Mommsen，Röm。Geschichte，1856，p。810。）
　　[7]CompareW。Th。Thornton:"Over—populationanditsRemedy，"Lond。，1846。
　　[8]Petty。
　　[9]"Its（labour’s）naturalprice……consistsinsuchaquantityofnecessariesandcomfortsoflife，as，fromthenatureoftheclimate，andthehabitsofthecountry，arenecessarytosupportthelabourer，andtoenablehimtorearsuchafamilyasmaypreserve，inthemarket，anundiminishedsupplyoflabour。"（R。Torrens:"AnEssayontheExternalCornTrade。"Lond。1815，p。62。）Thewordlabourisherewronglyusedforlabour—power。
　　[10]Rossi:"Coursd’Econ。Polit。，"Bruxelles，1842，p。370。
　　[11]Sismondi:"Nouv。Princ。etc。，"t。I，p。112。
　　[12]"Alllabourispaidafterithasceased。"（"AnInquiryintothosePrinciplesRespectingtheNatureofDemand，"&c。，p。104。）Lecréditcommercialadûcommenceraumomentoùl’ouvrier，premierartisandelaproduction，apu，aumoyendeseséconomies，attendrelesalairedesontravailjusqu’àlafindelasemaine，delaquinzaine，dumois，dutrimestre，&c。"（Ch。Ganilh:"DesSystèmesd’Econ。
　　Polit。"2émeédit。Paris，1821，t。II，p。150。）
　　[13]"L’ouvrierprêtesonindustrie，"butaddsStorchslyly:he"risksnothing"except"deperdresonsalaire……l’ouvriernetransmetriendematériel。"（Storch:"Coursd’Econ。Polit。"Pétersbourg，1815，t。II。，p。37。）
　　[14]Oneexample。InLondontherearetwosortsofbakers，the"fullpriced，"
　　whosellbreadatitsfullvalue，andthe"undersellers，"whosellitunderitsvalue。Thelatterclasscomprisesmorethanthree—fourthsofthetotalnumberofbakers。（p。xxxiiintheReportofH。S。Tremenheere，commissionertoexamineinto"thegrievancescomplainedofbythejourneymenbakers"，&c。，Lond。1862。）Theundersellers，almostwithoutexception，sellbreadadulteratedwithalum，soap，pearlashes，chalk，Derbyshirestone—dust，andsuchlikeagreeablenourishingandwholesomeingredients。（SeetheabovecitedBluebook，asalsothereportof"thecommitteeof1855ontheadulterationofbread，"andDr。Hassall’s"AdulterationsDetected，"
　　2ndEd。Lond。1861。）SirJohnGordonstatedbeforethecommitteeof1855，that"inconsequenceoftheseadulterations，thepoorman，wholivesontwopoundsofbreadaday，doesnotnowgetonefourthpartofnourishingmatter，letalonethedeleteriouseffectsonhishealth。"Tremenheerestates（l。c。，p。xlviii），asthereason，whyaverylargepartoftheworking—class，althoughwellawareofthisadulteration，neverthelessacceptthealum，stone—dust，&c。，aspartoftheirpurchase:thatitisforthem"amatterofnecessitytotakefromtheirbakerorfromthechandler’sshop，suchbreadastheychoosetosupply。"Astheyarenotpaidtheirwagesbeforetheendoftheweek，theyintheirturnareunable"topayforthebreadconsumedbytheirfamilies，duringtheweek，beforetheendoftheweek"，andTremenheereaddsontheevidenceofwitnesses，"itisnotoriousthatbreadcomposedofthosemixtures，ismadeexpresslyforsaleinthismanner。"InmanyEnglishandstillmoreScotchagriculturaldistricts，wagesarepaidfortnightlyandevenmonthly;withsuchlongintervalsbetweenthepayments，theagriculturallabourerisobligedtobuyoncredit……
　　Hemustpayhigherprices，andisinfacttiedtotheshopwhichgiveshimcredit。ThusatHorninghaminWilts，forexample，wherethewagesaremonthly，thesameflourthathecouldbuyelsewhereatls10dperstone，costshim2s4dperstone。（"SixthReport"on"PublicHealth"by"TheMedicalOfficerofthePrivyCouncil，&c。，1864，"p。264。）"TheblockprintersofPaisleyandKilmarnockenforced，byastrike，fortnightly，insteadofmonthlypaymentofwages。"（"ReportsoftheInspectorsofFactoriesfor31stOct。，1853，"p。34。）Asafurtherprettyresultofthecreditgivenbytheworkmentothecapitalist，wemayrefertothemethodcurrentinmanyEnglishcoalmines，wherethelabourerisnotpaidtilltheendofthemonth，andinthemeantime，receivessumsonaccountfromthecapitalist，ofteningoodsforwhichtheminerisobligedtopaymorethanthemarketprice（Truck—system）。"Itisacommonpracticewiththecoalmasterstopayonceamonth，andadvancecashtotheirworkmenattheendofeachintermediateweek。Thecashisgivenintheshop"（i。e。，theTommyshopwhichbelongstothemaster）;"thementakeitononesideandlayitoutontheother。"（"Children’sEmploymentCommission，III。Report，"Lond。
