Thelabourerdoesnotperformtwooperationsatonce，oneinordertoaddvaluetothecotton，theotherinordertopreservethevalueofthemeansofproduction，or，whatamountstothesamething，totransfertotheyarn，totheproduct，thevalueofthecottononwhichheworks，andpartofthevalueofthespindlewithwhichheworks。But，bytheveryactofaddingnewvalue，hepreservestheirformervalues。Since，however，theadditionofnewvaluetothesubjectofhislabour，andthepreservationofitsformervalue，aretwoentirelydistinctresults，producedsimultaneouslybythelabourer，duringoneoperation，itisplainthatthistwo—foldnatureoftheresultcanbeexplainedonlybythetwo—foldnatureofhislabour;
　　atoneandthesametime，itmustinonecharactercreatevalue，andinanothercharacterpreserveortransfervalue。
　　Now，inwhatmannerdoeseverylaboureraddnewlabourandconsequentlynewvalue？Evidently，onlybylabouringproductivelyinaparticularway;thespinnerbyspinning，theweaverbyweaving，thesmithbyforging。
　　But，whilethusincorporatinglabourgenerally，thatisvalue，itisbytheparticularformaloneofthelabour，bythespinning，theweavingandtheforgingrespectively，thatthemeansofproduction，thecottonandspindle，theyarnandloom，and。theironandanvilbecomeconstituentelementsoftheproduct，ofanewuse—value。[1]Eachuse—valuedisappears，butonlytore—appearunderanewforminanewuse—value。Now，wesaw，whenwewereconsideringtheprocessofcreatingvalue，that，ifause—valuebeeffectivelyconsumedintheproductionofanewuse—value，thequantityoflabourexpendedintheproductionoftheconsumedarticle，formsaportionofthequantityoflabournecessarytoproducethenewuse—value;thisportionisthereforelabourtransferredfromthemeansofproductiontothenewproduct。Hence，thelabourerpreservesthevaluesoftheconsumedmeansofproduction，ortransfersthemasportionsofitsvaluetotheproduct，notbyvirtueofhisadditionallabour，abstractedlyconsidered，butbyvirtueoftheparticularusefulcharacterofthatlabour，byvirtueofitsspecialproductiveform。Insofarthenaslabourissuchspecificproductiveactivity，insofarasitisspinning，weaving，orforging，itraises，bymerecontact，themeans。ofproductionfromthedead，makesthemlivingfactorsofthelabour—process，andcombineswiththemtoformthenewproducts。
　　Ifthespecialproductivelabouroftheworkmanwerenotspinning，hecouldnotconvertthecottonintoyarn，andthereforecouldnottransferthevaluesofthecottonandspindletotheyarn。Supposethesameworkmanweretochangehisoccupationtothatofajoiner，hewouldstillbyaday’slabouraddvaluetothematerialheworksupon。Consequently，wesee，first，thattheadditionofnewvaluetakesplacenotbyvirtueofhislabourbeingspinninginparticular，orjoineringinparticular，butbecauseitislabourintheabstract，aportionofthetotallabourofsociety;andweseenext，thatthevalueaddedisofagivendefiniteamount，notbecausehislabourhasaspecialutility，butbecauseitisexertedforadefinitetime。Ontheonehand，then，itisbyvirtueofitsgeneralcharacter，asbeingexpenditureofhumanlabour—powerintheabstract，thatspinningaddsnewvaluetothevaluesofthecottonandthespindle;
　　andontheotherhand，itisbyvirtueofitsspecialcharacter，asbeingaconcrete，usefulprocess，thatthesamelabourofspinningbothtransfersthevaluesofthemeansofproductiontotheproduct，andpreservesthemintheproduct。Henceatoneandthesametimethereisproducedatwo—foldresult。
　　Bythesimpleadditionofacertainquantityoflabour，newvalueisadded，andbythequalityofthisaddedlabour，theoriginalvaluesofthemeansofproductionarepreservedintheproduct。Thistwo—foldeffect，resultingfromthetwo—foldcharacteroflabour，maybetracedinvariousphenomena。
　　Letusassume，thatsomeinventionenablesthespinnertospinasmuchcottonin6hoursashewasabletospinbeforein36hours。Hislabourisnowsixtimesaseffectiveasitwas，forthepurposesofusefulproduction。
