Thisexternalrelationbetweenthefinishedproduct，anditsvariousanddiverseelementsmakesit，aswellinthiscaseasinthecaseofallsimilarfinishedarticles，amatterofchancewhetherthedetaillabourersarebroughttogetherinoneworkshopornot。Thedetailoperationsmayfurtherbecarriedonlikesomanyindependenthandicrafts，astheyareintheCantonsofVaudandNeufchâtel;whileinGenevathereexistlargewatchmanufactorieswherethedetaillabourersdirectlyco—operateunderthecontrolofasinglecapitalist。Andeveninthelattercasethedial，thesprings，andthecase，areseldommadeinthefactoryitself。Tocarryonthetradeasamanufacture，withconcentrationofworkmen，is，inthewatchtrade，profitableonlyunderexceptionalconditions，becausecompetitionisgreaterbetweenthelabourerswhodesiretoworkathome，andbecausethesplittingupoftheworkintoanumberofheterogeneousprocesses，permitsbutlittleuseoftheinstrumentsoflabourincommon，andthecapitalist，byscatteringthework，savestheoutlayonworkshops，&c。[7]Neverthelessthepositionofthisdetaillabourerwho，thoughheworksathome，doessoforacapitalist（manufacturer，établisseur），isverydifferentfromthatoftheindependentartificer，whoworksforhisowncustomers。[8]
　　Thesecondkindofmanufacture，itsperfectedform，producesarticlesthatgothroughconnectedphasesofdevelopment，throughaseriesofprocessesstepbystep，likethewireinthemanufactureofneedles，whichpassesthroughthehandsof72andsometimeseven92differentdetailworkmen。
　　Insofarassuchamanufacture，whenfirststarted，combinesscatteredhandicrafts，itlessensthespacebywhichthevariousphasesofproductionareseparatedfromeachother。Thetimetakeninpassingfromonestagetoanotherisshortened，soisthelabourthateffectuatesthispassage。[9]Incomparisonwithahandicraft，productivepowerisgained，andthisgainisowingtothegeneralco—operativecharacterofmanufacture。Ontheotherhand，divisionoflabour，whichisthedistinguishingprincipleofmanufacture，requirestheisolationofthevariousstagesofproductionandtheirindependenceofeachother。Theestablishmentandmaintenanceofaconnexionbetweentheisolatedfunctionsnecessitatestheincessanttransportofthearticlefromonehandtoanother，andfromoneprocesstoanother。Fromthestandpointofmodernmechanicalindustry，thisnecessitystandsforthasacharacteristicandcostlydisadvantage，andonethatisimmanentintheprincipleofmanufacture。[10]
　　Ifweconfineourattentiontosomeparticularlotofrawmaterials，ofrags，forinstance，inpapermanufacture，orofwireinneedlemanufacture，weperceivethatitpassesinsuccessionthroughaseriesofstagesinthehandsofthevariousdetailworkmenuntilcompletion。
　　Ontheotherhand，ifwelookattheworkshopasawhole，weseetherawmaterialinallthestagesofitsproductionatthesametime。Thecollectivelabourer，withonesetofhismanyhandsarmedwithonekindoftools，drawsthewire，withanotherset，armedwithdifferenttools，he，atthesametime，straightensit，withanother，hecutsit，withanother，pointsit，andsoon。Thedifferentdetailprocesses，whichweresuccessiveintime，havebecomesimultaneous，goonsidebysideinspace。Hence，productionofagreaterquantumoffinishedcommoditiesinagiventime。[11]Thissimultaneity，itistrue，isduetothegeneralco—operativeformoftheprocessasawhole;butManufacturenotonlyfindstheconditionsforco—operationreadytohand，italso，tosomeextent，createsthembythesub—divisionofhandicraftlabour。Ontheotherhand，itaccomplishesthissocialorganisationofthelabour—processonlybyrivetingeachlabourertoasinglefractionaldetail。