　　1864，p。38，n。192。）
　　ChapterSevenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIII:
　　TheProductionofAbsoluteSurplus—ValueCHAPTERSEVEN:
　　THELABOUR—PROCESSANDTHEPROCESSOFPRODUCINGSURPLUS—VALUE
　　ContentsSection1—TheLabour—ProcessortheProductionofUse—ValuesSection2—TheProductionofSurplus—ValueSECTION1。THELABOUR—PROCESSORTHEPRODUCTIONOFUSE—VALUES
　　Thecapitalistbuyslabour—powerinordertouseit;andlabour—powerinuseislabouritself。Thepurchaseroflabour—powerconsumesitbysettingthesellerofittowork。Byworking，thelatterbecomesactually，whatbeforeheonlywaspotentially，labour—powerinaction，alabourer。Inorderthathislabourmayre—appearinacommodity，hemust，beforeallthings，expenditonsomethinguseful，onsomethingcapableofsatisfyingawantofsomesort。Hence，whatthecapitalistsetsthelabourertoproduce，isaparticularuse—value，aspecifiedarticle。Thefactthattheproductionofuse—values，orgoods，iscarriedonunderthecontrolofacapitalistandonhisbehalf，doesnotalterthegeneralcharacterofthatproduction。
　　Weshall，therefore，inthefirstplace，havetoconsiderthelabour—processindependentlyoftheparticularformitassumesundergivensocialconditions。
　　Labouris，inthefirstplace，aprocessinwhichbothmanandNatureparticipate，andinwhichmanofhisownaccordstarts，regulates，andcontrolsthematerialre—actionsbetweenhimselfandNature。HeopposeshimselftoNatureasoneofherownforces，settinginmotionarmsandlegs，headandhands，thenaturalforcesofhisbody，inordertoappropriateNature’sproductionsinaformadaptedtohisownwants。Bythusactingontheexternalworldandchangingit，heatthesametimechangeshisownnature。Hedevelopshisslumberingpowersandcompelsthemtoactinobediencetohissway。Wearenotnowdealingwiththoseprimitiveinstinctiveformsoflabourthatremindusofthemereanimal。Animmeasurableintervaloftimeseparatesthestateofthingsinwhichamanbringshislabour—powertomarketforsaleasacommodity，fromthatstateinwhichhumanlabourwasstillinitsfirstinstinctivestage。Wepre—supposelabourinaformthatstampsitasexclusivelyhuman。Aspiderconductsoperationsthatresemblethoseofaweaver，andabeeputstoshamemanyanarchitectintheconstructionofhercells。Butwhatdistinguishestheworstarchitectfromthebestofbeesisthis，thatthearchitectraiseshisstructureinimaginationbeforeheerectsitinreality。Attheendofeverylabour—process，wegetaresultthatalreadyexistedintheimaginationofthelaboureratitscommencement。Henotonlyeffectsachangeofforminthematerialonwhichheworks，buthealsorealisesapurposeofhisownthatgivesthelawtohismodusoperandi，andtowhichhemustsubordinatehiswill。Andthissubordinationisnomeremomentaryact。Besidestheexertionofthebodilyorgans，theprocessdemandsthat，duringthewholeoperation，theworkman’swillbesteadilyinconsonancewithhispurpose。
　　Thismeanscloseattention。Thelessheisattractedbythenatureofthework，andthemodeinwhichitiscarriedon，andtheless，therefore，heenjoysitassomethingwhichgivesplaytohisbodilyandmentalpowers，themoreclosehisattentionisforcedtobe。
　　Theelementaryfactorsofthelabour—processare1，thepersonalactivityofman，i。e。，workitself，2，thesubjectofthatwork，and3，itsinstruments。
