Weproceedupontheassumptionthatspinningissimple，unskilledlabour，theaveragelabourofagivenstateofsociety。Hereafterweshallseethatthecontraryassumptionwouldmakenodifference。
　　Whilethelabourerisatwork，hislabourconstantlyundergoesatransformation:
　　frombeingmotion，itbecomesanobjectwithoutmotion;frombeingthelabourerworking，itbecomesthethingproduced。Attheendofonehour’sspinning，thatactisrepresentedbyadefinitequantityofyarn;inotherwords，adefinitequantityoflabour，namelythatofonehour，hasbecomeembodiedinthecotton。Wesaylabour，i。e。，theexpenditureofhisvitalforcebythespinner，andnotspinninglabour，becausethespecialworkofspinningcountshere，onlysofarasitistheexpenditureoflabour—poweringeneral，andnotinsofarasitisthespecificworkofthespinner。
　　Intheprocesswearenowconsideringitisofextremeimportance，thatnomoretimebeconsumedintheworkoftransformingthecottonintoyarnthanisnecessaryunderthegivensocialconditions。Ifundernormal，i。e。，averagesocialconditionsofproduction，apoundsofcottonoughttobemadeintobpoundsofyarnbyonehour’slabour，thenaday’slabourdoesnotcountas12hours’labourunless12apoundsofcottonhavebeenmadeinto12bpoundsofyarn;forinthecreationofvalue，thetimethatissociallynecessaryalonecounts。
　　Notonlythelabour，butalsotherawmaterialandtheproductnowappearinquiteanewlight，verydifferentfromthatinwhichweviewedtheminthelabour—processpureandsimple。Therawmaterialservesnowmerelyasanabsorbentofadefinitequantityoflabour。Bythisabsorptionitisinfactchangedintoyarn，becauseitisspun，becauselabour—powerintheformofspinningisaddedtoit;buttheproduct，theyarn，isnownothingmorethanameasureofthelabourabsorbedbythecotton。Ifinonehour12/3lbs。ofcottoncanbespuninto12/3lbs。ofyarn，then10lbs。ofyarnindicatetheabsorptionof6hours’labour。Definitequantitiesofproduct，thesequantitiesbeingdeterminedbyexperience，nowrepresentnothingbutdefinitequantitiesoflabour，definitemassesofcrystallisedlabour—time。Theyarenothingmorethanthematerialisationofsomanyhoursorsomanydaysofsociallabour。
　　Weareherenomoreconcernedaboutthefacts，thatthelabouristhespecificworkofspinning，thatitssubjectiscottonanditsproductyarn，thanweareaboutthefactthatthesubjectitselfisalreadyaproductandthereforerawmaterial。Ifthespinner，insteadofspinning，wereworkinginacoalmine，thesubjectofhislabour，thecoal，wouldbesuppliedbyNature;nevertheless，adefinitequantityofextractedcoal，ahundredweightforexample，wouldrepresentadefinitequantityofabsorbedlabour。
　　Weassumed，ontheoccasionofitssale，thatthevalueofaday’slabour—poweristhreeshillings，andthatsixhours’labourisincorporatedinthatsum;andconsequentlythatthisamountoflabourisrequisitetoproducethenecessariesoflifedailyrequiredonanaveragebythelabourer。Ifnowourspinnerbyworkingforonehour，canconvert12/3lbs。ofcottoninto12/3lbs。ofyarn，[12]itfollowsthatinsixhourshewillconvert10lbs。ofcottoninto10
　　lbs。ofyarn。Hence，duringthespinningprocess，thecottonabsorbssixhours’labour。Thesamequantityoflabourisalsoembodiedinapieceofgoldofthevalueofthreeshillings。Consequentlybythemerelabourofspinning，avalueofthreeshillingsisaddedtothecotton。
　　Letusnowconsiderthetotalvalueoftheproduct，the10lbs。ofyarn。
　　Twoandahalfdays’labourhasbeenembodiedinit，ofwhichtwodayswerecontainedinthecottonandinthesubstanceofthespindlewornaway，andhalfadaywasabsorbedduringtheprocessofspinning。Thistwoandahalfdays’labourisalsorepresentedbyapieceofgoldofthevalueoffifteenshillings。Hence，fifteenshillingsisanadequatepriceforthe10lbs。ofyarn，orthepriceofonepoundiseighteenpence。
