Whilesimpleco—operationleavesthemodeofworkingbytheindividualforthemostpartunchanged，manufacturethoroughlyrevolutionisesit，andseizeslabour—powerbyitsveryroots。Itconvertsthelabourerintoacrippledmonstrosity，byforcinghisdetaildexterityattheexpenseofaworldofproductivecapabilitiesandinstincts;
　　justasintheStatesofLaPlatatheybutcherawholebeastforthesakeofhishideorhistallow。Notonlyisthedetailworkdistributedtothedifferentindividuals，buttheindividualhimselfismadetheautomaticmotorofafractionaloperation，[40]andtheabsurdfableofMeneniusAgrippa，whichmakesmanamerefragmentofhisownbody，becomesrealised。[41]If，atfirst，theworkmansellshislabour—powertocapital，becausethematerialmeansofproducingacommodityfailhim，nowhisverylabour—powerrefusesitsservicesunlessithasbeensoldtocapital。Itsfunctionscanbeexercisedonlyinanenvironmentthatexistsintheworkshopofthecapitalistafterthesale。Bynatureunfittedtomakeanythingindependently，themanufacturinglabourerdevelopsproductiveactivityasamereappendageofthecapitalist’sworkshop。[42]AsthechosenpeopleboreintheirfeaturesthesignmanualofJehovah，sodivisionoflabourbrandsthemanufacturingworkmanasthepropertyofcapital。
　　Theknowledge，thejudgement，andthewill，which，thoughineversosmalladegree，arepractisedbytheindependentpeasantorhandicraftsman，inthesamewayasthesavagemakesthewholeartofwarconsistintheexerciseofhispersonalcunningthesefacultiesarenowrequiredonlyfortheworkshopasawhole。Intelligenceinproductionexpandsinonedirection，becauseitvanishesinmanyothers。Whatislostbythedetaillabourers，isconcentratedinthecapitalthatemploysthem。[43]Itisaresultofthedivisionoflabourinmanufactures，thatthelabourerisbroughtfacetofacewiththeintellectualpotenciesofthematerialprocessofproduction，asthepropertyofanother，andasarulingpower。
　　Thisseparationbeginsinsimpleco—operation，wherethecapitalistrepresentstothesingleworkman，theonenessandthewilloftheassociatedlabour。
　　Itisdevelopedinmanufacturewhichcutsdownthelabourerintoadetaillabourer。Itiscompletedinmodernindustry，whichmakesscienceaproductiveforcedistinctfromlabourandpressesitintotheserviceofcapital。[44]
　　Inmanufacture，inordertomakethecollectivelabourer，andthroughhimcapital，richinsocialproductivepower，eachlabourermustbemadepoorinindividualproductivepowers。"Ignoranceisthemotherofindustryaswellasofsuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresubjecttoerr;butahabitofmovingthehandorthefootisindependentofeither。Manufactures，accordingly，prospermostwherethemindisleastconsulted，andwheretheworkshopmay……beconsideredasanengine，thepartsofwhicharemen。"[45]Asamatteroffact，somefewmanufacturersinthemiddleofthe18thcenturypreferred，forcertainoperationsthatweretradesecrets，toemployhalf—idioticpersons。[46]
　　"Theunderstandingsofthegreaterpartofmen，"saysAdamSmith，"arenecessarilyformedbytheirordinaryemployments。Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations……
　　hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstanding……Hegenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome。"Afterdescribingthestupidityofthedetaillabourerhegoeson:"Theuniformityofhisstationarylifenaturallycorruptsthecourageofhismind……Itcorruptseventheactivityofhisbodyandrendershimincapableofexertinghisstrengthwithvigourandperseveranceinanyotheremploymentsthanthattowhichhehasbeenbred。Hisdexterityathisownparticulartradeseemsinthismannertobeacquiredattheexpenseofhisintellectual，social，andmartialvirtues。Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsociety，thisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor，thatis，thegreatbodyofthepeople，mustnecessarilyfall。"[47]Forpreventingthecompletedeteriorationofthegreatmassofthepeoplebydivisionoflabour，A。SmithrecommendseducationofthepeoplebytheState，butprudently，andinhomeopathicdoses。G。Garnier，hisFrenchtranslatorandcommentator，who，underthefirstFrenchEmpire，quitenaturallydevelopedintoasenator，quiteasnaturallyopposeshimonthispoint。