　　Sincethefractionalproductofeachdetaillaboureris，atthesametime，onlyaparticularstageinthedevelopmentofoneandthesamefinishedarticle，eachlabourer，oreachgroupoflabourers，preparestherawmaterialforanotherlabourerorgroup。Theresultofthelabouroftheoneisthestarting—pointforthelabouroftheother。Theoneworkmanthereforegivesoccupationdirectlytotheother。Thelabour—timenecessaryineachpartialprocess，forattainingthedesiredeffect，islearntbyexperience;andthemechanismofManufacture，asawhole，isbasedontheassumptionthatagivenresultwillbeobtainedinagiventime。Itisonlyonthisassumptionthatthevarioussupplementarylabour—processescanproceeduninterruptedly，simultaneously，andsidebyside。Itisclearthatthisdirectdependenceoftheoperations，andthereforeofthelabourers，oneachother，compelseachoneofthemtospendonhisworknomorethanthenecessarytime，andthusacontinuity，uniformity，regularity，order，[12]andevenintensityoflabour，ofquiteadifferentkind，isbegottenthanistobefoundinanindependenthandicraftoreveninsimpleco—operation。Therule，thatthelabour—timeexpendedonacommodityshouldnotexceedthatwhichissociallynecessaryforitsproduction，appears，intheproductionofcommoditiesgenerally，tobeestablishedbythemereeffectofcompetition;since，toexpressourselvessuperficially，eachsingleproducerisobligedtosellhiscommodityatitsmarket—price。
　　InManufacture，onthecontrary，theturningoutofagivenquantumofproductinagiventimeisatechnicallawoftheprocessofproductionitself。[13]
　　Differentoperationstake，however，unequalperiods，andyieldtherefore，inequaltimesunequalquantitiesoffractionalproducts。If，therefore，thesamelabourerhas，dayafterday，toperformthesameoperation，theremustbeadifferentnumberoflabourersforeachoperation;forinstance，intypemanufacture，therearefourfoundersandtwobreakerstoonerubber:
　　thefoundercasts2，000typeanhour，thebreakerbreaksup4，000，andtherubberpolishes8，000。Herewehaveagaintheprincipleofco—operationinitssimplestform，thesimultaneousemploymentofmanydoingthesamething;onlynow，thisprincipleistheexpressionofanorganicrelation。
　　Thedivisionoflabour，ascarriedoutinManufacture，notonlysimplifiesandmultipliesthequalitativelydifferentpartsofthesocialcollectivelabourer，butalsocreatesafixedmathematicalrelationorratiowhichregulatesthequantitativeextentofthosepartsi。e。，therelativenumberoflabourers，ortherelativesizeofthegroupoflabourers，foreachdetailoperation。Itdevelops，alongwiththequalitativesub—divisionofthesociallabour—process，aquantitativeruleandproportionalityforthatprocess。
　　Whenoncethemostfittingproportionhasbeenexperimentallyestablishedforthenumbersofthedetaillabourersinthevariousgroupswhenproducingonagivenscale，thatscalecanbeextendedonlybyemployingamultipleofeachparticulargroup。[14]Thereisthistoboot，thatthesameindividualcandocertainkindsofworkjustaswellonalargeasonasmallscale;forinstance，thelabourofsuperintendence，thecarriageofthefractionalproductfromonestagetothenext，&c。Theisolationofsuchfunctions，theirallotmenttoaparticularlabourer，doesnotbecomeadvantageoustillafteranincreaseinthenumberoflabourersemployed;butthisincreasemustaffecteverygroupproportionally。
　　Theisolatedgroupoflabourerstowhomanyparticulardetailfunctionisassigned，ismadeupofhomogeneouselements，andisoneoftheconstituentpartsofthetotalmechanism。Inmanymanufactures，however，thegroupitselfisanorganisedbodyoflabour，thetotalmechanismbeingarepetitionormultiplicationoftheseelementaryorganisms。Take，forinstance，themanufactureofglassbottles。Itmayberesolvedintothreeessentiallydifferentstages。First，thepreliminarystage，consistingofthepreparationofthecomponentsoftheglass，mixingthesandandlime，&c。，andmeltingthemintoafluidmassofglass。[15]Variousdetaillabourersareemployedinthisfirststage，asalsointhefinaloneofremovingthebottlesfromthedryingfurnace，sortingandpackingthem，&c。Inthemiddle，betweenthesetwostages，comestheglassmeltingproper，themanipulationofthefluidmass。Ateachmouthofthefurnace，thereworksagroup，called"thehole，"consistingofonebottlemakerorfinisher，oneblower，onegatherer，oneputter—uporwhetter—off，andonetaker—in。Thesefivedetailworkersaresomanyspecialorgansofasingleworkingorganismthatactsonlyasawhole，andthereforecanoperateonlybythedirectco—operationofthewholefive。Thewholebodyisparalysedifbutoneofitsmembersbewanting。Butaglassfurnacehasseveralopenings（inEnglandfrom4to6），eachofwhichcontainsanearthenwaremelting—potfullofmoltenglass，andemploysasimilarfive—memberedgroupofworkers。Theorganisationofeachgroupisbasedondivisionoflabour，butthebondbetweenthedifferentgroupsissimpleco—operation，which，byusingincommononeofthemeansofproduction，thefurnace，causesittobemoreeconomicallyconsumed。Suchafurnace，withits4—6