　　Theproductof6hours’workhasincreasedsix—fold，from6lbs。to36
　　lbs。Butnowthe36lbs。ofcottonabsorbonlythesameamountoflabourasformerlydidthe6lbs。One—sixthasmuchnewlabourisabsorbedbyeachpoundofcotton，andconsequently，thevalueaddedbythelabourtoeachpoundisonlyone—sixthofwhatitformerlywas。Ontheotherhand，intheproduct，inthe36lbs。ofyarn，thevaluetransferredfromthecottonissixtimesasgreatasbefore。Bythe6hours’spinning，thevalueoftherawmaterialpreservedandtransferredtotheproductissixtimesasgreatasbefore，althoughthenewvalueaddedbythelabourofthespinnertoeachpoundoftheverysamerawmaterialisone—sixthwhatitwasformerly。
　　Thisshowsthatthetwopropertiesoflabour，byvirtueofwhichitisenabledinonecasetopreservevalue，andintheothertocreatevalue，areessentiallydifferent。Ontheonehand，thelongerthetimenecessarytospinagivenweightofcottonintoyarn，thegreateristhenewvalueaddedtothematerial;ontheotherhand，thegreatertheweightofthecottonspuninagiventime，thegreateristhevaluepreserved，bybeingtransferredfromittotheproduct。
　　Letusnowassume，thattheproductivenessofthespinner’slabour，insteadofvarying，remainsconstant，thathethereforerequiresthesametimeasheformerlydid，toconvertonepoundofcottonintoyarn，butthattheexchange—valueofthecottonvaries，eitherbyrisingtosixtimesitsformervalueorfallingtoone—sixthofthatvalue。Inboththesecases，thespinnerputsthesamequantityoflabourintoapoundofcotton，andthereforeaddsasmuchvalue，ashedidbeforethechangeinthevalue:
　　healsoproducesagivenweightofyarninthesametimeashedidbefore。
　　Nevertheless，thevaluethathetransfersfromthecottontotheyarniseitherone—sixthofwhatitwasbeforethevariation，or，asthecasemaybe，sixtimesasmuchasbefore。Thesameresultoccurswhenthevalueoftheinstrumentsoflabourrisesorfalls，whiletheirusefulefficacyintheprocessremainsunaltered。
　　Again，ifthetechnicalconditionsofthespinningprocessremainunchanged，andnochangeofvaluetakesplaceinthemeansofproduction，thespinnercontinuestoconsumeinequalworking—timesequalquantitiesofrawmaterial，andequalquantitiesofmachineryofunvaryingvalue。Thevaluethathepreservesintheproductisdirectlyproportionaltothenewvaluethatheaddstotheproduct。Intwoweeksheincorporatestwiceasmuchlabour，andthereforetwiceasmuchvalue，asinoneweek，andduringthesametimeheconsumestwiceasmuchmaterial，andwearsouttwiceasmuchmachinery，ofdoublethevalueineachcase:hethereforepreserves，intheproductoftwoweeks，twiceasmuchvalueasintheproductofoneweek。Solongastheconditionsofproductionremainthesame，themorevaluethelaboureraddsbyfreshlabour，themorevaluehetransfersandpreserves;buthedoessomerelybecausethisadditionofnewvaluetakesplaceunderconditionsthathavenotvariedandareindependentofhisownlabour。Ofcourse，itmaybesaidinonesense，thatthelabourerpreservesoldvaluealwaysinproportiontothequantityofnewvaluethatheadds。Whetherthevalueofcottonrisefromoneshillingtotwoshillings，orfalltosixpence，theworkmaninvariablypreservesintheproductofonehouronlyonehalfasmuchvalueashepreservesintwohours。Inlikemanner，iftheproductivenessofhisownlabourvariesbyrisingorfalling，hewillinonehourspineithermoreorlesscotton，asthecasemaybe，thanhedidbefore，andwillconsequentlypreserveintheproductofonehour，moreorlessvalueofcotton;but，allthesame，hewillpreservebytwohours’labourtwiceasmuchvalueashewillbyone。