　　Educationofthemasses，heurges，violatesthefirstlawofthedivisionoflabour，andwithit"ourwholesocialsystemwouldbeproscribed。""Likeallotherdivisionsoflabour，"hesays，"thatbetweenhandlabourandheadlabour[48]ismorepronouncedanddecidedinproportionassociety（herightlyusesthisword，forcapital，landedpropertyandtheirState）becomesricher。Thisdivisionoflabour，likeeveryother，isaneffectofpast，andacauseoffutureprogress……oughtthegovernmentthentoworkinoppositiontothisdivisionoflabour，andtohinderitsnaturalcourse？Oughtittoexpendapartofthepublicmoneyintheattempttoconfoundandblendtogethertwoclassesoflabour，whicharestrivingafterdivisionandseparation？"[49]
　　Somecripplingofbodyandmindisinseparableevenfromdivisionoflabourinsocietyasawhole。Since，however，manufacturecarriesthissocialseparationofbranchesoflabourmuchfurther，andalso，byitspeculiardivision，attackstheindividualattheveryrootsofhislife，itisthefirsttoaffordthematerialsfor，andtogiveastartto，industrialpathology。[50]
　　"Tosubdivideamanistoexecutehim，ifhedeservesthesentence，toassassinatehimifhedoesnot……Thesubdivisionoflabouristheassassinationofapeople。"[51]
　　Co—operationbasedondivisionoflabour，inotherwords，manufacture，commencesasaspontaneousformation。Sosoonasitattainssomeconsistenceandextension，itbecomestherecognisedmethodicalandsystematicformofcapitalistproduction。Historyshowshowthedivisionoflabourpeculiartomanufacture，strictlysocalled，acquiresthebestadaptedformatfirstbyexperience，asitwerebehindthebacksoftheactors，andthen，liketheguildhandicrafts，strivestoholdfastthatformwhenoncefound，andhereandtheresucceedsinkeepingitforcenturies。Anyalterationinthisform，exceptintrivialmatters，issolelyowingtoarevolutionintheinstrumentsoflabour。ModernmanufacturewhereveritarisesIdonotherealludetomodernindustrybasedonmachineryeitherfindsthedisjectamembrapoetaereadytohand，andonlywaitingtobecollectedtogether，asisthecaseinthemanufactureofclothesinlargetowns，oritcaneasilyapplytheprincipleofdivision，simplybyexclusivelyassigningthevariousoperationsofahandicraft（suchasbook—binding）
　　toparticularmen。Insuchcases，aweek’sexperienceisenoughtodeterminetheproportionbetweenthenumbersofthehandsnecessaryforthevariousfunctions。[52]
　　Bydecompositionofhandicrafts，byspecialisationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，bytheformationofdetaillabourers，andbygroupingandcombiningthelatterintoasinglemechanism，divisionoflabourinmanufacturecreatesaqualitativegradation，andaquantitativeproportioninthesocialprocessofproduction;itconsequentlycreatesadefiniteorganisationofthelabourofsociety，andtherebydevelopsatthesametimenewproductiveforcesinthesociety。Initsspecificcapitalistformandunderthegivenconditions，itcouldtakenootherformthanacapitalisticonemanufactureisbutaparticularmethodofbegettingrelativesurplus—value，orofaugmentingattheexpenseofthelabourertheself—expansionofcapitalusuallycalledsocialwealth，"WealthofNations，"&c。Itincreasesthesocialproductivepoweroflabour，notonlyforthebenefitofthecapitalistinsteadofforthatofthelabourer，butitdoesthisbycripplingtheindividuallabourers。Itcreatesnewconditionsforthelordshipofcapitaloverlabour。If，therefore，ontheonehand，itpresentsitselfhistoricallyasaprogressandasanecessaryphaseintheeconomicdevelopmentofsociety，ontheotherhand，itisarefinedandcivilisedmethodofexploitation。
