownsinsteadof，likethewater—wheels，beingscatteredupanddownthecountry，[14]thatwasofuniversaltechnicalapplication，and，relativelyspeaking，littleaffectedinitschoiceofresidencebylocalcircumstances。ThegreatnessofWatt’sgeniusshoweditselfinthespecificationofthepatentthathetookoutinApril，1784。Inthatspecificationhissteam—engineisdescribed，notasaninventionforaspecificpurpose，butasanagentuniversallyapplicableinMechanicalIndustry。Inithepointsoutapplications，manyofwhich，asforinstance，thesteam—hammer，werenotintroducedtillhalfacenturylater。Neverthelesshedoubtedtheuseofsteam—enginesinnavigation。Hissuccessors，BoultonandWatt，senttotheexhibitionof1851steam—enginesofcolossalsizeforoceansteamers。
　　Assoonastoolshadbeenconvertedfrombeingmanualimplementsofmanintoimplementsofamechanicalapparatus，ofamachine，themotivemechanismalsoacquiredanindependentform，entirelyemancipatedfromtherestraintsofhumanstrength。Thereupontheindividualmachine，thatwehavehithertobeenconsidering，sinksintoamerefactorinproductionbymachinery。Onemotivemechanismwasnowabletodrivemanymachinesatonce。Themotivemechanismgrowswiththenumberofthemachinesthatareturnedsimultaneously，andthetransmittingmechanismbecomesawide—spreadingapparatus。
　　Wenowproceedtodistinguishtheco—operationofanumberofmachinesofonekindfromacomplexsystemofmachinery。
　　Intheonecase，theproductisentirelymadebyasinglemachine，whichperformsallthevariousoperationspreviouslydonebyonehandicraftsmanwithhistool;as，forinstance，byaweaverwithhisloom;orbyseveralhandicraftsmansuccessively，eitherseparatelyorasmembersofasystemofManufacture。[15]Forexample，inthemanufactureofenvelopes，onemanfoldedthepaperwiththefolder，anotherlaidonthegum，athirdturnedtheflapover，onwhichthedeviceisimpressed，afourthembossedthedevice，andsoon;andforeachoftheseoperationstheenvelopehadtochangehands。Onesingleenvelopemachinenowperformsalltheseoperationsatonce，andmakesmorethan3，000envelopesinanhour。IntheLondonexhibitionof1862，therewasanAmericanmachineformakingpapercornets。
　　Itcutthepaper，pasted，folded，andfinished300inaminute。Here，thewholeprocess，which，whencarriedonasManufacture，wassplitupinto，andcarriedoutby，aseriesofoperations，iscompletedbyasinglemachine，workingacombinationofvarioustools。Now，whethersuchamachinebemerelyareproductionofacomplicatedmanualimplement，oracombinationofvarioussimpleimplementsspecialisedbyManufacture，ineithercase，inthefactory，i。e。，intheworkshopinwhichmachineryaloneisused，wemeetagainwithsimpleco—operation;and，leavingtheworkmanoutofconsiderationforthemoment，thisco—operationpresentsitselftous，inthefirstinstance，astheconglomerationinoneplaceofsimilarandsimultaneouslyactingmachines。Thus，aweavingfactoryisconstitutedofanumberofpower—looms，workingsidebyside，andasewingfactoryofanumberofsewing—machinesallinthesamebuilding。Butthereishereatechnicalonenessinthewholesystem，owingtoallthemachinesreceivingtheirimpulsesimultaneously，andinanequaldegree，fromthepulsationsofthecommonprimemover，bytheintermediaryofthetransmittingmechanism;
　　andthismechanism，toacertainextent，isalsocommontothemall，sinceonlyparticularramificationsofitbranchofftoeachmachine。Justasanumberoftools，then，formtheorgansofamachine，soanumberofmachinesofonekindconstitutetheorgansofthemotivemechanism。
　　Arealmachinerysystem，however，doesnottaketheplaceoftheseindependentmachines，untilthesubjectoflabourgoesthroughaconnectedseriesofdetailprocesses，thatarecarriedoutbyachainofmachinesofvariouskinds，theonesupplementingtheother。Herewehaveagaintheco—operationbydivisionoflabourthatcharacterisesManufacture;onlynow，itisacombinationofdetailmachines。Thespecialtoolsofthevariousdetailworkmen，suchasthoseofthebeaters，cambers，spinners，&c。，inthewoollenmanufacture，arenowtransformedintothetoolsofspecialisedmachines，eachmachineconstitutingaspecialorgan，withaspecialfunction，inthesystem。Inthosebranchesofindustryinwhichthemachinerysystemisfirstintroduced，Manufactureitselffurnishes，inageneralway，thenaturalbasisforthedivision，andconsequentorganisation，oftheprocessofproduction。[16]Neverthelessanessentialdifferenceatoncemanifestsitself。InManufactureitistheworkmenwho，withtheirmanualimplements，must，eithersinglyoringroups，carryoneachparticulardetailprocess。