　　Valueexistsonlyinarticlesofutility，inobjects:weleaveoutofconsiderationitspurelysymbolicalrepresentationbytokens。（Manhimself，viewedastheimpersonationoflabour—power，isanaturalobject，athing，althoughalivingconsciousthing，andlabouristhemanifestationofthispowerresidinginhim。）Ifthereforeanarticlelosesitsutility，italsolosesitsvalue。Thereasonwhymeansofproductiondonotlosetheirvalue，atthesametimethattheylosetheiruse—value，isthis:theyloseinthelabour—processtheoriginalformoftheiruse—value，onlytoassumeintheproducttheformofanewuse—value。But，howeverimportantitmaybetovalue，thatitshouldhavesomeobjectofutilitytoembodyitselfin，yetitisamatterofcompleteindifferencewhatparticularobjectservesthispurpose;thiswesawwhentreatingofthemetamorphosisofcommodities。Henceitfollowsthatinthelabour—processthemeansofproductiontransfertheirvaluetotheproductonlysofarasalongwiththeiruse—valuetheylosealsotheirexchange—value。Theygiveuptotheproductthatvaluealonewhichtheythemselvesloseasmeansofproduction。Butinthisrespectthematerialfactorsofthelabour—processdonotallbehavealike。
　　Thecoalburntundertheboilervanisheswithoutleavingatrace;so，too，thetallowwithwhichtheaxlesofwheelsaregreased。Dyestuffsandotherauxiliarysubstancesalsovanishbutre—appearaspropertiesoftheproduct。Rawmaterialformsthesubstanceoftheproduct，butonlyafterithaschangeditsform。Hencerawmaterialandauxiliarysubstanceslosethecharacteristicformwithwhichtheyareclothedonenteringthelabour—process。Itisotherwisewiththeinstrumentsoflabour。Tools，machines，workshops，andvessels，areofuseinthelabour—process，onlysolongastheyretaintheiroriginalshape，andarereadyeachmorningtorenewtheprocesswiththeirshapeunchanged。Andjustasduringtheirlifetime，thatistosay，duringthecontinuedlabour—processinwhichtheyserve，theyretaintheirshapeindependentoftheproduct，so，too，theydoaftertheirdeath。Thecorpsesofmachines，tools，workshops，&c。，arealwaysseparateanddistinctfromtheproducttheyhelpedtoturnout。
　　Ifwenowconsiderthecaseofanyinstrumentoflabourduringthewholeperiodofitsservice，fromthedayofitsentryintotheworkshop，tillthedayofitsbanishmentintothelumberroom，wefindthatduringthisperioditsuse—valuehasbeencompletelyconsumed，andthereforeitsexchange—valuecompletelytransferredtotheproduct。Forinstance，ifaspinningmachinelastsfor10years，itisplainthatduringthatworkingperioditstotalvalueisgraduallytransferredtotheproductofthe10years。Thelifetimeofaninstrumentoflabour，therefore，isspentintherepetitionofagreaterorlessnumberofsimilaroperations。Itslifemaybecomparedwiththatofahumanbeing。Everydaybringsaman24hoursnearertohisgrave:buthowmanydayshehasstilltotravelonthatroad，nomancantellaccuratelybymerelylookingathim。Thisdifficulty，however，doesnotpreventlifeinsuranceofficesfromdrawing，bymeansofthetheoryofaverages，veryaccurate，andatthesametimeveryprofitableconclusions。
　　Soitiswiththeinstrumentsoflabour。Itisknownbyexperiencehowlongontheaverageamachineofaparticularkindwilllast。Supposeitsuse—valueinthelabour—processtolastonlysixdays。Then，ontheaverage，itloseseachdayone—sixthofitsuse—value，andthereforepartswithone—sixthofitsvaluetothedailyproduct。Thewearandtearofallinstruments，theirdailylossofuse—value，andthecorrespondingquantityofvaluetheypartwithtotheproduct，areaccordinglycalculateduponthisbasis。
　　Itisthusstrikinglyclear，thatmeansofproductionnevertransfermorevaluetotheproductthantheythemselvesloseduringthelabour—processbythedestructionoftheirownuse—value。Ifsuchaninstrumenthasnovaluetolose，if，inotherwords，itisnottheproductofhumanlabour，ittransfersnovaluetotheproduct。Ithelpstocreateuse—valuewithoutcontributingtotheformationofexchange—value。InthisclassareincludedallmeansofproductionsuppliedbyNaturewithouthumanassistance，suchasland，wind，water，metalsinsitu，andtimberinvirginforests。