　　PoliticalEconomy，whichasanindependentscience，firstsprangintobeingduringtheperiodofmanufacture，viewsthesocialdivisionoflabouronlyfromthestandpointofmanufacture，[53]andseesinitonlythemeansofproducingmorecommoditieswithagivenquantityoflabour，and，consequently，ofcheapeningcommoditiesandhurryingontheaccumulationofcapital。Inmoststrikingcontrastwiththisaccentuationofquantityandexchange—value，istheattitudeofthewritersofclassicalantiquity，whoholdexclusivelybyqualityanduse—value。[54]Inconsequenceoftheseparationofthesocialbranchesofproduction，commoditiesarebettermade，thevariousbentsandtalentsofmenselectasuitablefield，[55]andwithoutsomerestraintnoimportantresultscanbeobtainedanywhere。[56]Hencebothproductandproducerareimprovedbydivisionoflabour。Ifthegrowthofthequantityproducedisoccasionallymentioned，thisisonlydonewithreferencetothegreaterabundanceofuse—values。Thereisnotawordalludingtoexchange—valueortothecheapeningofcommodities。
　　Thisaspect，fromthestandpointofuse—valuealone，istakenaswellbyPlato，[57]whotreatsdivisionoflabourasthefoundationonwhichthedivisionofsocietyintoclassesisbased，asbyXenophon，[58]whowithcharacteristicbourgeoisinstinct，approachesmorenearlytodivisionoflabourwithintheworkshop。Plato’sRepublic，insofarasdivisionoflabouristreatedinit，astheformativeprincipleoftheState，ismerelytheAthenianidealisationoftheEgyptiansystemofcastes，Egypthavingservedasthemodelofanindustrialcountrytomanyofhiscontemporariesalso，amongstotherstoIsocrates，[59]anditcontinuedtohavethisimportancetotheGreeksoftheRomanEmpire。[60]
　　Duringthemanufacturingperiodproper，i。e。，theperiodduringwhichmanufactureisthepredominantformtakenbycapitalistproduction，manyobstaclesareopposedtothefulldevelopmentofthepeculiartendenciesofmanufacture。Althoughmanufacturecreates，aswehavealreadyseen，asimpleseparationofthelabourersintoskilledandunskilled，simultaneouslywiththeirhierarchicarrangementinclasses，yetthenumberoftheunskilledlabourers，owingtothepreponderatinginfluenceoftheskilled，remainsverylimited。Althoughitadaptsthedetailoperationstothevariousdegreesofmaturity，strength，anddevelopmentofthelivinginstrumentsoflabour，thusconducingtoexploitationofwomenandchildren，yetthistendencyasawholeiswreckedonthehabitsandtheresistanceofthemalelabourers。
　　Althoughthesplittingupofhandicraftslowersthecostofformingtheworkman，andtherebylowershisvalue，yetforthemoredifficultdetailwork，alongerapprenticeshipisnecessary，and，evenwhereitwouldbesuperfluous，isjealouslyinsisteduponbytheworkmen。InEngland，forinstance，wefindthelawsofapprenticeship，withtheirsevenyears’probation，infullforcedowntotheendofthemanufacturingperiod;andtheyarenotthrownononesidetilltheadventofModernIndustry。Sincehandicraftskillisthefoundationofmanufacture，andsincethemechanismofmanufactureasawholepossessesnoframework，apartfromthelabourersthemselves，capitalisconstantlycompelledtowrestlewiththeinsubordinationoftheworkmen。"Bytheinfirmityofhumannature，"saysfriendUre，"ithappensthatthemoreskilfultheworkman，themoreself—willedandintractableheisapttobecome，andofcoursethelessfitacomponentofamechanicalsysteminwhich……hemaydogreatdamagetothewhole。"