　　groups，constitutesaglasshouse;andaglassmanufactorycomprisesanumberofsuchglasshouses，togetherwiththeapparatusandworkmenrequisiteforthepreparatoryandfinalstages。
　　Finally，justasManufacturearisesinpartfromthecombinationofvarioushandicrafts，so，too，itdevelopsintoacombinationofvariousmanufactures。ThelargerEnglishglassmanufacturers，forinstance，maketheirownearthenwaremelting—pots，because，onthequalityofthesedepends，toagreatextent，thesuccessorfailureoftheprocess。Themanufactureofoneofthemeansofproductionishereunitedwiththatoftheproduct。
　　Ontheotherhand，themanufactureoftheproductmaybeunitedwithothermanufactures，ofwhichthatproductistherawmaterial，orwiththeproductsofwhichitisitselfsubsequentlymixed。Thus，wefindthemanufactureofflintglasscombinedwiththatofglasscuttingandbrassfounding;thelatterforthemetalsettingsofvariousarticlesofglass。Thevariousmanufacturessocombinedformmoreorlessseparatedepartmentsofalargermanufacture，butareatthesametimeindependentprocesses，eachwithitsowndivisionoflabour。Inspiteofthemanyadvantagesofferedbythiscombinationofmanufactures，itnevergrowsintoacompletetechnicalsystemonitsownfoundation。Thathappensonlyonitstransformationintoanindustrycarriedonbymachinery。
　　Earlyinthemanufacturingperiod，theprincipleoflesseningthenecessarylabour—timeintheproductionofcommodities，[16]wasacceptedandformulated:andtheuseofmachines，especiallyforcertainsimplefirstprocessesthathavetobeconductedonaverylargescale，andwiththeapplicationofgreatforce，spranguphereandthere。Thus，atanearlyperiodinpapermanufacture，thetearingupoftheragswasdonebypaper—mills;andinmetalworks，thepoundingoftheoreswaseffectedbystampingmills。[17]TheRomanEmpirehadhandeddowntheelementaryformofallmachineryinthewater—wheel。[18]
　　Thehandicraftperiodbequeathedtousthegreatinventionsofthecompass，ofgunpowder，oftype—printing，andoftheautomaticclock。But，onthewhole，machineryplayedthatsubordinatepartwhichAdamSmithassignstoitincomparisonwithdivisionoflabour。[19]Thesporadicuseofmachineryinthe17thcenturywasofthegreatestimportance，becauseitsuppliedthegreatmathematiciansofthattimewithapracticalbasisandstimulanttothecreationofthescienceofmechanics。
　　Thecollectivelabourer，formedbythecombinationofanumberofdetaillabourers，isthemachineryspeciallycharacteristicofthemanufacturingperiod。Thevariousoperationsthatareperformedinturnsbytheproducerofacommodity，andcoalesceonewithanotherduringtheprogressofproduction，layclaimtohiminvariousways。Inoneoperationhemustexertmorestrength，inanothermoreskill，inanothermoreattention;andthesameindividualdoesnotpossessallthesequalitiesinanequaldegree。AfterManufacturehasonceseparated，madeindependent，andisolatedthevariousoperations，thelabourersaredivided，classified，andgroupedaccordingtotheirpredominatingqualities。Iftheirnaturalendowmentsare，ontheonehand，thefoundationonwhichthedivisionoflabourisbuiltup，ontheotherhand，Manufacture，onceintroduced，developsinthemnewpowersthatarebynaturefittedonlyforlimitedandspecialfunctions。Thecollectivelabourernowpossesses，inanequaldegreeofexcellence，allthequalitiesrequisiteforproduction，andexpendstheminthemosteconomicalmanner，byexclusivelyemployingallhisorgans，consistingofparticularlabourers，orgroupsoflabourers，inperformingtheirspecialfunctions。[20]Theone—sidednessandthedeficienciesofthedetaillabourerbecomeperfectionswhenheisapartofthecollectivelabourer。[21]Thehabitofdoingonlyonethingconvertshimintoaneverfailinginstrument，whilehisconnexionwiththewholemechanismcompelshimtoworkwiththeregularityofthepartsofamachine。[22]