　　Yetanotherinterestingphenomenonherepresentsitself。Supposeamachinetobeworth£1，000，andtowearoutin1，000days。Thenonethousandthpartofthevalueofthemachineisdailytransferredtotheday’sproduct。Atthesametime，thoughwithdiminishingvitality，themachineasawholecontinuestotakepartinthelabour—process。Thusitappears，thatonefactorofthelabour—process，ameansofproduction，continuallyentersasawholeintothatprocess，whileitentersintotheprocessoftheformationofvaluebyfractionsonly。Thedifferencebetweenthetwoprocessesisherereflectedintheirmaterialfactors，bythesameinstrumentofproductiontakingpartasawholeinthelabour—process，whileatthesametimeasanelementintheformationofvalue，itentersonlybyfractions。[2]
　　Ontheotherhand，ameansofproductionmaytakepartasawholeintheformationofvalue，whileintothelabour—processitentersonlybitbybit。Supposethatinspinningcotton，thewasteforevery115lbs。usedamountsto15lbs。，whichisconverted，notintoyarn，butinto"devil’sdust。"Now，althoughthis15lbs。ofcottonneverbecomesaconstituentelementoftheyarn，yetassumingthisamountofwastetobenormalandinevitableunderaverageconditionsofspinning，itsvalueisjustassurelytransferredtothevalueoftheyarn，asisthevalueofthe100lbs。thatformthesubstanceoftheyarn。Theuse—valueof15lbs。ofcottonmustvanishintodust，before100lbs。ofyarncanbemade。Thedestructionofthiscottonisthereforeanecessaryconditionintheproductionoftheyarn。Andbecauseitisanecessarycondition，andfornootherreason，thevalueofthatcottonistransferredtotheproduct。Thesameholdsgoodforeverykindofrefuseresultingfromalabour—process，sotaratleastassuchrefusecannotbefurtheremployedasameansintheproductionofnewandindependentuse—values。SuchanemploymentofrefusemaybeseeninthelargemachineworksatManchester，wheremountainsofironturningsarecartedawaytothefoundryintheevening，inorderthenextmorningtore—appearintheworkshopsassolidmassesofiron。
　　Wehaveseenthatthemeansofproductiontransfervaluetothenewproduct，sofaronlyasduringthelabour—processtheylosevalueintheshapeoftheirolduse—value。Themaximumlossofvaluethattheycansufferintheprocess，isplainlylimitedbytheamountoftheoriginalvaluewithwhichtheycameintotheprocess，orinotherwords，bythelabour—timenecessaryfortheirproduction。Therefore，themeansofproductioncanneveraddmorevaluetotheproductthantheythemselvespossessindependentlyoftheprocessinwhichtheyassist。Howeverusefulagivenkindofrawmaterial，oramachine，orothermeansofproductionmaybe，thoughitmaycost£150，or，say，500days’labour，yetitcannot，underanycircumstances，addtothevalueoftheproductmorethan£150。Itsvalueisdeterminednotbythelabour—processintowhichitentersasameansofproduction，butbythatoutofwhichithasissuedasaproduct。
　　Inthelabour—processitonlyservesasamereuse—value，athingwithusefulproperties，andcouldnot，therefore，transferanyvaluetotheproduct，unlessitpossessedsuchvaluepreviously。[3]
　　Whileproductivelabourischangingthemeansofproductionintoconstituentelementsofanewproduct，theirvalueundergoesametempsychosis。Itdesertstheconsumedbody，tooccupythenewlycreatedone。Butthistransmigrationtakesplace，asitwere，behindthebackofthelabourer。Heisunabletoaddnewlabour，tocreatenewvalue，withoutatthesametimepreservingoldvalues，andthis，becausethelabourheaddsmustbeofaspecificusefulkind;andhecannotdoworkofausefulkind，withoutemployingproductsasthemeansofproductionofanewproduct，andtherebytransferringtheirvaluetothenewproduct。Thepropertythereforewhichlabour—powerinaction，livinglabour，possessesofpreservingvalue，atthesametimethatitaddsit，isagiftofNaturewhichcoststhelabourernothing，butwhichisveryadvantageoustothecapitalistinasmuchasitpreservestheexistingvalueofhiscapital。[4]Solongastradeisgood，thecapitalististoomuchabsorbedinmoney—grubbingtotakenoticeofthisgratuitousgiftoflabour。Aviolentinterruptionofthelabour—processbyacrisis，makeshimsensitivelyawareofit。[5]