　　If，ontheonehand，theworkmanbecomesadaptedtotheprocess，ontheother，theprocesswaspreviouslymadesuitabletotheworkman。Thissubjectiveprincipleofthedivisionoflabournolongerexistsinproductionbymachinery。
　　Here，theprocessasawholeisexaminedobjectively，initself，thatistosay，withoutregardtothequestionofitsexecutionbyhumanhands，itisanalysedintoitsconstituentphases;andtheproblem，howtoexecuteeachdetailprocess，andbindthemallintoawhole，issolvedbytheaidofmachines，chemistry，&c。[17]But，ofcourse，inthiscasealso，theorymustbeperfectedbyaccumulatedexperienceonalargescale。Eachdetailmachinesuppliesrawmaterialtothemachinenextinorder;andsincetheyareallworkingatthesametime，theproductisalwaysgoingthroughthevariousstagesofitsfabrication，andisalsoconstantlyinastateoftransition，fromonephasetoanother。
　　JustasinManufacture，thedirectco—operationofthedetaillabourersestablishesanumericalproportionbetweenthespecialgroups，soinanorganisedsystemofmachinery，whereonedetailmachineisconstantlykeptemployedbyanother，afixedrelationisestablishedbetweentheirnumbers，theirsize，andtheirspeed。Thecollectivemachine，nowanorganisedsystemofvariouskindsofsinglemachines，andofgroupsofsinglemachines，becomesmoreandmoreperfect，themoretheprocessasawholebecomesacontinuousone，i。e。，thelesstherawmaterialisinterruptedinitspassagefromitsfirstphasetoitslast;inotherwords，themoreitspassagefromonephasetoanotheriseffected，notbythehandofman，butbythemachineryitself。InManufacturetheisolationofeachdetailprocessisaconditionimposedbythenatureofdivisionoflabour，butinthefullydevelopedfactorythecontinuityofthoseprocessesis，onthecontrary，imperative。
　　Asystemofmachinery，whetheritreposesonthemereco—operationofsimilarmachines，asinweaving，oronacombinationofdifferentmachines，asinspinning，constitutesinitselfahugeautomaton，wheneveritisdrivenbyaself—actingprimemover。Butalthoughthefactoryasawholebedrivenbyitssteam—engine，yeteithersomeoftheindividualmachinesmayrequiretheaidoftheworkmanforsomeoftheirmovements（suchaidwasnecessaryfortherunninginofthemulecarriage，beforetheinventionoftheself—actingmule，andisstillnecessaryinfine—spinningmills）;
　　or，toenableamachinetodoitswork，certainpartsofitmayrequiretobehandledbytheworkmanlikeamanualtool;thiswasthecaseinmachine—makers’
　　workshops，beforetheconversionofthesliderestintoaself—actor。Assoonasamachineexecutes，withoutman’shelp，allthemovementsrequisitetoelaboratetherawmaterial，needingonlyattendancefromhim，wehaveanautomaticsystemofmachinery，andonethatissusceptibleofconstantimprovementinitsdetails。Suchimprovementsastheapparatusthatstopsadrawingframe，wheneverasliverbreaks，andtheself—actingstop，thatstopsthepower—loomsosoonastheshuttlebobbinisemptiedofweft，arequitemoderninventions。Asanexample，bothofcontinuityofproduction，andofthecarryingoutoftheautomaticprinciple，wemaytakeamodernpapermill。Inthepaperindustrygenerally，wemayadvantageouslystudyindetailnotonlythedistinctionsbetweenmodesofproductionbasedondifferentmeansofproduction，butalsotheconnexionofthesocialconditionsofproductionwiththosemodes:fortheoldGermanpaper—makingfurnishesuswithasampleofhandicraftproduction;thatofHollandinthe17thandofFranceinthe18thcenturywithasampleofmanufacturinginthestrictsense;andthatofmodernEnglandwithasampleofautomaticfabricationofthisarticle。Besidesthese，therestillexist，inIndiaandChina，twodistinctantiqueAsiaticformsofthesameindustry。