　　Sincethecollectivelabourerhasfunctions，bothsimpleandcomplex，bothhighandlow，hismembers，theindividuallabour—powers，requiredifferentdegreesoftraining，andmustthereforehavedifferentvalues。Manufacture，therefore，developsahierarchyoflabour—powers，towhichtherecorrespondsascaleofwages。If，ontheonehand，theindividuallabourersareappropriatedandannexedforlifebyalimitedfunction;ontheotherhand，thevariousoperationsofthehierarchyareparcelledoutamongthelabourersaccordingtoboththeirnaturalandtheiracquiredcapabilities。[23]Everyprocessofproduction，however，requirescertainsimplemanipulations，whicheverymaniscapableofdoing。Theytooarenowseveredfromtheirconnexionwiththemorepregnantmomentsofactivity，andossifiedintoexclusivefunctionsofspeciallyappointedlabourers。Hence，Manufacturebegets，ineveryhandicraftthatitseizesupon，aclassofso—calledunskilledlabourers，aclasswhichhandicraftindustrystrictlyexcluded。Ifitdevelopsaone—sidedspecialityintoaperfection，attheexpenseofthewholeofaman’sworkingcapacity，italsobeginstomakeaspecialityoftheabsenceofalldevelopment。
　　Alongsideofthehierarchicgradationtherestepsthesimpleseparationofthelabourersintoskilledandunskilled。Forthelatter，thecostofapprenticeshipvanishes;fortheformer，itdiminishes，comparedwiththatofartificers，inconsequenceofthefunctionsbeingsimplified。Inbothcasesthevalueoflabour—powerfalls。[24]Anexceptiontothislawholdsgoodwheneverthedecompositionofthelabour—processbegetsnewandcomprehensivefunctions，thateitherhadnoplaceatall，oronlyaverymodestone，inhandicrafts。Thefallinthevalueoflabour—power，causedbythedisappearanceordiminutionoftheexpensesofapprenticeship，impliesadirectincreaseofsurplus—valueforthebenefitofcapital;
　　foreverythingthatshortensthenecessarylabour—timerequiredforthereproductionoflabour—power，extendsthedomainofsurplus—labour。
　　SECTION4DIVISIONOFLABOURINMANUFACTURE，ANDDIVISIONOFLABOURINSOCIETY
　　WefirstconsideredtheoriginofManufacture，thenitssimpleelements，thenthedetaillabourerandhisimplements，andfinally，thetotalityofthemechanism。Weshallnowlightlytouchupontherelationbetweenthedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，andthesocialdivisionoflabour，whichformsthefoundationofallproductionofcommodities。
　　Ifwekeeplabouraloneinview，wemaydesignatetheseparationofsocialproductionintoitsmaindivisionsorgenera？viz。，agriculture，industries，&c。，asdivisionoflabouringeneral，andthesplittingupofthesefamiliesintospeciesandsub—species，asdivisionoflabourinparticular，andthedivisionoflabourwithintheworkshopasdivisionoflabourinsingularorindetail。[25]
　　Divisionoflabourinasociety，andthecorrespondingtyingdownofindividualstoaparticularcalling，developsitself，justasdoesthedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，fromoppositestarting—points。Withinafamily，[26]andafterfurtherdevelopmentwithinatribe，therespringsupnaturallyadivisionoflabour，causedbydifferencesofsexandage，adivisionthatisconsequentlybasedonapurelyphysiologicalfoundation，whichdivisionenlargesitsmaterialsbytheexpansionofthecommunity，bytheincreaseofpopulation，andmoreespecially，bytheconflictsbetweendifferenttribes，andthesubjugationofonetribebyanother。Ontheotherhand，asIhavebeforeremarked，theexchangeofproductsspringsupatthepointswheredifferentfamilies，tribes，communities，comeincontact;for，inthebeginningofcivilisation，itisnotprivateindividualsbutfamilies，tribes，&c。，thatmeetonanindependentfooting。Differentcommunitiesfinddifferentmeansofproduction，anddifferentmeansofsubsistenceintheirnaturalenvironment。Hence，theirmodesofproduction，andofliving，andtheirproductsaredifferent。