　　Asregardsthemeansofproduction，whatisreallyconsumedistheiruse—value，andtheconsumptionofthisuse—valuebylabourresultsintheproduct。Thereisnoconsumptionoftheirvalue，[6]anditwouldthereforebeinaccuratetosaythatitisreproduced。Itisratherpreserved;notbyreasonofanyoperationitundergoesitselfintheprocess;butbecausethearticleinwhichitoriginallyexists，vanishes，itistrue，butvanishesintosomeotherarticle。Hence，inthevalueoftheproduct，thereisareappearanceofthevalueofthemeansofproduction，butthereis，strictlyspeaking，noreproductionofthatvalue。Thatwhichisproducedisanewuse—valueinwhichtheoldexchange—valuereappears。[7]
　　Itisotherwisewiththesubjectivefactorofthelabour—process，withlabour—powerinaction。Whilethelabourer，byvirtueofhislabourbeingofaspecialisedkindthathasaspecialobject，preservesandtransferstotheproductthevalueofthemeansofproduction，heatthesametime，bythemereactofworking，createseachinstantanadditionalornewvalue。
　　Supposetheprocessofproductiontobestoppedjustwhentheworkmanhasproducedanequivalentforthevalueofhisown，labour—power，when，forexample，bysixhours’labour，hehasaddedavalueofthreeshillings。
　　Thisvalueisthesurplus，ofthetotalvalueoftheproduct，overtheportionofitsvaluethatisduetothemeansofproduction。Itistheonlyoriginalbitofvalueformedduringthisprocess，theonlyportionofthevalueoftheproductcreatedbythisprocess。Ofcourse，wedonotforgetthatthisnewvalueonlyreplacesthemoneyadvancedbythecapitalistinthepurchaseofthelabour—power，andspentbythelaboureronthenecessariesoflife。Withregardtothemoneyspent，thenewvalueismerelyareproduction;
　　but，nevertheless，itisanactual，andnot，asinthecaseofthevalueofthemeansofproduction，onlyanapparent，reproduction。Thesubstitutionofonevalueforanother，ishereeffectedbythecreationofnewvalue。
　　Weknow，however，fromwhathasgonebefore，thatthelabour—processmaycontinuebeyondthetimenecessarytoreproduceandincorporateintheproductamereequivalentforthevalueofthelabour—power。Insteadofthesixhoursthataresufficientforthelatterpurpose，theprocessmaycontinuefortwelvehours。Theactionoflabour—power，therefore，notonlyreproducesitsownvalue，butproducesvalueoverandaboveit。Thissurplus—valueisthedifferencebetweenthevalueoftheproductandthevalueoftheelementsconsumedintheformationofthatproduct，inotherwords，ofthemeansofproductionandthelabour—power。
　　Byourexplanationofthedifferentpartsplayedbythevariousfactorsofthelabour—processintheformationoftheproduct’svalue，wehave，infact，disclosedthecharactersofthedifferentfunctionsallottedtothedifferentelementsofcapitalintheprocessofexpandingitsownvalue。
　　Thesurplusofthetotalvalueoftheproduct，overthesumofthevaluesofitsconstituentfactors，isthesurplusoftheexpandedcapitaloverthecapitaloriginallyadvanced。Themeansofproductionontheonehand，labour—powerontheother，aremerelythedifferentmodesofexistencewhichthevalueoftheoriginalcapitalassumedwhenfrombeingmoneyitwastransformedintothevariousfactorsofthelabour—process。Thatpartofcapitalthen，whichisrepresentedbythemeansofproduction，bytherawmaterial，auxiliarymaterialandtheinstrumentsoflabourdoesnot，intheprocessofproduction，undergoanyquantitativealterationofvalue。
　　Ithereforecallittheconstantpartofcapital，or，moreshortly，constantcapital。