[61]Hencethroughoutthewholemanufacturingperiodthererunsthecomplaintofwantofdisciplineamongtheworkmen。[62]Andhadwenotthetestimonyofcontemporarywriters，thesimplefacts，thatduringtheperiodbetweenthe16thcenturyandtheepochofModernIndustry，capitalfailedtobecomethemasterofthewholedisposableworking—timeofthemanufacturinglabourers，thatmanufacturesareshort—lived，andchangetheirlocalityfromonecountrytoanotherwiththeemigratingorimmigratingworkmen，thesefactswouldspeakvolumes。"Ordermustinonewayoranotherbeestablished，"exclaimsin1770theoft—citedauthorofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce。""Order，"re—echoesDr。AndrewUre66
　　yearslater，"Order"waswantinginmanufacturebasedon"thescholasticdogmaofdivisionoflabour，"and"Arkwrightcreatedorder。"
　　Atthesametimemanufacturewasunable，eithertoseizeupontheproductionofsocietytoitsfullextent，ortorevolutionisethatproductiontoitsverycore。Ittoweredupasaneconomicworkofart，onthebroadfoundationofthetownhandicrafts，andoftheruraldomesticindustries。Atagivenstageinitsdevelopment，thenarrowtechnicalbasisonwhichmanufacturerested，cameintoconflictwithrequirementsofproductionthatwerecreatedbymanufactureitself。
　　Oneofitsmostfinishedcreationswastheworkshopfortheproductionoftheinstrumentsoflabourthemselves，includingespeciallythecomplicatedmechanicalapparatusthenalreadyemployed。Amachine—factory，saysUre，"displayedthedivisionoflabourinmanifoldgradationsthefile，thedrill，thelathe，havingeachitsdifferentworkmanintheorderofskill。"
　　（P。21。）Thisworkshop，theproductofthedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，producedinitsturnmachines。Itistheythatsweepawaythehandicraftsman’sworkastheregulatingprincipleofsocialproduction。Thus，ontheonehand，thetechnicalreasonforthelife—longannexationoftheworkmantoadetailfunctionisremoved。Ontheotherhand，thefettersthatthissameprinciplelaidonthedominionofcapital，fallaway。
　　Footnotes[1]Togiveamoremoderninstance:ThesilkspinningandweavingofLyonandNîmes"esttoutepatriarcale;elleemploiebeaucoupdefemmesetd’enfants，maissanslesépuisernilescorrompre;elleleslaissedansleurbellesvalisesdelaDrôme，duVar，deI’lsère，deVaucluse，pouryéleverdesversetdéviderleurscocons;
　　jamaisellen’entredansunevéritablefabrique。Pourêtreaussibienobserve……leprincipedeladivisiondutravails’yrevêtd’uncaractèrespécial。Ilyabiendesdévideuses，desmoulineurs，desteinturiers，desencolleurs，puisdestisserands;maisilsnesontpasréunisdansunmêmeétablissement，nedépendentpasd’unmêmemaître，tousilssontindépendants"
　　（A。Blanqui:"Cours，d’Econ。Industrielle。"RecueilliparA。Blaise。Paris，1838—39，p。79。）SinceBlanquiwrotethis，thevariousindependentlabourershave，tosomeextent，beenunitedinfactories。[AndsinceMarxwrotetheabove，thepower—loomhasinvadedthesefactories，andisnow1886rapidlysupersedingthehand—loom。（Addedinthe4thGermanedition。TheKrefeldsilkindustryalsohasitstaletotellanentthissubject。）F。
　　E。]
　　[2]Themoreanymanufactureofmuchvarietyshallbedistributedandassignedtodifferentartists，thesamemustneedsbebetterdoneandwithgreaterexpedition，withlesslossoftimeandlabour。"（"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，"Lond。，1720，p。71。）
　　[3]"Easylabouristransmittedskill。"（Th。Hodgskin，"PopularPoliticalEconomy，"
　　p。48。）
　　[4]"Theartsalsohave……inEgyptreachedtherequisitedegreeofperfection。