Itisthisspontaneouslydevelopeddifferencewhich，whendifferentcommunitiescomeincontact，callsforththemutualexchangeofproducts，andtheconsequentgradualconversionofthoseproductsintocommodities。Exchangedoesnotcreatethedifferencesbetweenthespheresofproduction，butbringswhatarealreadydifferentintorelation，andthusconvertsthemintomoreorlessinter—dependentbranchesofthecollectiveproductionofanenlargedsociety。Inthelattercase，thesocialdivisionoflabourarisesfromtheexchangebetweenspheresofproduction，thatareoriginallydistinctandindependentofoneanother。Intheformer，wherethephysiologicaldivisionoflabouristhestarting—point，theparticularorgansofacompactwholegrowloose，andbreakoff，principallyowingtotheexchangeofcommoditieswithforeigncommunities，andthenisolatethemselvessofar，thatthesolebond，stillconnectingthevariouskindsofwork，istheexchangeoftheproductsascommodities。Intheonecase，itisthemakingdependentwhatwasbeforeindependent;intheothercase，themakingindependentwhatwasbeforedependent。
　　Thefoundationofeverydivisionoflabourthatiswelldeveloped，andbroughtaboutbytheexchangeofcommodities，istheseparationbetweentownandcountry。[27]Itmaybesaid，thatthewholeeconomichistoryofsocietyissummedupinthemovementofthisantithesis。Wepassitover，however，forthepresent。
　　Justasacertainnumberofsimultaneouslyemployedlabourersarethematerialpre—requisitesfordivisionoflabourinmanufacture，soarethenumberanddensityofthepopulation，whichherecorrespondtotheagglomerationinoneworkshop，anecessaryconditionforthedivisionoflabourinsociety。[28]Nevertheless，thisdensityismoreorlessrelative。Arelativelythinlypopulatedcountry，withwell—developedmeansofcommunication，hasadenserpopulationthanamorenumerouslypopulatedcountry，withbadly—developedmeansofcommunication;andinthissensetheNorthernStatesoftheAmericanUnion，forinstance，aremorethicklypopulatedthanIndia。[29]
　　Sincetheproductionandthecirculationofcommoditiesarethegeneralpre—requisitesofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，divisionoflabourinmanufacturedemands，thatdivisionoflabourinsocietyatlargeshouldpreviouslyhaveattainedacertaindegreeofdevelopment。Inversely，theformerdivisionreactsuponanddevelopsandmultipliesthelatter。Simultaneously，withthedifferentiationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，theindustriesthatproducetheseinstruments，becomemoreandmoredifferentiated。[30]Ifthemanufacturingsystemseizeuponanindustry，which，previously，wascarriedoninconnexionwithothers，eitherasachieforasasubordinateindustry，andbyoneproducer，theseindustriesimmediatelyseparatetheirconnexion，andbecomeindependent。Ifitseizeuponaparticularstageintheproductionofacommodity，theotherstagesofitsproductionbecomeconvertedintosomanyindependentindustries。Ithasalreadybeenstated，thatwherethefinishedarticleconsistsmerelyofanumberofpartsfittedtogether，thedetailoperationsmayre—establishthemselvesasgenuineandseparatehandicrafts。Inordertocarryoutmoreperfectlythedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，asinglebranchofproductionis，accordingtothevarietiesofitsrawmaterial，orthevariousformsthatoneandthesamerawmaterialmayassume，splitupintonumerous，andtosomeextent，entirelynewmanufactures。Accordingly，inFrancealone，inthefirsthalfofthe18thcentury，over100differentkindsofsilkstuffswerewoven，and，inAvignon，itwaslaw，that"everyapprenticeshoulddevotehimselftoonlyonesortoffabrication，andshouldnotlearnthepreparationofseveralkindsofstuffatonce。"Theterritorialdivisionoflabour，whichconfinesspecialbranchesofproductiontospecialdistrictsofacountry，acquiresfreshstimulusfromthemanufacturingsystem，whichexploitseveryspecialadvantage。[31]TheColonialsystemandtheopeningoutofthemarketsoftheworld，bothofwhichareincludedinthegeneralconditionsofexistenceofthemanufacturingperiod，furnishrichmaterialfordevelopingthedivisionoflabourinsociety。Itisnottheplace，here，togoontoshowhowdivisionoflabourseizesupon，notonlytheeconomic，buteveryothersphereofsociety，andeverywherelaysthefoundationofthatallengrossingsystemofspecialisingandsortingmen，thatdevelopmentinamanofonesinglefacultyattheexpenseofallotherfaculties，whichcausedA。Ferguson，themasterofAdamSmith，toexclaim:"WemakeanationofHelots，andhavenofreecitizens。"[32]