　　Ourcapitaliststaresinastonishment。ThevalueoftheproductisexactlyequaItothevalueofthecapitaladvanced。Thevaluesoadvancedhasnotexpanded，nosurplus—valuehasbeencreated，andconsequentlymoneyhasnotbeenconvertedintocapital。Thepriceoftheyarnisfifteenshillings，andfifteenshillingswerespentintheopenmarketupontheconstituentelementsoftheproduct，or，whatamountstothesamething，uponthefactorsofthelabour—process;tenshillingswerepaidforthecotton，twoshillingsforthesubstanceofthespindlewornaway，andthreeshillingsforthelabour—power。Theswollenvalueoftheyarnisofnoavail，foritismerelythesumofthevaluesformerlyexistinginthecotton，thespindle，andthelabour—power:outofsuchasimpleadditionofexistingvalues，nosurplus—valuecanpossiblyarise。[13]Theseseparatevaluesarenowallconcentratedinonething;butsotheywerealsointhesumoffifteenshillings，beforeitwassplitupintothreeparts，bythepurchaseofthecommodities。
　　Thereisinrealitynothingverystrangeinthisresult。Thevalueofonepoundofyarnbeingeighteenpence，ifourcapitalistbuys10lbs。ofyarninthemarket，hemustpayfifteenshillingsforthem。Itisclearthat，whetheramanbuyshishousereadybuilt，orgetsitbuiltforhim，inneithercasewillthemodeofacquisitionincreasetheamountofmoneylaidoutonthehouse。
　　Ourcapitalist，whoisathomeinhisvulgareconomy，exclaims:"Oh！
　　butIadvancedmymoneyfortheexpresspurposeofmakingmoremoney。"ThewaytoHellispavedwithgoodintentions，andhemightjustaseasilyhaveintendedtomakemoney，withoutproducingatall。[14]Hethreatensallsortsofthings。Hewon’tbecaughtnappingagain。Infuturehewillbuythecommoditiesinthemarket，insteadofmanufacturingthemhimself。Butifallhisbrothercapitalistsweretodothesame，wherewouldhefindhiscommoditiesinthemarket？Andhismoneyhecannoteat。
　　Hetriespersuasion。"Considermyabstinence;Imighthaveplayedducksanddrakeswiththe15shillings;butinsteadofthatIconsumeditproductively，andmadeyarnwithit。"Verywell，andbywayofrewardheisnowinpossessionofgoodyarninsteadofabadconscience;andasforplayingthepartofamiser，itwouldneverdoforhimtorelapseintosuchbadwaysasthat;wehaveseenbeforetowhatresultssuchasceticismleads。
　　Besides，wherenothingis，thekinghaslosthisrights;whatevermaybethemeritofhisabstinence，thereisnothingwherewithspeciallytoremunerateit，becausethevalueoftheproductismerelythesumofthevaluesofthecommoditiesthatwerethrownintotheprocessofproduction。Lethimthereforeconsole’himselfwiththereflectionthatvirtueisitsownreward，Butno，hebecomesimportunate。Hesays:"Theyarnisofnousetome:
　　Iproduceditforsale。"Inthatcaselethimsellit，or，stillbetter，lethimforthefutureproduceonlythingsforsatisfyinghispersonalwants，aremedythathisphysicianMacCullochhasalreadyprescribedasinfallibleagainstanepidemicofover—production。Henowgetsobstinate。"Canthelabourer，"
　　heasks，"merelywithhisarmsandlegs，producecommoditiesoutofnothing？
　　DidInotsupplyhimwiththematerials，bymeansofwhich，andinwhichalone，hislabourcouldbeembodied？Andasthegreaterpartofsocietyconsistsofsuchne’er—do—wells，haveInotrenderedsocietyincalculableservicebymyinstrumentsofproduction，mycottonandmyspindle，andnotonlysociety，butthelaboureralso，whominadditionIhaveprovidedwiththenecessariesoflife？AndamItobeallowednothinginreturnforallthisservice？"Well，buthasnotthelabourerrenderedhimtheequivalentserviceofchanginghiscottonandspindleintoyarn？Moreover，thereisherenoquestionofservice。[15]Aserviceisnothingmorethantheusefuleffectofause—value，beitofacommodity，orbeitoflabour。[16]Butherewearedealingwithexchange—value。Thecapitalistpaidtothelaboureravalueof3shillings，andthelabourergavehimbackanexactequivalentinthevalueof3shillings，addedbyhimtothecotton:hegavehimvalueforvalue。