　　Thesoil（andthis，economicallyspeaking，includeswater）inthevirginstateinwhichitsupplies[1]manwithnecessariesorthemeansofsubsistencereadytohand，existsindependentlyofhim，andistheuniversalsubjectofhumanlabour。Allthosethingswhichlabourmerelyseparatesfromimmediateconnexionwiththeirenvironment，aresubjectsoflabourspontaneouslyprovidedbyNature。
　　Sucharefishwhichwecatchandtakefromtheirelement，water，timberwhichwefellinthevirginforest，andoreswhichweextractfromtheirveins。If，ontheotherhand，thesubjectoflabourhas，sotosay，beenfilteredthroughpreviouslabour，wecallitrawmaterial;suchisorealreadyextractedandreadyforwashing。Allrawmaterialisthesubjectoflabour，butnoteverysubjectoflabourisrawmaterial:itcanonlybecomeso，afterithasundergonesomealterationbymeansoflabour。
　　Aninstrumentoflabourisathing，oracomplexofthings，whichthelabourerinterposesbetweenhimselfandthesubjectofhislabour，andwhichservesastheconductorofhisactivity。Hemakesuseofthemechanical，physical，andchemicalpropertiesofsomesubstancesinordertomakeothersubstancessubservienttohisaims。[2]Leavingoutofconsiderationsuchready—mademeansofsubsistenceasfruits，ingatheringwhichaman’sownlimbsserveastheinstrumentsofhislabour，thefirstthingofwhichthelabourerpossesseshimselfisnotthesubjectoflabourbutitsinstrument。ThusNaturebecomesoneoftheorgansofhisactivity，onethatheannexestohisownbodilyorgans，addingstaturetohimselfinspiteoftheBible。Astheearthishisoriginallarder，sotooitishisoriginaltoolhouse。Itsupplieshim，forinstance，withstonesforthrowing，grinding，pressing，cutting，&c。Theearthitselfisaninstrumentoflabour，butwhenusedassuchinagricultureimpliesawholeseriesofotherinstrumentsandacomparativelyhighdevelopmentoflabour。[3]Nosoonerdoeslabourundergotheleastdevelopment，thanitrequiresspeciallypreparedinstruments。Thusintheoldestcaveswefindstoneimplementsandweapons。Intheearliestperiodofhumanhistorydomesticatedanimals，i。e。，animalswhichhavebeenbredforthepurpose，andhaveundergonemodificationsbymeansoflabour，playthechiefpartasinstrumentsoflabouralongwithspeciallypreparedstones，wood，bones，andshells。[4]Theuseandfabricationofinstrumentsoflabour，althoughexistinginthegermamongcertainspeciesofanimals，isspecificallycharacteristicofthehumanlabour—process，andFranklinthereforedefinesmanasatool—makinganimal。Relicsofbygoneinstrumentsoflabourpossessthesameimportancefortheinvestigationofextincteconomicformsofsociety，asdofossilbonesforthedeterminationofextinctspeciesofanimals。Itisnotthearticlesmade，buthowtheyaremade，andbywhatinstruments，thatenablesustodistinguishdifferenteconomicepochs。[5]Instrumentsoflabournotonlysupplyastandardofthedegreeofdevelopmenttowhichhumanlabourhasattained，buttheyarealsoindicatorsofthesocialconditionsunderwhichthatlabouriscarriedon。Amongtheinstrumentsoflabour，thoseofamechanicalnature，which，takenasawhole，wemaycalltheboneandmusclesofproduction，offermuchmoredecidedcharacteristicsofagivenepochofproduction，thanthosewhich，likepipes，tubs，baskets，jars，&c。，serveonlytoholdthematerialsforlabour，whichlatterclass，wemayinageneralway，callthevascularsystemofproduction。Thelatterfirstbeginstoplayanimportantpartinthechemicalindustries。
　　Inawidersensewemayincludeamongtheinstrumentsoflabour，inadditiontothosethingsthatareusedfordirectlytransferringlabourtoitssubject，andwhichtherefore，inonewayoranother，serveasconductorsofactivity，allsuchobjectsasarenecessaryforcarryingonthelabour—process。
　　Thesedonotenterdirectlyintotheprocess，butwithoutthemitiseitherimpossibleforittotakeplaceatall，orpossibleonlytoapartialextent。