　　Foritistheonlycountrywhereartificersmaynotinanywaymeddlewiththeaffairsofanotherclassofcitizens，butmustfollowthatcallingalonewhichbylawishereditaryintheirclan……Inothercountriesitisfoundthattradesmendividetheirattentionbetweentoomanyobjects。
　　Atonetimetheytryagriculture，atanothertheytaketocommerce，atanothertheybusythemselveswithtwoorthreeoccupationsatonce。Infreecountries，theymostlyfrequenttheassembliesofthepeople……InEgypt，onthecontrary，everyartificerisseverelypunishedifhemeddleswithaffairsofState，orcarriesonseveraltradesatonce。Thusthereisnothingtodisturbtheirapplicationtotheircalling……Moreover，since，theyinheritfromtheirforefathersnumerousrules，theyareeagertodiscoverfreshadvantages"（DiodorusSiculus:Bibl。Hist。I。1。c。，74。）
　　[5]"HistoricalanddescriptiveaccountofBrit。India，&c。，"byHughMurrayandJamesWilson，&c。，Edinburgh1832，v。II。，p。449。TheIndianloomisupright，i。e。，thewarpisstretchedvertically。
　　[6]Darwininhisepoch—makingworkontheoriginofspecies，remarks，withreferencetothenaturalorgansofplantsandanimals:"Solongasoneandthesameorganhasdifferentkindsofworktoperform，agroundforitschangeabilitymaypossiblybefoundinthis，thatnaturalselectionpreservesorsuppresseseachsmallvariationofformlesscarefullythanifthatorganweredestinedforonespecialpurposealone。Thus，knivesthatareadaptedtocutallsortsofthings，may，onthewhole，beofoneshape;butanimplementdestinedtobeusedexclusivelyinonewaymusthaveadifferentshapeforeverydifferentuse。"
　　[7]Intheyear1854Genevaproduced80，000watches，whichisnotone—fifthoftheproductionintheCantonofNeufchâtel。LaChaux—de—Fondalone，whichwemaylookuponasahugewatchmanufactory，producesyearlytwiceasmanyasGeneva。From1850—61Genevaproduced720，000watches。See"ReportfromGenevaontheWatchTrade"in"ReportsbyH。M。’sSecretariesofEmbassyandLegationontheManufactures，Commerce，&c。，No。6，1863。"Thewantofconnexionalone，betweentheprocessesintowhichtheproductionofarticlesthatmerelyconsistofpartsfittedtogetherissplitup，makesitverydifficulttoconvertsuchamanufactureintoabranchofmodemindustrycarriedonbymachinery;butinthecaseofawatchtherearetwootherimpedimentsinaddition，theminutenessanddelicacyofitsparts，anditscharacterasanarticleofluxury。Hencetheirvariety，whichissuch，thatinthebestLondonhousesscarcelyadozenwatchesaremadealikeinthecourseofayear。ThewatchmanufactoryofMessrs。Vacheron&Constantin，inwhichmachineryhasbeenemployedwithsuccess，producesatthemostthreeorfourdifferentvarietiesofsizeandform。
　　[8]Inwatchmaking，thatclassicalexampleofheterogeneousmanufacture，wemaystudywithgreataccuracytheabove—mentioneddifferentiationandspecialisationoftheinstrumentsoflabourcausedbythesub—divisionofhandicrafts。
　　[9]"Insocloseacohabitationofthepeople，thecarriagemustneedsbeless。"
　　（"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，"p。106。）
　　[10]"Theisolationofthedifferentstagesofmanufacture，consequentupontheemploymentofmanuallabour，addsimmenselytothecostofproduction，thelossmainlyarisingfromthemereremovalsfromoneprocesstoanother。"
　　（"TheIndustryofNations。"Lond。，1855，PartII，p。200。）
　　[11]"It（thedivisionoflabour）producesalsoaneconomyoftimebyseparatingtheworkintoitsdifferentbranches，allofwhichmaybecarriedonintoexecutionatthesamemoment……Bycarryingonallthedifferentprocessesatonce，whichanindividualmusthaveexecutedseparately，itbecomespossibletoproduceamultitudeofpinscompletelyfinishedinthesametimeasasinglepinmighthavebeeneithercutorpointed。"（DugaldStewart，l。c。，p。319。）