Ourfriend，uptothistimesopurse—proud，suddenlyassumesthemodestdemeanourofhisownworkman，andexclaims:"HaveImyselfnotworked？HaveInotperformedthelabourofsuperintendenceandofoverlookingthespinner？Anddoesnotthislabour，too，createvalue？"Hisoverlookerandhismanagertrytohidetheirsmiles。Meanwhile，afteraheartylaugh，here—assumeshisusualmien。Thoughhechantedtousthewholecreedoftheeconomists，inreality，hesays，hewouldnotgiveabrassfarthingforit。HeleavesthisandallsuchlikesubterfugesandjugglingtrickstotheprofessorsofPoliticalEconomy，whoarepaidforit。Hehimselfisapracticalman;andthoughhedoesnotalwaysconsiderwhathesaysoutsidehisbusiness，yetinhisbusinessheknowswhatheisabout。
　　Letusexaminethemattermoreclosely。Thevalueofaday’slabour—poweramountsto3shillings，becauseonourassumptionhalfaday’slabourisembodiedinthatquantityoflabour—power，i。e。，becausethemeansofsubsistencethataredailyrequiredfortheproductionoflabour—power，costhalfaday’slabour。Butthepastlabourthatisembodiedinthelabour—power，andthelivinglabourthatitcancallintoaction;thedailycostofmaintainingit，anditsdailyexpenditureinwork，aretwototallydifferentthings。
　　Theformerdeterminestheexchange—valueofthelabour—power，thelatterisitsuse—value。Thefactthathalfaday’slabourisnecessarytokeepthelaboureraliveduring24hours，doesnotinanywaypreventhimfromworkingawholeday。Therefore，thevalueoflabour—power，andthevaluewhichthatlabour—powercreatesinthelabour—process，aretwoentirelydifferentmagnitudes;andthisdifferenceofthetwovalueswaswhatthecapitalisthadinview，whenhewaspurchasingthelabour—power。Theusefulqualitiesthatlabour—powerpossesses，andbyvirtueofwhichitmakesyarnorboots，weretohimnothingmorethanaconditiosinequanon;forinordertocreatevalue，labourmustbeexpendedinausefulmanner。Whatreallyinfluencedhimwasthespecificuse—valuewhichthiscommoditypossessesofbeingasourcenotonlyofvalue，butofmorevaluethanithasitself。Thisisthespecialservicethatthecapitalistexpectsfromlabour—power，andinthistransactionheactsinaccordancewiththe"eternallaws"oftheexchangeofcommodities。Theselleroflabour—power，likethesellerofanyothercommodity，realisesitsexchange—value，andpartswithitsuse—value。Hecannottaketheonewithoutgivingtheother。Theuse—valueoflabour—power，orinotherwords，labour，belongsjustaslittletoitsseller，astheuse—valueofoilafterithasbeensoldbelongstothedealerwhohassoldit。Theownerofthemoneyhaspaidthevalueofaday’slabour—power;
　　his，therefore，istheuseofitforaday;aday’slabourbelongstohim。
　　Thecircumstance，thatontheonehandthedailysustenanceoflabour—powercostsonlyhalfaday’slabour，whileontheotherhandtheverysamelabour—powercanworkduringawholeday，thatconsequentlythevaluewhichitsuseduringonedaycreates，isdoublewhathepaysforthatuse，thiscircumstanceis，withoutdoubt，apieceofgoodluckforthebuyer，butbynomeansaninjurytotheseller。
　　Ourcapitalistforesawthisstateofthings，andthatwasthecauseofhislaughter。Thelabourerthereforefinds，intheworkshop，themeansofproductionnecessaryforworking，notonlyduringsix，butduringtwelvehours。Justasduringthesixhours’processour10lbs。ofcottonabsorbedsixhours’labour，andbecame10lbs。ofyarn，sonow，20lbs。ofcottonwillabsorb12hours’labourandbechangedinto20lbs。ofyarn。Letusnowexaminetheproductofthisprolongedprocess。Thereisnowmaterialisedinthis20lbs。ofyarnthelabouroffivedays，ofwhichfourdaysareduetothecottonandtheloststeelofthespindle，theremainingdayhavingbeenabsorbedbythecottonduringthespinningprocess。