　　Oncemorewefindtheearthtobeauniversalinstrumentofthissort，foritfurnishesalocusstanditothelabourerandafieldofemploymentforhisactivity。Amonginstrumentsthataretheresultofpreviouslabourandalsobelongtothisclass，wefindworkshops，canals，roads，andsoforth。
　　Inthelabour—process，therefore，man’sactivity，withthehelpoftheinstrumentsoflabour，effectsanalteration，designedfromthecommencement，inthematerialworkedupon。Theprocessdisappearsintheproduct，thelatterisause—value，Nature’smaterialadaptedbyachangeofformtothewantsofman。Labourhasincorporateditselfwithitssubject:theformerismaterialised，thelattertransformed。Thatwhichinthelabourerappearedasmovement，nowappearsintheproductasafixedqualitywithoutmotion。Theblacksmithforgesandtheproductisaforging。
　　Ifweexaminethewholeprocessfromthepointofviewofitsresult，theproduct，itisplainthatboththeinstrumentsandthesubjectoflabour，aremeansofproduction，[6]andthatthelabouritselfisproductivelabour。[7]
　　Thoughause—value，intheformofaproduct，issuesfromthelabour—process，yetotheruse—values，productsofpreviouslabour，enterintoitasmeansofproduction。Thesame—use—valueisboththeproductofapreviousprocess，andameansofproductioninalaterprocess。Productsarethereforenotonlyresults，butalsoessentialconditionsoflabour。
　　Withtheexceptionoftheextractiveindustries，inwhichthematerialforlabourisprovidedimmediatelybyNature，suchasmining，hunting，fishing，andagriculture（sofarasthelatterisconfinedtobreakingupvirginsoil），allbranchesofindustrymanipulaterawmaterial，objectsalreadyfilteredthroughlabour，alreadyproductsoflabour。Suchisseedinagriculture。Animalsandplants，whichweareaccustomedtoconsiderasproductsofNature，areintheirpresentform，notonlyproductsof，saylastyear’slabour，buttheresultofagradualtransformation，continuedthroughmanygenerations，underman’ssuperintendence，andbymeansofhislabour。Butinthegreatmajorityofcases，instrumentsoflabourshoweventothemostsuperficialobserver，tracesofthelabourofpastages。
　　Rawmaterialmayeitherformtheprincipalsubstanceofaproduct，oritmayenterintoitsformationonlyasanaccessory。Anaccessorymaybeconsumedbytheinstrumentsoflabour，ascoalunderaboiler，oilbyawheel，haybydraft—horses，oritmaybemixedwiththerawmaterialinordertoproducesomemodificationthereof，aschlorineintounbleachedlinen，coalwithiron，dye—stuffwithwool，oragain，itmayhelptocarryontheworkitself，asinthecaseofthematerialsusedforheatingandlightingworkshops。Thedistinctionbetweenprincipalsubstanceandaccessoryvanishesinthetruechemicalindustries，becausetherenoneoftherawmaterialre—appears，initsoriginalcomposition，inthesubstanceoftheproduct。[8]
　　Everyobjectpossessesvariousproperties，andisthuscapableofbeingappliedtodifferentuses。Oneandthesameproductmaythereforeserveasrawmaterialinverydifferentprocesses。Corn，forexample，isarawmaterialformillers，starch—manufacturers，distillers，andcattlebreeders。
　　Italsoentersasrawmaterialintoitsownproductionintheshapeofseed;coal，too，isatthesametimetheproductof，andameansofproductionin，coal—mining。
　　Again，aparticularproductmaybeusedinoneandthesameprocess，bothasaninstrumentoflabourandasrawmaterial。Take，forinstance，thefatteningofcattle，wheretheanimalistherawmaterial，andatthesametimeaninstrumentfortheproductionofmanure。
　　Aproduct，thoughreadyforimmediateconsumption，mayyetserveasrawmaterialforafurtherproduct，asgrapeswhentheybecometherawmaterialforwine。Ontheotherhand，labourmaygiveusitsproductinsuchaform，thatwecanuseitonlya’srawmaterial，asisthecasewithcotton，thread，andyarn。Sucharawmaterial，thoughitselfaproduct，mayhavetogothroughawholeseriesofdifferentprocesses:ineachoftheseinturn，itserves，withconstantlyvaryingform，asrawmaterial，untilthelastprocessoftheseriesleavesitaperfectproduct，readyforindividualconsumption，orforuseasaninstrumentoflabour。