　　But，inspiteofthenumerousanalogiesandlinksconnectingthem，divisionoflabourintheinteriorofasociety，andthatintheinteriorofaworkshop，differnotonlyindegree，butalsoinkind。Theanalogyappearsmostindisputablewherethereisaninvisiblebondunitingthevariousbranchesoftrade。Forinstancethecattle—breederproduceshides，thetannermakesthehidesintoleather，andtheshoemaker，theleatherintoboots。Herethethingproducedbyeachofthemisbutasteptowardsthefinalform，whichistheproductofalltheirlabourscombined。Thereare，besides，allthevariousindustriesthatsupplythecattle—breeder，thetanner，andtheshoemakerwiththemeansofproduction。Nowitisquitepossibletoimagine，withAdamSmith，thatthedifferencebetweentheabovesocialdivisionoflabour，andthedivisioninmanufacture，ismerelysubjective，existsmerelyfortheobserver，who，inamanufacture，canseewithoneglance，allthenumerousoperationsbeingperformedononespot，whileintheinstancegivenabove，thespreadingoutoftheworkovergreatareas，andthegreatnumberofpeopleemployedineachbranchoflabour，obscuretheconnexion。[33]Butwhatisitthatformsthebondbetweentheindependentlaboursofthecattle—breeder，thetanner，andtheshoemaker？Itisthefactthattheirrespectiveproductsarecommodities。What，ontheotherhand，characterisesdivisionoflabourinmanufactures？Thefactthatthedetaillabourerproducesnocommodities。[34]Itisonlythecommonproductofallthedetaillabourersthatbecomesacommodity。[35]Divisionoflabourinsocietyisbroughtaboutbythepurchaseandsaleoftheproductsofdifferentbranchesofindustry，whiletheconnexionbetweenthedetailoperationsinaworkshop，isduetothesaleofthelabour—powerofseveralworkmentoonecapitalist，whoappliesitascombinedlabour—power。Thedivisionoflabourintheworkshopimpliesconcentrationofthemeansofproductioninthehandsofonecapitalist;thedivisionoflabourinsocietyimpliestheirdispersionamongmanyindependentproducersofcommodities。
　　Whilewithintheworkshop，theironlawofproportionalitysubjectsdefinitenumbersofworkmentodefinitefunctions，inthesocietyoutsidetheworkshop，chanceandcapricehavefullplayindistributingtheproducersandtheirmeansofproductionamongthevariousbranchesofindustry。Thedifferentspheresofproduction，itistrue，constantlytendtoanequilibrium:for，ontheonehand，whileeachproducerofacommodityisboundtoproduceause—value，tosatisfyaparticularsocialwant，andwhiletheextentofthesewantsdiffersquantitatively，stillthereexistsaninnerrelationwhichsettlestheirproportionsintoaregularsystem，andthatsystemoneofspontaneousgrowth;and，ontheotherhand，thelawofthevalueofcommoditiesultimatelydetermineshowmuchofitsdisposableworking—timesocietycanexpendoneachparticularclassofcommodities。Butthisconstanttendencytoequilibrium，ofthevariousspheresofproduction，isexercised，onlyintheshapeofareactionagainsttheconstantupsettingofthisequilibrium。Theapriorisystemonwhichthedivisionoflabour，withintheworkshop，isregularlycarriedout，becomesinthedivisionoflabourwithinthesociety，anaposteriori，nature—imposednecessity，controllingthelawlesscapriceoftheproducers，andperceptibleinthebarometricalfluctuationsofthemarket—prices。Divisionoflabourwithintheworkshopimpliestheundisputedauthorityofthecapitalistovermen，thatarebutpartsofamechanismthatbelongstohim。Thedivisionoflabourwithinthesocietybringsintocontactindependentcommodity—producers，whoacknowledgenootherauthoritybutthatofcompetition，ofthecoercionexertedbythepressureoftheirmutualinterests;justasintheanimalkingdom，thebellumomniumcontraomnesmoreorlesspreservestheconditionsofexistenceofeveryspecies。