　　Expressedingold，thelabouroffivedaysisthirtyshillings。Thisisthereforethepriceofthe20lbs。ofyarn，giving，asbefore，eighteenpenceasthepriceofapound。Butthesumofthevaluesofthecommoditiesthatenteredintotheprocessamountsto27shillings。Thevalueoftheyarnis30shillings。Thereforethevalueoftheproductis1/9greaterthanthevalueadvancedforitsproduction;27shillingshavebeentransformedinto30shillings;asurplus—valueof3shillingshasbeencreated。Thetrickhasatlastsucceeded;moneyhasbeenconvertedintocapital。
　　Everyconditionoftheproblemissatisfied，whilethelawsthatregulatetheexchangeofcommodities，havebeeninnowayviolated。Equivalenthasbeenexchangedforequivalent。Forthecapitalistasbuyerpaidforeachcommodity，forthecotton，thespindleandthelabour—power，itsfullvalue。
　　Hethendidwhatisdonebyeverypurchaserofcommodities;heconsumedtheiruse—value。Theconsumptionofthelabour—power，whichwasalsotheprocessofproducingcommodities，resultedin20lbs。ofyarn，havingavalueof30shillings。Thecapitalist，formerlyabuyer，nowreturnstomarketasaseller，ofcommodities。Hesellshisyarnateighteenpenceapound，whichisitsexactvalue。Yetforallthathewithdraws3shillingsmorefromcirculationthanheoriginallythrewintoit。Thismetamorphosis，thisconversionofmoneyintocapital，takesplacebothwithinthesphereofcirculationandalsooutsideit;withinthecirculation，becauseconditionedbythepurchaseofthelabour—powerinthemarket;outsidethecirculation，becausewhatisdonewithinitisonlyastepping—stonetotheproductionofsurplus—value，aprocesswhichisentirelyconfinedtothesphereofproduction。Thus"toutestpourlemieuxdanslemeflleurdesmondespossibles。"
　　Byturninghismoneyintocommoditiesthatserveasthematerialelementsofanewproduct，andasfactorsinthelabour—process，byincorporatinglivinglabourwiththeirdeadsubstance，thecapitalistatthesametimeconvertsvalue，i。e。，past，materialised，anddeadlabourintocapital，intovaluebigwithvalue，alivemonsterthatisfruitfulandmultiplies。
　　Ifwenowcomparethetwoprocessesofproducingvalueandofcreatingsurplus—value，weseethatthelatterisnothingbutthecontinuationoftheformerbeyondadefinitepoint。Ifontheonehandtheprocessbenotcarriedbeyondthepoint，wherethevaluepaidbythecapitalistforthelabour—powerisreplacedbyanexactequivalent，itissimplyaprocessofproducingvalue;if，ontheotherhand，itbecontinuedbeyondthatpoint，itbecomesaprocessofcreatingsurplus—value。
　　Ifweproceedfurther，andcomparetheprocessofproducingvaluewiththelabour—process，pureandsimple，wefindthatthelatterconsistsoftheusefullabour，thework，thatproducesuse—values。Herewecontemplatethelabourasproducingaparticulararticle;weviewitunderitsqualitativeaspectalone，withregardtoitsendandaim。Butviewedasavalue—creatingprocess，thesamelabour—processpresentsitselfunderitsquantitativeaspectalone。Hereitisaquestionmerelyofthetimeoccupiedbythelabourerindoingthework;oftheperiodduringwhichthelabour—powerisusefullyexpended。Here，thecommoditiesthattakepartintheprocess，donotcountanylongerasnecessaryadjunctsoflabour—powerintheproductionofadefinite，usefulobject。Theycountmerelyasdepositoriesofsomuchabsorbedormaterialisedlabour;thatlabour，whetherpreviouslyembodiedinthemeansofproduction，orincorporatedinthemforthefirsttimeduringtheprocessbytheactionoflabour—power，countsineithercaseonlyaccordingtoitsduration;itamountstosomanyhoursordaysasthecasemaybe。