　　Hencewesee，thatwhetherause—valueistoberegardedasrawmaterial，asinstrumentoflabour，orasproduct，thisisdeterminedentirelybyitsfunctioninthelabour—process，bythepositionitthereoccupies:
　　asthisvaries，sodoesitscharacter。
　　Wheneverthereforeaproductentersasameansofproductionintoanewlabour—process，ittherebylosesitscharacterofproduct，andbecomesamerefactorintheprocess。Aspinnertreatsspindlesonlyasimplementsforspinning，andflaxonlyasthematerialthathespins。Ofcourseitisimpossibletospinwithoutmaterialandspindles;andthereforetheexistenceofthesethingsasproducts，atthecommencementofthespinningoperation，mustbepresumed:butintheprocessitself，thefactthattheyareproductsofpreviouslabour，isamatterofutterindifference;justasinthedigestiveprocess，itisofnoimportancewhatever，thatbreadistheproduceofthepreviouslabourofthefarmer，themiller，andthebaker。Onthecontrary，itisgenerallybytheirimperfectionsasproducts，thatthemeansofproductioninanyprocessassertthemselvesintheircharacterofproducts。AbluntknifeorweakthreadforciblyremindusofMr。A。，thecutler，orMr。B。，thespinner。Inthefinishedproductthelabourbymeansofwhichithasacquireditsusefulqualitiesisnotpalpable，hasapparentlyvanished。
　　Amachinewhichdoesnotservethepurposesoflabour，isuseless。Inaddition，itfallsapreytothedestructiveinfluenceofnaturalforces。
　　Ironrustsandwoodrots。Yarnwithwhichweneitherweavenorknit，iscottonwasted。Livinglabourmustseizeuponthesethingsandrousethemfromtheirdeath—sleep，changethemfrommerepossibleuse—valuesintorealandeffectiveones。Bathedinthefireoflabour，appropriatedaspartandparceloflabour’sorganism，and，asitwere，madealivefortheperformanceoftheirfunctionsintheprocess，theyareintruthconsumed，butconsumedwithapurpose，aselementaryconstituentsofnewuse—values，ofnewproducts，everreadyasmeansofsubsistenceforindividualconsumption，orasmeansofproductionforsomenewlabour—process。
　　Ifthen，ontheonehand，finishedproductsarenotonlyresults，butalsonecessaryconditions，ofthelabour—process，ontheotherhand，theirassumptionintothatprocess，theircontactwithlivinglabour，isthesolemeansbywhichtheycanbemadetoretaintheircharacterofuse—values，andbeutilised。
　　Labourusesupitsmaterialfactors，itssubjectanditsinstruments，consumesthem，andisthereforeaprocessofconsumption。
　　Suchproductiveconsumptionisdistinguishedfromindividualconsumptionbythis，thatthelatterusesupproducts，asmeansofsubsistenceforthelivingindividual;theformer，asmeanswherebyalone，labour，thelabour—powerofthelivingindividual，isenabledtoact。Theproduct，therefore，ofindividualconsumption，istheconsumerhimself;theresultofproductiveconsumption，isaproductdistinctfromtheconsumer。
　　Insofarthen，asitsinstrumentsandsubjectsarethemselvesproducts，labourconsumesproductsinordertocreateproducts，orinotherwords，consumesonesetofproductsbyturningthemintomeansofproductionforanotherset。But，justasinthebeginning，theonlyparticipatorsinthelabour—processweremanandtheearth，whichlatterexistsindependentlyofman，soevennowwestillemployintheprocessmanymeansofproduction，provideddirectlybyNature，thatdonotrepresentanycombinationofnaturalsubstanceswithhumanlabour。