　　[12]"Themorevarietyofartiststoeverymanufacture……thegreatertheorderandregularityofeverywork，thesamemustneedsbedoneinlesstime，thelabourmustbeless。’（"TheAdvantages，"&c。，p。68。）
　　[13]Nevertheless，themanufacturingsystem，inmanybranchesofindustry，attainsthisresultbutveryimperfectly，becauseitknowsnothowtocontrolwithcertaintythegeneralchemicalandphysicalconditionsoftheprocessofproduction。
　　[14]"When（fromthepeculiarnatureoftheproduceofeachmanufactory），thenumberofprocessesintowhichitismostadvantageoustodivideitisascertained，aswellasthenumberofindividualstobeemployed，thenallothermanufactorieswhichdonotemployadirectmultipleofthisnumberwillproducethearticleatagreatercost……Hencearisesoneofthecausesofthegreatsizeofmanufacturingestablishments。"（C。Babbage。
　　’OntheEconomyofMachinery，"1sted。London。1832。Ch。xxi，pp。172—73。）
　　[15]InEngland，themelting—furnaceisdistinctfromtheglass—furnaceinwhichtheglassismanipulated。InBelgium，oneandthesamefurnaceservesforbothprocesses。
　　[16]ThiscanbeseenfromW。Petty，JohnBellers，AndrewYarranton，"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，"andJ。Vanderlint，nottomentionothers。
　　[17]Towardstheendofthe16thcentury，mortarsandsieveswerestillusedinFranceforpoundingandwashingores。
　　[18]Thewholehistoryofthedevelopmentofmachinerycanbetracedinthehistoryofthecornmill。ThefactoryinEnglandisstilla"mill"。InGermantechnologicalworksofthefirstdecadeofthiscentury，theterm"Mühle"isstillfoundinuse，notonlyforallmachinerydrivenbytheforcesofNature，butalsoforallmanufactureswhereapparatusinthenatureofmachineryisapplied。
　　[19]Aswillbeseenmoreindetailinthefourthbookofthiswork，AdamSmithhasnotestablishedasinglenewpropositionrelatingtodivisionoflabour。
　　What，however，characteriseshimasthepoliticaleconomistparexcellenceoftheperiodofManufacture，isthestresshelaysondivisionoflabour。
　　ThesubordinatepartwhichheassignstomachinerygaveoccasionintheearlydaysofmodernmechanicalindustrytothepolemicofLauderdale，and，atalaterperiod，tothatofUre。A。Smithalsoconfoundsdifferentiationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，inwhichthedetaillabourersthemselvestookanactivepart，withtheinventionofmachinery;inthislatter，itisnottheworkmeninmanufactories，butlearnedmen，handicraftsman，andevenpeasants（Brindley），whoplayapart。
　　[20]"Themastermanufacturer，bydividingtheworktobeexecutedintodifferentprocesses，eachrequiringdifferentdegreesofskillorofforce，canpurchaseexactlythatprecisequantityofbothwhichisnecessaryforeachprocess;
　　whereas，ifthewholeworkwereexecutedbyoneworkman，thatpersonmustpossesssufficientskilltoperformthemostdifficult，andsufficientstrengthtoexecutethemostlaboriousoftheoperationsintowhichthearticleisdivided。"（Ch。Babbage，l。c。，ch。xix。）
　　[21]Forinstance，abnormaldevelopmentofsomemuscles，curvatureofbones，&c。
　　[22]ThequestionputbyoneoftheInquiryCommissioners，Howtheyoungpersonsarekeptsteadilytotheirwork，isverycorrectlyansweredbyMr。Wm。
　　Marshall，thegeneralmanagerofaglassmanufactory:"Theycannotwellneglecttheirwork;whentheyoncebegin，theymustgoon;theyarejustthesameaspartsofamachine。"（"Children’sEmpl。Comm。，"4thRep。，1865，p。247。）
　　[23]Dr。Ure，inhisapotheosisofModernMechanicalIndustry，bringsoutthepeculiarcharacterofmanufacturemoresharplythanpreviouseconomists，whohadnothispolemicalinterestinthematter，andmoresharplyeventhanhiscontemporariesBabbage，e。g。，who，thoughmuchhissuperiorasamathematicianandmechanician，treatedmechanicalindustryfromthestandpointofmanufacturealone。Uresays，"Thisappropriation……toeach，aworkmanofappropriatevalueandcostwasnaturallyassigned，formstheveryessenceofdivisionoflabour。"Ontheotherhand，hedescribesthisdivisionas"adaptationoflabourtothedifferenttalentsofmen，"andlastly，characterisesthewholemanufacturingsystemas"asystemforthedivisionorgradationoflabour，"as"thedivisionoflabourintodegreesofskill，"&c。