　　Moreover，onlysomuchofthetimespentintheproductionofanyarticleiscounted，as，underthegivensocialconditions，isnecessary。Theconsequencesofthisarevarious。Inthefirstplace，itbecomesnecessarythatthelabourshouldbecarriedonundernormalconditions。Ifaself—actingmuleistheimplementingeneraluseforspinning，itwouldbeabsurdtosupplythespinnerwithadistaffandspinningwheel。Thecottontoomustnotbesuchrubbishastocauseextrawasteinbeingworked，butmustbeofsuitablequality。Otherwisethespinnerwouldbefoundtospendmoretimeinproducingapoundofyarnthanissociallynecessary，inwhichcasetheexcessoftimewouldcreateneithervaluenormoney。Butwhetherthematerialfactorsoftheprocessareofnormalqualityornot，dependsnotuponthelabourer，butentirelyuponthecapitalist。
　　Thenagain，thelabour—poweritselfmustbeofaverageefficacy。Inthetradeinwhichitisbeingemployed，itmustpossesstheaverageskill，handinessandquicknessprevalentinthattrade，andourcapitalisttookgoodcaretobuylabour—powerofsuchnormalgoodness。Thispowermustbeappliedwiththeaverageamountofexertionandwiththeusualdegreeofintensity;andthecapitalistisascarefultoseethatthisisdone，asthathisworkmenarenotidleforasinglemoment。Hehasbought，theuseofthelabour—powerforadefiniteperiod，andheinsistsuponhisrights。Hehasnointentionofbeingrobbed。Lastly，andforthispurposeourfriendhasapenalcodeofhisown，allwastefulconsumptionofrawmaterialorinstrumentsoflabourisstrictlyforbidden，becausewhatissowasted，representslaboursuperfluouslyexpended，labourthatdoesnotcountintheproductorenterintoitsvalue。[17]
　　Wenowsee，thatthedifferencebetweenlabour，consideredontheonehandasproducingutilities，andontheotherhand，ascreatingvalue，adifferencewhichwediscoveredbyouranalysisofacommodity，resolvesitselfintoadistinctionbetweentwoaspectsoftheprocessofproduction。
　　Theprocessofproduction，consideredontheonehandastheunityofthelabour—processandtheprocessofcreatingvalue，isproductionofcommodities;consideredontheotherhandastheunityofthelabour—processandtheprocessofproducingsurplus—value，itisthecapitalistprocessofproduction，orcapitalistproductionofcommodities。
　　Westated，onapreviouspage，thatinthecreationofsurplus—valueitdoesnotintheleastmatter，whetherthelabourappropriatedbythecapitalistbesimpleunskilledlabourofaveragequalityormorecomplicatedskilledlabour。Alllabourofahigherormorecomplicatedcharacterthanaveragelabourisexpenditureoflabour—powerofamorecostlykind，labour—powerwhoseproductionhascostmoretimeandlabour，andwhichthereforehasahighervalue，thanunskilledorsimplelabour—power。
　　Thispowerbeinghigher—value，itsconsumptionislabourofahigherclass，labourthatcreatesinequaltimesproportionallyhighervaluesthanunskilledlabourdoes。Whateverdifferenceinskilltheremaybebetweenthelabourofaspinnerandthatofajeweller，theportionofhislabourbywhichthejewellermerelyreplacesthevalueofhisownlabour—power，doesnotinanywaydifferinqualityfromtheadditionalportionbywhichhecreatessurplus—value。Inthemakingofjewellery，justasinspinning，thesurplus—valueresultsonlyfromaquantitativeexcessoflabour，fromalengthening—outofoneandthesamelabour—process，intheonecase，oftheprocessofmakingjewels，intheotheroftheprocessofmakingyarn。[18]
　　Butontheotherhand，ineveryprocessofcreatingvalue，thereductionofskilledlabourtoaveragesociallabour，e。g。，onedayofskilledtosixdaysofunskilledlabour，isunavoidable。[19]Wethereforesaveourselvesasuperfluousoperation，andsimplifyouranalysis，bytheassumption，thatthelabouroftheworkmanemployedbythecapitalistisunskilledaveragelabour。
　　Footnotes[1]"Theearth’sspontaneousproductionsbeinginsmallquantity，andquiteindependentofman，appear，asitwere，tobefurnishedbyNature，inthesamewayasasmallsumisgiventoayoungman，inordertoputhiminawayofindustry，andofmakinghisfortune。"（JamesStueart:"PrinciplesofPolit。Econ。"edit。Dublin，1770，v。I，p。116。）
