15。OftheCommerceoftheRomanswiththeBarbarians。TheRomanshavingerectedavastempireinEurope，Asia，andAfrica，theweaknessofthepeopleandthetyrannyoftheirlawsunitedallthepartsofthisimmensebody。TheRomanpolicywasthentoavoidallcommunicationwiththosenationswhomtheyhadnotsubdued：thefearofcarryingtothemtheartofconqueringmadethemneglecttheartofenrichingthemselves。
　　Theymadelawstohinderallcommercewithbarbarians。"Letnobody，"
　　saidValensandGratian，[115]"sendwine，oil，orotherliquorstothebarbarians，thoughitbeonlyforthemtotaste。""Letnoonecarrygoldtothem，"addGratian，Valentinian，andTheodosius；[116]"rather，iftheyhaveany，letoursubjectsdeprivethemofitbystratagem。"Theexportationofironwasprohibitedonpainofdeath。
　　Domitian，aprinceofgreattimidity，orderedthevinesinGaultobepulledup，[117]fromfear，nodoubt，lesttheirwinesshoulddrawthitherthebarbarians。ProbusandJulian，whohadnosuchfears，gaveordersfortheirbeingplantedagain。
　　IamsensiblethatuponthedeclensionoftheRomanempirethebarbariansobligedtheRomanstoestablishstapletowns，andtotradewiththem。ButeventhisisaproofthatthemindsoftheRomanswereaversetocommerce。[118]
　　16。OftheCommerceoftheRomanswithArabiaandtheIndies。ThetradetoArabiaFelix，andthattotheIndies，werethetwobranches，andalmosttheonlyones，oftheirforeigncommerce。TheArabianswerepossessedofimmenseriches，whichtheyfoundintheirseasandforests；
　　andastheysoldmuchandpurchasedlittle，theydrewtothemselvesthegoldandsilveroftheRomans。[119]Augustus，[120]beingwellapprisedofthatopulence，resolvedtheyshouldbeeitherhisfriendsorhisenemies。Withthisviewhesent？liusGallusfromEgyptintoArabia。
　　Thiscommanderfoundthepeopleindolent，peaceable，andunskilledinwar。Hefoughtbattles，laidsiegestotowns，andlostbutsevenofhismenbythesword；buttheperfidyofhisguides，longmarches，theclimate，wantofprovisions，distempers，andill—conduct，causedtheruinofhisarmy。
　　HewasthereforeobligedtobecontentwithtradingtoArabia，inthesamemannerasothernations；thatis，withgivingthemgoldandsilverinexchangefortheircommodities。TheEuropeanstradewiththemstillinthesamemanner；thecaravansofAleppoandtheroyalvesselofSuezcarrythitherimmensesums。[121]
　　NaturehadformedtheArabsforcommerce，notforwar；butwhenthosequietpeoplecametobenearneighbourstotheParthiansandtheRomans，theyactedasauxiliariestobothnations。？liusGallusfoundthematradingpeople；Mahomethappenedtofindthemtrainedtowar；heinspiredthemwithenthusiasm，whichledthemtogloryandconquest。
　　ThecommerceoftheRomanstotheIndieswasveryconsiderable。
　　Strabo[122]hadbeeninformedinEgyptthattheyemployedinthisnavigationonehundredandtwentyvessels；thiscommercewascarriedonentirelywithbullion。Theysentthitherannuallyfiftymillionsofsesterces。Pliny[123]saysthatthemerchandisebroughtthencewassoldatRomeatcent。percentprofit。Hespeaks，Ibelieve，toogenerally；
　　ifthistradehadbeensovastlyprofitable，everybodywouldhavebeenwillingtoengageinit，andthenitwouldhavebeenatanend。
　　Itwilladmitofaquestion，whetherthetradetoArabiaandtheIndieswasofanyadvantagetotheRomans。Theywereobligedtoexporttheirbullionthither，thoughtheyhadnot，likeus，theresourceofAmerica，whichsupplieswhatwesendaway。Iampersuadedthatoneofthereasonsoftheirincreasingthevalueoftheirspeciebyestablishingbasecoinwasthescarcityofsilver，owingtothecontinualexportationofittotheIndies：andthoughthecommoditiesofthiscountryweresoldatRomeattherateofcent。percent，thisprofitoftheRomans，beingobtainedfromtheRomansthemselves，couldnotenrichtheempire。
　　Itmaybealleged，ontheotherhand，thatthiscommerceincreasedtheRomannavigation，andofcoursetheirpower；thatnewmerchandiseaugmentedtheirinlandtrade，gaveencouragementtothearts，andemploymenttotheindustrious；thatthenumberofsubjectsmultipliedinproportiontothenewmeansofsupport；thatthisnewcommercewasproductiveofluxury，whichIhaveprovedtobeasfavourabletoamonarchicalgovernmentasfataltoacommonwealth；thatthisestablishmentwasofthesamedateasthefalloftheirrepublic；thattheluxuryofRomehadbecomenecessary；andthatitwasextremelyproperthatacitywhichhadaccumulatedallthewealthoftheuniverseshouldrefunditbyitsluxury。