　　（Ure，l。c。，pp。19—23passim。）
　　[24]"Eachhandicraftsmanbeing……enabledtoperfecthimselfbypracticeinonepoint，became……acheaperworkman。"（Ure，l。c。，p。19。）
　　[25]"Divisionoflabourproceedsfromtheseparationofprofessionsthemostwidelydifferenttothatdivision，whereseverallabourersdividebetweenthemthepreparationofoneandthesameproduct，asinmanufacture。"（Storch:
　　"Coursd’Econ。Pol。，"ParisEdn。t。I。，p。173。）"Nousrencontronschezlespeuplesparvenusàuncertaindegrédecivilisationtroisgenresdedivisionsd’industrie:lapremière，quenousnommeronsgénérale，amèneladistinctiondesproducteursenagriculteurs，manufacturiersetcommerçants，elleserapporteauxtroisprincipalesbranchesd’industrienationale;laseconderqu’onpourraitappelerspéciale，estladivisiondechaquegenred’industrieenespèces……latroisièmedivisiond’industrie，celleenfinqu’ondevraitqualifierdedivisiondelabesogneondetravailproprementdit，estcellequis’établitdanslesartsetlesmétiersséparés……quis’établitdanslaplupartdesmanufacturesetdesateliers。"（Skarbek，l。c。，pp。84，85。）
　　[26]Notetothethirdedition。Subsequentverysearchingstudyoftheprimitiveconditionofman，ledtheauthortotheconclusion，thatitwasnotthefamilythatoriginallydevelopedintothetribe，butthat，onthecontrary，thetribewastheprimitiveandspontaneouslydevelopedformofhumanassociation，onthebasisofbloodrelationship，andthatoutofthefirstincipientlooseningofthetribalbonds，themanyandvariousformsofthefamilywereafterwardsdeveloped。F。E。
　　[27]SirJamesSteuartistheeconomistwhohashandledthissubjectbest。Howlittlehisbook，whichappearedtenyearsbeforethe"WealthofNations，"
　　isknown，evenatthepresenttime，maybejudgedfromthefactthattheadmirersofMalthusdonotevenknowthatthefirsteditionofthelatter’sworkonpopulationcontains，exceptinthepurelydeclamatorypart，verylittlebutextractsfromSteuart，andinalessdegree，fromWallaceandTownsend。
　　[28]"Thereisacertaindensityofpopulationwhichisconvenient，bothforsocialintercourse，andforthatcombinationofpowersbywhichtheproduceoflabourisincreased。"（JamesMill，l。c。，p。50。）"Asthenumberoflabourersincreases，theproductivepowerofsocietyaugmentsinthecompoundratioofthatincrease，multipliedbytheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour。"
　　（Th。Hodgskin，l。c。，pp。125，126。）
　　[29]Inconsequenceofthegreatdemandforcottonafter1861，theproductionofcotton，insomethicklypopulateddistrictsofIndia，wasextendedattheexpenseofricecultivation。Inconsequencetherearoselocalfamines，thedefectivemeansofcommunicationnotpermittingthefailureofriceinonedistricttobecompensatedbyimportationfromanother。
　　[30]Thusthefabricationofshuttlesformedasearlyasthe17thcentury，aspecialbranchofindustryinHolland。
　　[31]WhetherthewoollenmanufactureofEnglandisnotdividedintoseveralpartsorbranchesappropriatedtoparticularplaces，wheretheyareonlyorprincipallymanufactured;fineclothsinSomersetshire，coarseinYorkshire，longellsatExeter，soiesatSudbury，crapesatNorwich，linseysatKendal，blanketsatWhitney，andsoforth。"（Berkeley:"TheQuerist，"1751，§
　　520。）
　　[32]A。Ferguson:"HistoryofCivilSociety。"Edinburgh，1767;Partiv，sect。
　　ii。，p。285。