Thesamebourgeoismindwhichpraisesdivisionoflabourintheworkshop，life—longannexationofthelabourertoapartialoperation，andhiscompletesubjectiontocapital，asbeinganorganisationoflabourthatincreasesitsproductivenessthatsamebourgeoisminddenounceswithequalvigoureveryconsciousattempttosociallycontrolandregulatetheprocessofproduction，asaninroaduponsuchsacredthingsastherightsofproperty，freedomandunrestrictedplayforthebentoftheindividualcapitalist。Itisverycharacteristicthattheenthusiasticapologistsofthefactorysystemhavenothingmoredamningtourgeagainstageneralorganisationofthelabourofsociety，thanthatitwouldturnallsocietyintooneimmensefactory。
　　If，inasocietywithcapitalistproduction，anarchyinthesocialdivisionoflabouranddespotisminthatoftheworkshoparemutualconditionstheoneoftheother，wefind，onthecontrary，inthoseearlierformsofsocietyinwhichtheseparationoftradeshasbeenspontaneouslydeveloped，thencrystallised，andfinallymadepermanentbylaw，ontheonehand，aspecimenoftheorganisationofthelabourofsociety，inaccordancewithanapprovedandauthoritativeplan，andontheother，theentireexclusionofdivisionoflabourintheworkshop，oratalleventsameredwarflikeorsporadicandaccidentaldevelopmentofthesame。[36]
　　ThosesmallandextremelyancientIndiancommunities，someofwhichhavecontinueddowntothisday，arebasedonpossessionincommonoftheland，ontheblendingofagricultureandhandicrafts，andonanunalterabledivisionoflabour，whichserves，wheneveranewcommunityisstarted，asaplanandschemereadycutanddried。Occupyingareasoffrom100uptoseveralthousandacres，eachformsacompactwholeproducingallitrequires。Thechiefpartoftheproductsisdestinedfordirectusebythecommunityitself，anddoesnottaketheformofacommodity。Hence，productionhereisindependentofthatdivisionoflabourbroughtabout，inIndiansocietyasawhole，bymeansoftheexchangeofcommodities。
　　Itisthesurplusalonethatbecomesacommodity，andaportionofeventhat，notuntilithasreachedthehandsoftheState，intowhosehandsfromtimeimmemorialacertainquantityoftheseproductshasfounditswayintheshapeofrentinkind。TheconstitutionofthesecommunitiesvariesindifferentpartsofIndia。Inthoseofthesimplestform，thelandistilledincommon，andtheproducedividedamongthemembers。Atthesametime，spinningandweavingarecarriedonineachfamilyassubsidiaryindustries。Sidebysidewiththemassesthusoccupiedwithoneandthesamework，wefindthe"chiefinhabitant，"whoisjudge，police，andtax—gathererinone;thebook—keeper，whokeepstheaccountsofthetillageandregisterseverythingrelatingthereto;anotherofficial，whoprosecutescriminals，protectsstrangerstravellingthroughandescortsthemtothenextvillage;theboundaryman，whoguardstheboundariesagainstneighbouringcommunities;thewater—overseer，whodistributesthewaterfromthecommontanksforirrigation;theBrahmin，whoconductsthereligiousservices;
　　theschoolmaster，whoonthesandteachesthechildrenreadingandwriting;
　　thecalendar—Brahmin，orastrologer，whomakesknowntheluckyorunluckydaysforseed—timeandharvest，andforeveryotherkindofagriculturalwork;asmithandacarpenter，whomakeandrepairalltheagriculturalimplements;thepotter，whomakesallthepotteryofthevillage;thebarber，thewasherman，whowashesclothes，thesilversmith，hereandtherethepoet，whoinsomecommunitiesreplacesthesilversmith，inotherstheschoolmaster。