　　Ontheotherhand，thatpartofcapital，representedbylabour—power，does，intheprocessofproduction，undergoanalterationofvalue。Itbothreproducestheequivalentofitsownvalue，andalsoproducesanexcess，asurplus—value，whichmayitselfvary，maybemoreorlessaccordingtocircumstances。Thispartofcapitaliscontinuallybeingtransformedfromaconstantintoavariablemagnitude。Ithereforecallitthevariablepartofcapital，or，shortly，variablecapital。Thesameelementsofcapitalwhich，fromthepointofviewofthelabour—process，presentthemselvesrespectivelyastheobjectiveandsubjectivefactors，asmeansofproductionandlabour—power，presentthemselves，fromthepointofviewoftheprocessofcreatingsurplus—value，asconstantandvariablecapital。
　　Thedefinitionofconstantcapitalgivenabovebynomeansexcludesthepossibilityofachangeofvalueinitselements。Supposethepriceofcottontobeonedaysixpenceapound，andthenextday，inconsequenceofafailureofthecottoncrop，ashillingapound。Eachpoundofthecottonboughtatsixpence，andworkedupaftertheriseinvalue，transferstotheproductavalueofoneshilling;andthecottonalreadyspunbeforetherise，andperhapscirculatinginthemarketasyarn，likewisetransferstotheproducttwiceits，originalvalue。Itisplain，however，thatthesechangesofvalueareindependentoftheincrementorsurplus—valueaddedtothevalueofthecottonbythespinningitself。Iftheoldcottonhadneverbeenspun，itcould，aftertherise，beresoldatashillingapoundinsteadofatsixpence。Further，thefewertheprocessesthecottonhasgonethrough，themorecertainisthisresult。Wethereforefindthatspeculatorsmakeitarulewhensuchsuddenchangesinvalueoccur，tospeculateinthatmaterialonwhichtheleastpossiblequantityoflabourhasbeenspent:tospeculate，therefore，inyarnratherthanincloth，incottonitself，ratherthaninyarn。Thechangeofvalueinthecasewehavebeenconsidering，originates，notintheprocessinwhichthecottonplaysthepartofameansofproduction，andinwhichitthereforefunctionsasconstantcapital，butintheprocessinwhichthecottonitselfisproduced。Thevalueofacommodity，it。istrue，isdeterminedbythequantityoflabourcontainedinit，butthisquantityisitselflimitedbysocialconditions。Ifthetimesociallynecessaryfortheproductionofanycommodityalters？andagivenweightofcottonrepresents，afterabadharvest，morelabourthanafteragoodone？allpreviouslyexistingcommoditiesofthesameclassareaffected，becausetheyare，asitwere，onlyindividualsofthespeciep;[8]andtheirvalueatanygiventimeismeasuredbythelaboursociallynecessary，i。e。，bythelabournecessaryfortheirproductionunderthethenexistingsocialconditions。
　　Asthevalueoftherawmaterialmaychange，so，too，maythatoftheinstrumentsoflabour，ofthemachinery，&c。，employedintheprocess;
　　andconsequentlythatportionofthevalueoftheproducttransferredtoitfromthem，mayalsochange。Ifinconsequenceofanewinvention，machineryofaparticularkindcanbeproducedbyadiminishedexpenditureoflabour，theoldmachinerybecomesdepreciatedmoreorless，andconsequentlytransferssomuchlessvaluetotheproduct。Buthereagain，thechangeinvalueoriginatesoutsidetheprocessinwhichthemachineisactingasameansofproduction。Onceengagedinthisprocess，themachinecannottransfermorevaluethanitpossessesapartfromtheprocess。
　　Justasachangeinthevalueofthemeansofproduction，evenaftertheyhavecommencedtotakeapartinthelabour—process，doesnotaltertheircharacterasconstantcapital，so，too，achangeintheproportionofconstanttovariablecapitaldoesnotaffecttherespectivefunctionsofthesetwokindsofcapital。Thetechnicalconditionsofthelabour—processmayberevolutionisedtosuchanextent，thatwhereformerlytenmenusingtenimplementsofsmallvalueworkeduparelativelysmallquantityofrawmaterial，onemanmaynow，withtheaidofoneexpensivemachine，workuponehundredtimesasmuchrawmaterial。Inthelattercasewehaveanenormousincreaseintheconstantcapital，thatisrepresentedbythetotalvalueofthemeansofproductionused，andatthesametimeagreatreductioninthevariablecapital，investedinlabour—power。Sucharevolution，however，altersonlythequantitativerelationbetweentheconstantandthevariablecapital，ortheproportionsinwhichthetotalcapitalissplitupintoitsconstantandvariableconstituents;ithasnotintheleastdegreeaffectedtheessentialdifferencebetweenthetwo。