　　Thelabour—process，resolvedasaboveintoitssimpleelementaryfactors，ishumanactionwithaviewtotheproductionofuse—values，appropriationofnaturalsubstancestohumanrequirements;itisthenecessaryconditionforeffectingexchangeofmatterbetweenmanandNature;itistheeverlastingNature—imposedconditionofhumanexistence，andthereforeisindependentofeverysocialphaseofthatexistence，orrather，iscommontoeverysuchphase。Itwas，therefore，notnecessarytorepresentourlabourerinconnexionwithotherlabourers;manandhislabourononeside，Natureanditsmaterialsontheother，sufficed。Asthetasteoftheporridgedoesnottellyouwhogrewtheoats，nomoredoesthissimpleprocesstellyouofitselfwhatarethesocialconditionsunderwhichitistakingplace，whetherundertheslave—owner’sbrutallash，ortheanxiouseyeofthecapitalist，whetherCincinnatuscarriesitonintillinghismodestfarmorasavageinkillingwildanimalswithstones。[9]
　　Letusnowreturntoourwould—becapitalist。Welefthimjustafterhehadpurchased，intheopenmarket，allthenecessaryfactorsofthelabour—process—itsobjectivefactors，themeansofproduction，aswellasitssubjectivefactor，labour—power。Withthekeeneyeofanexpert，hehasselectedthemeansofproductionandthekindoflabour—powerbestadaptedtohisparticulartrade，beitspinning，bootmaking，oranyotherkind。Hethenproceedstoconsumethecommodity，thelabour—powerthathehasjustbought，bycausingthelabourer，theimpersonationofthatlabour—power，toconsumethemeansofproductionbyhislabour。Thegeneralcharacterofthelabour—processisevidentlynotchangedbythefact，thatthelabourerworksforthecapitalistinsteadofforhimself;
　　moreover，theparticularmethodsandoperationsemployedinbootmakingorspinningarenotimmediatelychangedbytheinterventionofthecapitalist。
　　Hemustbeginbytakingthelabour—powerashefindsitinthemarket，andconsequentlybesatisfiedwithlabourofsuchakindaswouldbefoundintheperiodimmediatelyprecedingtheriseofcapitalists。Changesinthemethodsofproductionbythesubordinationoflabourtocapital，cantakeplaceonlyatalaterperiod，andthereforewillhavetobetreatedofinalaterchapter。
　　Thelabour—process，turnedintotheprocessbywhichthecapitalistconsumeslabour—power，exhibitstwocharacteristicphenomena。First，thelabourerworksunderthecontrolofthecapitalisttowhomhislabourbelongs;
　　thecapitalisttakinggoodcarethattheworkisdoneinapropermanner，andthatthemeansofproductionareusedwithintelligence，sothatthereisnounnecessarywasteofrawmaterial，andnowearandtearoftheimplementsbeyondwhatisnecessarilycausedbythework。
　　Secondly，theproductisthepropertyofthecapitalistandnotthatofthelabourer，itsimmediateproducer。Supposethatacapitalistpaysforaday’slabour—poweratitsvalue;thentherighttousethatpowerforadaybelongstohim，justasmuchastherighttouseanyothercommodity，suchasahorsethathehashiredfortheday。Tothepurchaserofacommoditybelongsitsuse，andtheselleroflabour—power，bygivinghislabour，doesnomore，inreality，thanpartwiththeuse—valuethathehassold。
　　Fromtheinstanthestepsintotheworkshop，theuse—valueofhislabour—power，andthereforealsoitsuse，whichislabour，belongstothecapitalist。
　　Bythepurchaseoflabour—power，thecapitalistincorporateslabour，asalivingferment，withthelifelessconstituentsoftheproduct。Fromhispointofview，thelabour—processisnothingmorethantheconsumptionofthecommoditypurchased，i。e。，oflabour—power;butthisconsumptioncannotbeeffectedexceptbysupplyingthelabour—powerwiththemeansofproduction。Thelabour—processisaprocessbetweenthingsthatthecapitalisthaspurchased，thingsthathavebecomehisproperty。Theproductofthisprocessbelongs，therefore，tohim，justasmuchasdoesthewinewhichistheproductofaprocessoffermentationcompletedinhiscellar。[10]
　　SECTION2。THEPRODUCTIONOFSURPLUS—VALUE