　　[2]"Reasonisjustascunningassheispowerful。Hercunningconsistsprincipallyinhermediatingactivity，which，bycausingobjectstoactandre—actoneachotherinaccordancewiththeirownnature，inthisway，withoutanydirectinterferenceintheprocess，carriesoutreason’sintentions。"
　　（Hegel:"Enzyklopädie，ErsterTheil，DieLogik，"Berlin，1840，p。
　　382。）
　　[3]Inhisotherwisemiserablework（"ThéoriedeI’Econ。Polit。"Paris，1815），Ganilhenumeratesinastrikingmannerinoppositiontothe"Physiocrats"
　　thelongseriesofpreviousprocessesnecessarybeforeagricultureproperlysocalledcancommence。
　　[4]Turgotinhis"RéflexionssurlaFormationetlaDistributiondesRichesses"（1766）bringswellintoprominencetheimportanceofdomesticatedanimalstoearlycivilisation。
　　[5]Theleastimportantcommoditiesofallforthetechnologicalcomparisonofdifferentepochsofproductionarearticlesofluxury，inthestrictmeaningoftheterm。Howeverlittleourwrittenhistoriesuptothistimenoticethedevelopmentofmaterialproduction，whichisthebasisofallsociallife，andthereforeofallrealhistory，yetprehistorictimeshavebeenclassifiedinaccordancewiththeresults，notofso—calledhistorical，butofmaterialisticinvestigations。Theseperiodshavebeendivided，tocorrespondwiththematerialsfromwhichtheirimplementsandweaponsweremade，viz。，intothestone，thebronze，andtheironages。
　　[6]Itappearsparadoxicaltoassert，thatuncaughtfish，forinstance，areameansofproductioninthefishingindustry。Buthithertonoonehasdiscoveredtheartofcatchingfishinwatersthatcontainnone。
　　[7]Thismethodofdetermining，fromthestandpointofthelabour—processalone，whatisproductivelabour，isbynomeansdirectlyapplicabletothecaseofthecapitalistprocessofproduction。
　　[8]Storchcallstruerawmaterials"matières，"andaccessorymaterial"matériaux。"Cherbuliezdescribesaccessoriesas"matièresinstrumentales。"
　　[9]Byawonderfulfcatoflogicalacumen，ColonelTorrenshasdiscovered，inthisstoneofthesavagetheoriginofcapital。"Inthefirststonewhichhe[thesavage]flingsatthewildanimalhepursues，inthefirststickthatheseizestostrikedownthefruitwhichhangsabovehisreach，weseetheappropriationofonearticleforthepurposeofaidingintheacquisitionofanother，andthusdiscovertheoriginofcapital。"（R。Torrens:
　　"AnEssayontheProductionofWealth，"&c。，pp。70—71。）
　　[10]"Productsareappropriatedbeforetheyareconvertedintocapital;thisconversiondoesnotsecurethemfromsuchappropriation。"（Cheibuliez:
　　"RichesseonPauvreté，"edit。Paris，1841，p。54。）"TheProletarian，bysellinghislabourforadefinitequantityofthenecessariesoflife，renouncesallclaimtoashareintheproduct。Themodeofappropriationoftheproductsremainsthesameasbefore;itisinnowayalteredbythebargainwehavementioned。Theproductbelongsexclusivelytothecapitalist，whosuppliedtherawmaterialandthenecessariesoflife;andthisisarigorousconsequenceofthelawofappropriation，alawwhosefundamentalprinciplewastheveryopposite，namely，thateverylabourerhasanexclusiverighttotheownershipofwhatheproduces。"（l。c。，p。58。）"Whenthelabourersreceivewagesfortheirlabour……thecapitalististhentheownernotofthecapitalonly"（hemeansthemeansofproduction）"butofthelabouralso。Ifwhatispaidaswagesisincluded，asitcommonlyis，inthetermcapital，itisabsurdtotalkoflabourseparatelyfromcapital。Thewordcapitalasthusemployedincludeslabourandcapitalboth。"（JamesMill:"ElementsofPol。Econ。，"&c。，Ed。1821，pp。70，71。）
　　[11]Ashasbeenstatedinapreviousnote，theEnglishlanguagehastwodifferentexpressionsforthesetwodifferentaspectsoflabour:intheSimpleLabour—process，theprocessofproducingUse—Values，itisWork;intheprocessofcreationofValue，itisLabour，takingtheterminitsstrictlyeconomicsense。？F。E。