　　Footnotes[1]"Labourgivesanewcreationforoneextinguished。"（"AnEssayonthePolit。
　　Econ。ofNations，"London，1821，p。13。）
　　[2]Thesubjectofrepairsoftheimplementsoflabourdoesnotconcernushere。Amachinethatisundergoingrepair，nolongerplaysthepartofaninstrument，butthatofasubjectoflabour。Workisnolongerdonewithit，butuponit。Itisquitepermissibleforourpurposetoassume，thatthelabourexpendedontherepairsofinstrumentsisincludedinthelabournecessaryfortheiroriginalproduction。Butinthetextwedealwiththatwearandtear，whichnodoctorcancure，andwhichlittlebylittlebringsaboutdeath，with"thatkindofwearwhichcannotberepairedfromtimetotime，andwhich，inthecaseofaknife，wouldultimatelyreduceittoastateinwhichthecutlerwouldsayofit，itisnotworthanewblade。"Wehaveshewninthetext，thatamachinetakespartineverylabour—processasanintegralmachine，butthatintothesimultaneousprocessofcreatingvalueitentersonlybitby。bit。Howgreatthenistheconfusionofideasexhibitedinthefollowingextract！"Mr。Ricardosaysaportionofthelabouroftheengineerinmaking[stocking]machines"iscontainedforexampleinthevalueofapairofstockings。"Yetthetotallabour，thatproducedeachsinglepairofstockings……includesthewholelabouroftheengineer，notaportion;foronemachinemakesmanypairs，andnoneofthosepairscouldhavebeendonewithoutanypartofthemachine。"（"Obs。
　　onCertainVerbalDisputesinPol。Econ。，ParticularlyRelatingtoValue，"
　　p。54。1Theauthor，anuncommonlyself—satisfiedwiseacre，isrightinhisconfusionandthereforeinhiscontention，tothisextentonly，thatneitherRicardonoranyothereconomist，beforeorsincehim，hasaccuratelydistinguishedthetwoaspectsoflabour，andstillless，therefore，thepartplayedbyitundereachoftheseaspectsintheformationofvalue。
　　[3]FromthiswemayjudgeoftheabsurdityofJ。B。Say，whopretendstoaccountforsurplus—value（Interest，Profit，Rent），bythe"servicesproductifs"
　　whichthemeansofproduction，soil，instruments，andrawmaterial，renderinthelabour—processbymeansoftheiruse—values。Mr。Wm。Roscherwhoseldomlosesanoccasionofregistering，inblackandwhite，ingeniousapologeticfancies，recordsthefollowingspecimen:—"J。B。Say（Traité，t。1，ch。4）verytrulyremarks:thevalueproducedbyanoilmill，afterdeductionofallcosts，issomethingnew，somethingquitedifferentfromthelabourbywhichtheoilmillitselfwaserected。"（l。c。，p。82，note。）
　　Verytrue，Mr。Professor！theoilproducedbytheoilmillisindeedsomethingverydifferentfromthelabourexpendedinconstructingthemill！Byvalue，Mr。Roscherunderstandssuchstuffas"oil，"becauseoilhasvalue，notwithstandingthat"Nature"producespetroleum，thoughrelatively"insmallquantities，"
　　afacttowhichheseemstoreferinhisfurtherobservation:"It（Nature）
　　producesscarcelyanyexchange—value。"Mr。Roscher’s"Nature"andtheexchange—valueitproducesareratherlikethefoolishvirginwhoadmittedindeedthatshehadhadachild，but"itwassuchalittleone。"This"savantsérieux"
　　incontinuationremarks:"Ricardo’sschoolisinthehabitofincludingcapitalasaccumulatedlabourundertheheadoflabour。Thisisunskilfulwork，because，indeed，theownerofcapital，afterall，doessomethingmorethanthemerelycreatingandpreservingofthesame:namely，theabstentionfromtheenjoymentofit，forwhichhedemands，e。g。，interest。"
　　（l。c。）Howvery"skilful"isthis"anatomico—physiologicalmethod"ofPoliticalEconomy，which，"indeed，"convertsameredesire"afteralr’
　　intoasourceofvalue。