　　Thisdozenofindividualsismaintainedattheexpenseofthewholecommunity。Ifthepopulationincreases，anewcommunityisfounded，onthepatternoftheoldone，onunoccupiedland。Thewholemechanismdisclosesasystematicdivisionoflabour;butadivisionlikethatinmanufacturesisimpossible，sincethesmithandthecarpenter，&c。，findanunchangingmarket，andatthemostthereoccur，accordingtothesizesofthevillages，twoorthreeofeach，insteadofone。[37]ThelawthatregulatesthedivisionoflabourinthecommunityactswiththeirresistibleauthorityofalawofNature，atthesametimethateachindividualartificer，thesmith，thecarpenter，andsoon，conductsinhisworkshopalltheoperationsofhishandicraftinthetraditionalway，butindependently，andwithoutrecognisinganyauthorityoverhim。Thesimplicityoftheorganisationforproductionintheseself—sufficingcommunitiesthatconstantlyreproducethemselvesinthesameform，andwhenaccidentallydestroyed，springupagainonthespotandwiththesamename[38]thissimplicitysuppliesthekeytothesecretoftheunchangeablenessofAsiaticsocieties，anunchangeablenessinsuchstrikingcontrastwiththeconstantdissolutionandrefoundingofAsiaticStates，andthenever—ceasingchangesofdynasty。Thestructureoftheeconomicelementsofsocietyremainsuntouchedbythestorm—cloudsofthepoliticalsky。
　　Therulesoftheguilds，asIhavesaidbefore，bylimitingmoststrictlythenumberofapprenticesandjourneymenthatasinglemastercouldemploy，preventedhimfrombecomingacapitalist。Moreover，hecouldnotemployhisjourneymeninmanyotherhandicraftsthantheoneinwhichhewasamaster。Theguildszealouslyrepelledeveryencroachmentbythecapitalofmerchants，theonlyformoffreecapitalwithwhichtheycameincontact。
　　Amerchantcouldbuyeverykindofcommodity，butlabourasacommodityhecouldnotbuy。Heexistedonlyonsufferance，asadealerintheproductsofthehandicrafts。Ifcircumstancescalledforafurtherdivisionoflabour，theexistingguildssplitthemselvesupintovarieties，orfoundednewguildsbythesideoftheoldones;allthis，however，withoutconcentratingvarioushandicraftsinasingleworkshop。Hence，theguildorganisation，howevermuchitmayhavecontributedbyseparating，isolating，andperfectingthehandicrafts，tocreatethematerialconditionsfortheexistenceofmanufacture，excludeddivisionoflabourintheworkshop。Onthewhole，thelabourerandhismeansofproductionremainedcloselyunited，likethesnailwithitsshell，andthustherewaswantingtheprincipalbasisofmanufacture，theseparationofthelabourerfromhismeansofproduction，andtheconversionofthesemeansintocapital。
　　Whiledivisionoflabourinsocietyatlarge，whethersuchdivisionbebroughtaboutornotbyexchangeofcommodities，iscommontoeconomicformationsofsocietythemostdiverse，divisionoflabourintheworkshop，aspractisedbymanufacture，isaspecialcreationofthecapitalistmodeofproductionalone。
　　SECTION5THECAPITALISTICCHARACTEROFMANUFACTURE
　　Anincreasednumberoflabourersunderthecontrolofonecapitalististhenaturalstarting—point，aswellofco—operationgenerally，asofmanufactureinparticular。Butthedivisionoflabourinmanufacturemakesthisincreaseinthenumberofworkmenatechnicalnecessity。Theminimumnumberthatanygivencapitalistisboundtoemployishereprescribedbythepreviouslyestablisheddivisionoflabour。Ontheotherhand，theadvantagesoffurtherdivisionareobtainableonlybyaddingtothenumberofworkmen，andthiscanbedoneonlybyaddingmultiplesofthevariousdetailgroups。Butanincreaseinthevariablecomponentofthecapitalemployednecessitatesanincreaseinitsconstantcomponent，too，intheworkshops，implements，&c。，and，inparticular，intherawmaterial，thecallforwhichgrowsquickerthanthenumberofworkmen。
　　Thequantityofitconsumedinagiventime，byagivenamountoflabour，increasesinthesameratioasdoestheproductivepowerofthatlabourinconsequenceofitsdivision。Hence，itisalaw，basedontheverynatureofmanufacture，thattheminimumamountofcapital，whichisboundtobeinthehandsofeachcapitalist，mustkeepincreasing;inotherwords，thatthetransformationintocapitalofthesocialmeansofproductionandsubsistencemustkeepextending。[39]
　　Inmanufacture，aswellasinsimpleco—operation，thecollectiveworkingorganismisaformofexistenceofcapital。Themechanismthatismadeupofnumerousindividualdetaillabourersbelongstothecapitalist。Hence，theproductivepowerresultingfromacombinationoflaboursappearstobetheproductivepowerofcapital。Manufacturepropernotonlysubjectsthepreviouslyindependentworkmantothedisciplineandcommandofcapital，but，inaddition，createsahierarchicgradationoftheworkmenthemselves。