　　[33]Inmanufactureproper，hesays，thedivisionoflabourappearstobegreater，because"thoseemployedineverydifferentbranchoftheworkcanoftenbecollectedintothesameworkhouse，andplacedatonceundertheviewofthespectator。Inthosegreatmanufactures，（！）onthecontrary，whicharedestinedtosupplythegreatwantsofthegreatbodyofthepeople，everydifferentbranchoftheworkemployssogreatanumberofworkmen，thatitisimpossibletocollectthemallintothesameworkhouse……thedivisionisnotnearsoobvious。"（A。Smith:"WealthofNations，"bk。i，ch。i。）Thecelebratedpassageinthesamechapterthatbeginswiththewords，"Observetheaccommodationofthemostcommonartificerorday—labourerinacivilisedandthrivingcountry，"&c。，andthenproceedstodepictwhatanenormousnumberandvarietyofindustriescontributetothesatisfactionofthewantsofanordinarylabourer，iscopiedalmostwordforwordfromB。deMandeville’sRemarkstohis"FableoftheBees，orPrivateVices，PublickBenefits。"（Firsted。，withouttheremarks，1706;withtheremarks，1714。）
　　[34]"Thereisnolongeranythingwhichwecancallthenaturalrewardofindividuallabour。Eachlabourerproducesonlysomepartofawhole，andeachpart，havingnovalueorutilityinitself，thereisnothingonwhichthelabourercanseize，andsay:Itismyproduct，thisIwillkeeptomyself。"（"LabourDefendedagainsttheClaimsofCapital。"Lond。，1825，p。25。）TheauthorofthisadmirableworkistheTh。HodgskinIhavealreadycited。
　　[35]Thisdistinctionbetweendivisionoflabourinsocietyandinmanufacture，waspracticallyillustratedtotheYankees。OneofthenewtaxesdevisedatWashingtonduringthecivilwar，wasthedutyof6%"onallindustrialproducts。"Question:Whatisanindustrialproduct？Answerofthelegislature:
　　Athingisproduced"whenitismade，"anditismadewhenitisreadyforsale。Now，foroneexampleoutofmany。TheNewYorkandPhiladelphiamanufacturershadpreviouslybeeninthehabitof"making"umbrellaswithalltheirbelongings。Butsinceanumbrellaisamixtumcompositumofveryheterogeneousparts，bydegreesthesepartsbecametheproductsofvariousseparateindustries，carriedonindependentlyindifferentplaces。
　　Theyenteredasseparatecommoditiesintotheumbrellamanufactory，wheretheywerefittedtogether。TheYankeeshavegiventoarticlesthusfittedtogether，thenameof"assembledarticles，"anametheydeserve，forbeinganassemblageoftaxes。Thustheumbrella"assembles，"first，6%onthepriceofeachofitselements，andafurther6%onitsowntotalprice。
　　[36]"Onpeut……établirenrèglegénérale，quemoinsl’autoritéprésideàladivisiondutravaildansl’intérieurdelasociété，plusladivisiondutravailsedéveloppedansl’intérieurdel’atelier，etpluselleyestsoumiseàI’autoritéd’unseul。AinsiI’autorité
　　dansl’atelieretcelledanslasociété，parrapportà
　　ladivisiondutravail，sontenraisoninversel’unedeI’autre。"（KarlMarx，"Misère，"&c。，pp。130—131。）
　　[37]Lieut。—Col。MarkWilks:"HistoricalSketchesoftheSouthofIndia。"Lond。，1810—17，v。I。，pp。118—20。AgooddescriptionofthevariousformsoftheIndiancommunitiesistobefoundinGeorgeCampbell’s"ModernIndia。"
　　Lond。，1852。
　　[38]"Underthissimpleform……theinhabitantsofthecountryhavelivedfromtimeimmemorial。Theboundariesofthevillageshavebeenbutseldomaltered;
　　andthoughthevillagesthemselveshavebeensometimesinjured，andevendesolatedbywar，famine，anddisease，thesamename，thesamelimits，thesameinterests，andeventhesamefamilies，havecontinuedforages。
　　Theinhabitantsgivethemselvesnotroubleaboutthebreakingupanddivisionofkingdoms;whilethevillageremainsentire，theycarenottowhatpoweritistransferred，ortowhatsovereignitdevolves;itsInternaleconomyremainsunchanged。"（Th。StamfordRaffles，lateLieut。Gov。ofJava:"TheHistoryofJava。"Lond。，1817，Vol。I。，p。285。）