　　[4]"Ofalltheinstrumentsofthefarmers’trade，thelabourofman……isthatonwhichheismosttorelyfortherepaymentofhiscapital。Theothertwo……theworkingstockofthecattleandthe……carts，ploughs，spades，andsoforth，withoutagivenportionofthefirst，arenothingatall。"（EdmundBurke:"ThoughtsandDetailsonScarcity，originallypresentedtotheRightHon。W。Pitt，inthemonthofNovember1795，"Edit。London，1800，p。10。）
　　[5]InTheTimesof26thNovember，1862，amanufacturer，whosemillemployed800hands，andconsumed，ontheaverage，150balesofEastIndian，or130balesofAmericancotton，complains，indolefulmanner，ofthestandingexpensesofhisfactorywhennotworking。Heestimatesthemat£6，000
　　ayear。Amongthemareanumberofitemsthatdonotconcernushere，suchasrent，rates，andtaxes，insurance，salariesofthemanager，book—keeper，engineer，andothers。Thenhereckons£150forcoalusedtoheatthemilloccasionally，andruntheenginenowandthen。Besidesthis，heincludesthewagesofthepeopleemployedatoddtimestokeepthemachineryinworkingorder。Lastly，heputsdown£1，200fordepreciationofmachinery，because"theweatherandthenaturalprincipleofdecaydonotsuspendtheiroperationsbecausethesteam—engineceasestorevolve。"Hesays，emphatically，hedoesnotestimatehisdepreciationatmorethanthesmallsumof£1，200，becausehismachineryisalreadynearlywornout。
　　[6]"Productiveconsumption……wheretheconsumptionofacommodityisapartoftheprocessofproduction……Intheseinstancesthereisnoconsumptionofvalue。"（S。P。Newman，l。c。，p。296。）
　　[7]InanAmericancompendiumthathasgonethrough，perhaps，20editions，thispassageoccurs:"Itmattersnotinwhatformcapitalre—appears;"
　　thenafteralengthyenumerationofallthepossibleingredientsofproductionwhosevaluere—appearsintheproduct，thepassageconcludesthus:"Thevariouskindsoffood，clothing，andshelter，necessaryfortheexistenceandcomfortofthehumanbeing，arealsochanged。Theyareconsumedfromtimetotime，andtheirvaluere—appearsinthatnewvigourimpartedtohisbodyandmind，formingfreshcapital，tobeemployedagainintheworkofproduction。"（F。Wayland，l。c。，pp。31，32。）Withoutnoticinganyotheroddities，itsufficestoobserve，thatwhatre—appearsinthefreshvigour，isnotthebread’sprice，butitsbloodformingsubstances。What，ontheotherhand，re—appearsinthevalueofthatvigour，isnotthemeansofsubsistence，buttheirvalue。Thesamenecessariesoflife，athalftheprice，wouldformjustasmuchmuscleandbone，justasmuchvigour，butnotvigourofthesamevalue。Thisconfusionof"value"and"vigour"coupledwithourauthor’spharisaicalindefiniteness，markanattempt，futileforallthat，tothrashoutanexplanationofsurplus—valuefromamerere—appearanceofpre—existingvalues。
　　[8]"Touteslesproductionsd’unmême？genreneformentproprementqu’unemasse，dontleprixsedétermineengénéraletsanségardauxcirconstancesparticulières。"（LeTrosne，1。c。，p。893。）
　　ChapterNineKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIII:
　　TheProductionofAbsoluteSurplus—ValueCHAPTERNINE:
　　THERATEOFSURPLUS—VALUE
　　ContentsSection1—TheDegreeofExploitationofLabour—PowerSection2—TheRepresentationoftheComponentsoftheValueoftheProductbyCorrespondingProportionalPartsoftheProductitselfSection3—Senior’s"LastHour"
　　Section4—Surplus—ProduceSECTION1。THEDEGREEOFEXPLOITATIONOFLABOUR—POWER
　　Thesurplus—valuegeneratedintheprocessofproductionbyC，thecapitaladvanced，orinotherwords，theself—expansionofthevalueofthecapitalC，presentsitselfforourconsideration，inthefirstplace，asasurplus，astheamountbywhichthevalueoftheproductexceedsthevalueofitsconstituentelements。
　　ThecapitalCismadeupoftwocomponents，one，thesumofmoneyclaidoutuponthemeansofproduction，andtheother，thesumofmoneyvexpendeduponthelabour—power;crepresentstheportionthathasbecomeconstantcapital，andvtheportionthathasbecomevariablecapital。Atfirstthen，C=cv:forexample，if£500isthecapitaladvanced，itscomponentsmaybesuchthatthe£500=£410const。£90