　　Theproductappropriatedbythecapitalistisause—value，asyarn，forexample，orboots。But，althoughbootsare，inonesense，thebasisofallsocialprogress，andourcapitalistisadecided"progressist，"
　　yethedoesnotmanufacturebootsfortheirownsake。Use—valueis，bynomeans，thething"qu’onaimepourlui—même"intheproductionofcommodities。Use—valuesareonlyproducedbycapitalists，because，andinsofaras，theyarethematerialsubstratum，thedepositoriesofexchange—value。
　　Ourcapitalisthastwoobjectsinview:inthefirstplace，hewantstoproduceause—valuethathasavalueinexchange，thatistosay，anarticledestinedtobesold，acommodity;andsecondly，hedesirestoproduceacommoditywhosevalueshallbegreaterthanthesumofthevaluesofthecommoditiesusedinitsproduction，thatis，ofthemeansofproductionandthelabour—power，thathepurchasedwithhisgoodmoneyintheopenmarket。Hisaimistoproducenotonlyause—value，butacommodityalso;
　　notonlyuse—value，butvalue;notonlyvalue，butatthesametimesurplus—value。
　　Itmustbeborneinmind，thatwearenowdealingwiththeproductionofcommodities，andthat，uptothispoint，wehaveonlyconsideredoneaspectoftheprocess。Justascommoditiesare，atthesametime，use—valuesandvalues，sotheprocessofproducingthemmustbealabour—process，andatthesametime，aprocessofcreatingvalue。[11]
　　Letusnowexamineproductionasacreationofvalue。
　　Weknowthatthevalueofeachcommodityisdeterminedbythequantityoflabourexpendedonandmaterialisedinit，bytheworking—timenecessary，undergivensocialconditions，foritsproduction。Thisrulealsoholdsgoodinthecaseoftheproductthataccruedtoourcapitalist，astheresultofthelabour—processcarriedonforhim。Assumingthisproducttobe10lbs。ofyarn，ourfirststepistocalculatethequantityoflabourrealisedinit。
　　Forspinningtheyarn，rawmaterialisrequired;supposeinthiscase10lbs。ofcotton。Wehavenoneedatpresenttoinvestigatethevalueofthiscotton，forourcapitalisthas，wewillassume，boughtitatitsfullvalue，sayoftenshillings。Inthispricethelabourrequiredfortheproductionofthecottonisalreadyexpressedintermsoftheaveragelabourofsociety。Wewillfurtherassumethatthewearandtearofthespindle，which，forourpresentpurpose，mayrepresentallotherinstrumentsoflabouremployed，amountstothevalueof2s。If，then，twenty—fourhours’
　　labour，ortwoworking—days，arerequiredtoproducethequantityofgoldrepresentedbytwelveshillings，wehavehere，tobeginwith，twodays’
　　labouralreadyincorporatedintheyarn。
　　Wemustnotletourselvesbemisledbythecircumstancethatthecottonhastakenanewshapewhilethesubstanceofthespindlehastoacertainextentbeenusedup。Bythegenerallawofvalue，ifthevalueof40lbs。
　　ofyarn=thevalueof40lbs。ofcottonthevalueofawholespindle，i。e。，ifthesameworking—timeisrequiredtoproducethecommoditiesoneithersideofthisequation，then10lbs。ofyarnareanequivalentfor10lbs。ofcotton，togetherwithone—fourthofaspindle。Inthecaseweareconsideringthesameworking—timeismaterialisedinthe10lbs。
　　ofyarnontheonehand，andinthe10lbs。ofcottonandthefractionofaspindleontheother。Therefore，whethervalueappearsincotton，inaspindle，orinyarn，makesnodifferenceintheamountofthatvalue。
　　Thespindleandcotton，insteadofrestingquietlysidebyside，jointogetherintheprocess，theirformsarealtered，andtheyareturnedintoyarn;
　　buttheirvalueisnomoreaffectedbythisfactthanitwouldbeiftheyhadbeensimplyexchangedfortheirequivalentinyarn。
　　Thelabourrequiredfortheproductionofthecotton，therawmaterialoftheyarn，ispartofthelabournecessarytoproducetheyarn，andisthereforecontainedintheyarn。Thesameappliestothelabourembodiedinthespindle，withoutwhosewearandtearthecottoncouldnotbespun。