　　[12]Thesefiguresarequitearbitrary。
　　[13]ThisisthefundamentalpropositiononwhichisbasedthedoctrineofthePhysiocratsastotheunproductivenessofalllabourthatisnotagriculture:
　　itisirrefutablefortheorthodoxeconomist。"Cettefaçond’imputeràuneseulechoselavaleurdeplusieursautres"（parexempleaulinlaconsommationdutisserand），"d’appliquer，pourainsidire，couchesurcouche，plusieursvalcurssuruneseule，faitquecelle—cigrossitd’autant……Letermed’additionpeinttrés—bienlamanieredontseformeleprixdesouvragesdemaind’oeuvre;ceprixn’estqu’untotaldeplusieursvaleursconsomméesetadditionnéesensemble;
　　or，additionnern’estpasmultiplier。"（"MercierdelaRivière，"
　　l。c。，p。599。）
　　[14]Thusfrom1844—47hewithdrewpartofhiscapitalfromproductiveemployment，inordertothrowitawayinrailwayspeculations;andsoalso，duringtheAmericanCivilWar，heclosedhisfactory，andturnedhiswork—peopleintothestreets，inordertogambleontheLiverpoolcottonexchange。
　　[15]"Extolthyself，putonfineryandadornthyself……butwhoevertakesmoreorbetterthanhegives，thatisusury，andisnotservice，butwrongdonetohisneighbour，aswhenonestealsandrobs。Allisnotserviceandbenefittoaneighbourthatiscalledserviceandbenefit。Foranadulteressandadultererdooneanothergreatserviceandpleasure。Ahorsemandoesanincendiaryagreatservice，byhelpinghimtorobonthehighway，andpillagelandandhouses。Thepapistsdooursagreatservice，inthattheydon’tdrown，burn，murderallofthem，orletthemallrotinprison;butletsomelive，andonlydrivethemout，ortakefromthemwhattheyhave。Thedevilhimselfdoeshisservantsinestimableservice……Tosumup，theworldisfullofgreat，excellent，anddailyserviceandbenefit。"（MartinLuther:"AndiePfarrherrnwiderdenWucherzupredigen，"Wittenberg，1540。）
　　[16]In"ZurKritikderPol。Oek。，"p。14，Imakethefollowingremarkonthispoint？"Itisnotdifficulttounderstandwhat’service’thecategory’service’mustrendertoaclassofeconomistslikeJ。B。SayandF。Bastiat。"
　　[17]Thisisoneofthecircumstancesthatmakesproductionbyslavelaboursuchacostlyprocess。Thelabourerhereis，touseastrikingexpressionoftheancients，distinguishableonlyasinstrumentumvocale，fromananimalasinstrumentumsemi—vocale，andfromanimplementasinstrumentummutum。
　　Buthehimselftakescaretoletbothbeastandimplementfeelthatheisnoneofthem，’butisaman。Heconvinceshimselfwithimmensesatisfaction，thatheisadifferentbeing，bytreatingtheoneunmercifullyanddamagingtheotherconamore。Hencetheprinciple，univeriallyappliedinthismethodofproduction，onlytoemploytherudestandheaviestimplementsandsuchasaredifficulttodamageowingtotheirsheerclumsiness。Intheslave—statcsborderingontheGulfofMexico，downtothedateofthecivilwar，ploughsconstructedonoldChinesemodels，whichturnedupthesoillikeahogoramole，insteadofmakingfurrows，werealonetobefound。Conf。J。
　　E。Cairnes。"TheSlavePower，"London，1862，p。46sqq。Inhis"SeaBoardSlaveStates，"Olmstedtellsus:"Iamhereshowntoolsthatnomaninhissenses，withus，wouldallowalabourcr，forwhomhewaspayingwages，tobeencumberedwith;andtheexcessiveweightandclumsinessofwhich，Iwouldjudge，wouldmakeworkatleasttenpercentgreaterthanwiththoseordinarilyusedwithus。AndIamassuredthat，inthecarelessandclumsywaytheymustbeusedbytheslaves，anythinglighterorlessrudecouldnotbefumishedthemwithgoodeconomy，andthatsuchtoolsasweconstantlygiveourlabourersandfindourprofitingivingthem，wouldnotlastoutadayinaVirginiacomficid—muchlighterandmorefreefromstonesthoughitbethanours。So，too，whenIaskwhymulesaresouniversallysubstitutedforhorsesonthefarm，thefirstreasongiven，andconfessedlythemostconclusiveone，isthathorsescannotbearthetreatmentthattheyalwaysmustgetfromnegroes;horsesarealwayssoonfounderedorcrippledbythem，whilemuleswillbearcudgelling，orloseamealortwonowandthen，andnotbemateriallyinjured，andtheydonottakecoldorgetsick，ifneglectedoroverworked。ButIdonotneedtogofurtherthantothewindowoftheroominwhichIamwriting，toseeatalmostanytime，treatmentofcattlethatwouldensuretheimmediatedischargeofthedriverbyalmostanyfarmerowningthemintheNorth。"
　　[18]Thedistinctionbetweenskilledandunskilledlabourrestsinpartonpureillusion，or，tosaytheleast，ondistinctionsthathavelongsinceceasedtobereal，andthatsurviveonlybyvirtueofatraditionalconvention;
　　inpartonthehelplessconditionofsomegroupsoftheworking—class，aconditionthatpreventsthemfromexactingequallywiththerestthevalueoftheirlabour—power。Accidentalcircumstanceshereplaysogreatapart，thatthesetwoformsoflaboursometimeschangeplaces。Where，forinstance，thephysiqueoftheworking—classhasdeteriorated，andis，relativelyspeaking，exhausted，whichinthecaseinallcountrieswithawelldevelopedcapitalistproduction，thelowerformsoflabour，whichdemandgreatexpenditureofmuscle，areingeneralconsideredasskilled，comparedwithmuchmoredelicateformsoflabour;thelattersinkdowntothelevelofunskilledlabour。Takeasanexamplethelabourofabricklayer，whichinEnglandoccupiesamuchhigherlevelthanthatofadamask—weaver。Again，althoughthelabourofafustiancutterdemandsgreatbodilyexertion，andisatthesametimeunhealthy，yetitcountsonlyasunskilledlabour。Andthen，wemustnotforget，thattheso—calledskilledlabourdoesnotoccupyalargespaceinthefieldofnationallabour。LaingestimatesthatinEngland（andWales）thelivelihoodof11，300，000peopledependsonunskilledlabour。
　　Iffromthetotalpopulationof18，000，000livingatthetimewhenhewrote，wededuct1，000，000forthe"genteelpopulation，"and1，500，000forpaupers，vagrants，criminals，prostitutes，&c。，and4，650，000whocomposethemiddle—class，thereremaintheabovementioned11，000，000。Butinhismiddle—classheincludespeoplethatliveontheinterestofsmallinvestments，officials，menofletters，artists，schoolmastersandthelike，andinordertoswellthenumberhealsoincludesinthese4，650，000thebetterpaidportiotiofthefactoryoperatives！Thebricklayers，too，figureamongstthem。（S。
　　Laing:"NationalDistress，"&c。，London，1844）。"Thegreatclasswhohavenothingtogiveforfoodbutordinarylabour，arethegreatbulkofthepeople。"（JamesMill，inart。:"Colony，"SupplementtotheEncyclop。
　　Brit。，1831。）
　　[19]"Wherereferenceismadetolabourasameasureofvalue，itnecessarilyimplieslabourofoneparticularkind……theproportionwhichtheotherkindsbeartoitbeingeasilyascertained。"（"OutlinesofPol。Econ。，"
　　Lond。，1832，pp。22and23。）
　　ChapterEightKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIII:
　　TheProductionofAbsoluteSurplus—ValueCHAPTEREIGHT:
　　CONSTANTCAPITALANDVARIABLECAPITAL
　　Thevariousfactorsofthelabour—processplaydifferentpartsinformingthevalueoftheproduct。
　　Thelaboureraddsfreshvaluetothesubjectoffiislabourbyexpendinguponitagivenamountofadditionallabour，nomatterwhatthespecificcharacterandutilityofthatlabourmaybe。Ontheotherhand，thevaluesofthemeansofproductionusedupintheprocessarepreserved，andpresentthemselvesafreshasconstituentpartsofthevalueoftheproduct;thevaluesofthecottonandthespindle，forinstance，re—appearagaininthevalueoftheyarn。Thevalueofthemeansofproductionisthereforepreserved，bybeingtransferredtotheproduct。Thistransfertakesplaceduringtheconversionofthosemeansintoaproduct，orinotherwords，duringthelabour—process。Itisbroughtaboutbylabour;buthow？