　　Hence，indeterminingthevalueoftheyarn，orthelabour—timerequiredforitsproduction，allthespecialprocessescarriedonatvarioustimesandindifferentplaces，whichwerenecessary，firsttoproducethecottonandthewastedportionofthespindle，andthenwiththecottonandspindletospintheyarn，maytogetherbelookedonasdifferentandsuccessivephasesofoneandthesameprocess。Thewholeofthelabourintheyarnispastlabour;anditisamatterofnoimportancethattheoperationsnecessaryfortheproductionofitsconstituentelementswerecarriedonattimeswhich，referredtothepresent，aremoreremotethanthefinaloperationofspinning。Ifadefinitequantityoflabour，saythirtydays，isrequisitetobuildahouse，thetotalamountoflabourincorporatedinitisnotalteredbythefactthattheworkofthelastdayisdonetwenty—ninedayslaterthanthatofthefirst。Thereforethelabourcontainedintherawmaterialandtheinstrumentsoflabourcanbetreatedjustasifitwerelabourexpendedinanearlierstageofthespinningprocess，beforethelabourofactualspinningcommenced。
　　Thevaluesofthemeansofproduction，i。e。，thecottonandthespindle，whichvaluesareexpressedinthepriceoftwelveshillings，arethereforeconstituentpartsofthevalueoftheyarn，or，inotherwords，ofthevalueoftheproduct。
　　Twoconditionsmustneverthelessbefulfilled。First，thecottonandspindlemustconcurintheproductionofause—value;theymustinthepresentcasebecomeyarn。Valueisindependentoftheparticularuse—valuebywhichitisborne，butitmustbeembodiedinause—valueofsomekind。
　　Secondly，thetimeoccupiedinthelabourofproductionmustnotexceedthetimereallynecessaryunderthegivensocialconditionsofthecase。
　　Therefore，ifnomorethanIlb。ofcottonberequisitetospin11lbs。
　　ofyarn，caremustbetakenthatnomorethanthisweightofcottonisconsumedintheproductionof11lbs。ofyarn;andsimilarlywithregardtothespindle。Thoughthecapitalisthaveahobby，anduseagoldinsteadofasteelspindle，yettheonlylabourthatcountsforanythinginthevalueoftheyarnisthatwhichwouldberequiredtoproduceasteelspindle，becausenomoreisnecessaryunderthegivensocialconditions。
　　Wenowknowwhatportionofthevalueoftheyarnisowingtothecottonandthespindle。Itamountstotwelveshillingsorthevalueoftwodays’
　　work。Thenextpointforourconsiderationis，whatportionofthevalueoftheyarnisaddedtothecottonbythelabourofthespinner。
　　Wehavenowtoconsiderthislabourunderaverydifferentaspectfromthatwhichithadduringthelabour—process;there，wevieweditsolelyasthatparticularkindofhumanactivitywhichchangescottonintoyarn;
　　there，themorethelabourwassuitedtothework，thebettertheyarn，othercircumstancesremainingthesame。Thelabourofthespinnerwasthenviewedasspecificallydifferentfromotherkindsofproductivelabour，differentontheonehandinitsspeciaIaim，viz。，spinning，different，ontheotherhand，inthespecialcharacterofitsoperations，inthespecialnatureofitsmeansofproductionandinthespecialuse—valueofitsproduct。
　　Fortheoperationofspinning，cottonandspindlesareanecessity，butformakingrifledcannontheywouldbeofnousewhatever。Here，onthecontrary，whereweconsiderthelabourofthespinneronlysofarasitisvalue—creating，i。e。，asourceofvalue，hislabourdiffersinnorespectfromthelabourofthemanwhoborescannon，or（whatheremorenearlyconcernsus），fromthelabourofthecotton—planterandspindle—makerincorporatedinthemeansofproduction。Itissolelybyreasonofthisidentity，thatcottonplanting，spindlemakingandspinning，arecapableofformingthecomponentpartsdifferingonlyquantitativelyfromeachother，ofonewhole，namely，thevalueoftheyarn。Here，wehavenothingmoretodowiththequality，thenatureandthespecificcharacterofthelabour，butmerelywithitsquantity。Andthissimplyrequirestobecalculated。