　　Strabosays[124]thattheRomanscarriedonafarmoreextensivecommercewiththeIndiesthanthekingsofEgypt；butitisveryextraordinarythatthosepeoplewhoweresolittleacquaintedwithcommerceshouldhavepaidmoreattentiontothatofIndiathantheEgyptiankings，whosedominionslaysoconvenientlyforit。Thereasonofthismustbeexplained。
　　AfterthedeathofAlexander，thekingsofEgyptestablishedamaritimecommercewiththeIndies；whilethekingsofSyria，whowerepossessedofthemoreeasternprovinces，andconsequentlyoftheIndies，maintainedthatcommerceofwhichwehavetakennoticeinthesixthchapter，whichwascarriedonpartlybyland，andpartlybyrivers，andhadbeenfurtherfacilitatedbymeansoftheMacedoniancolonies；
　　insomuchthatEuropehadcommunicationwiththeIndiesbothbyEgyptandbySyria。Thedismemberingofthelatterkingdom，whencewasformedthatofBactriana，didnotproveinanywayprejudicialtothiscommerce。
　　MarinustheTyrian，quotedbyPtolemy，[125]mentionsthediscoveriesmadeinIndiabymeansofsomeMacedonianmerchants，whofoundoutnewroads，whichhadbeenunknowntokingsintheirmilitaryexpeditions。WefindinPtolemy[126]thattheywentfromPeter’stower[127]asfarasSera；andthediscoverymadebymercantilepeopleofsodistantamart，situatedinthenorth—eastpartofChina，wasakindofprodigy。Hence，underthekingsofSyriaandBactriana，merchandisewasconveyedtothewestfromthesouthernpartsofIndia，bytheriverIndus，theOxus，andtheCaspianSea；whilethoseofthemoreeasternandnorthernpartsweretransportedfromSera，Peter’stower，andotherstaples，asfarastheEuphrates。Thosemerchantsdirectedtheirroutenearlybythefortiethdegreeofnorthlatitude，throughcountriessituatedtothewestofChina，morecivilisedatthattimethanatpresent，becausetheyhadnotasyetbeeninfestedbytheTartars。
　　NowwhiletheSyrianempirewasextendingitstradetosuchadistancebyland，Egyptdidnotgreatlyenlargeitsmaritimecommerce。
　　TheParthianssoonafterappeared，andfoundedtheirempire；andwhenEgyptfellunderthepoweroftheRomans，thisempirewasatitsheight，andhadreceiveditswholeextension。
　　TheRomansandParthiansweretworivalnations，thatfoughtnotfordominionbutfortheirveryexistence。Betweenthetwoempiresdesertswereformedandarmieswerealwaysstationedonthefrontiers；sothatinsteadoftherebeinganycommerce，therewasnotsomuchascommunicationbetweenthem。Ambition，jealousy，religion，nationalantipathy，anddifferenceofmannerscompletedtheseparation。Thusthetradefromeasttowest，whichhadformerlysomanychannels，wasreducedtoone；andAlexandriabecomingtheonlystaple，thetradetothiscitywasimmenselyenlarged。
　　Weshallsaybutonewordoftheirinlandtrade。ItsprincipalbranchwasthecornbroughttoRomeforthesubsistenceofthepeople；butthiswasratherapoliticalaffairthanapointofcommerce。Onthisaccountthesailorswerefavouredwithsomeprivileges，becausethesafetyoftheempiredependedontheirvigilance。[128]
　　17。OfCommerceaftertheDestructionoftheWesternEmpire。AftertheinvasionoftheRomanempireoneeffectofthegeneralcalamitywasthedestructionofcommerce。Thebarbarousnationsatfirstregardeditonlyasanopportunityforrobbery；andwhentheyhadsubduedtheRomans，theyhonoureditnomorethanagriculture，andtheotherprofessionsofaconqueredpeople。
　　SoonwasthecommerceofEuropealmostentirelylost。Thenobility，whohadeverywherethedirectionofaffairs，wereinnopainaboutit。
　　ThelawsoftheVisigoths[129]permittedprivatepeopletooccupyhalfthebedsofgreatrivers，providedtheotherhalfremainedfreefornetsandboats。Theremusthavebeenverylittletradeincountriesconqueredbythesebarbarians。
　　Inthosetimeswereestablishedtheridiculousrightsofescheatageandshipwrecks。Thesementhoughtthat，asstrangerswerenotunitedtothembyanycivillaw，theyowedthemontheonehandnokindofjustice，andontheothernosortofpity。
　　Inthenarrowboundswhichnaturehadoriginallyprescribedtothepeopleofthenorth，allwerestrangerstothem：andintheirpovertytheyregardedallonlyascontributingtotheirriches。Beingestablished，beforetheirconquest，onthecoastsofaseaofverylittlebreadth，andfullofrocks，fromtheseveryrockstheydrewtheirsubsistence。
　　ButtheRomans，whomadelawsforalltheworld，hadestablishedthemosthumaneoneswithregardtoshipwrecks。[130]Theysuppressedtherapineofthosewhoinhabitedthecoasts，andwhatwasmorestill，therapacityoftheirtreasuries。[131]
　　18。AparticularRegulation。ThelawoftheVisigothsmade，however，oneregulationinfavourofcommerce。[132]Itordainedthatforeignmerchantsshouldbejudged，inthedifferencesthataroseamongthemselves，bythelawsandbyjudgesoftheirownnation。Thiswasfoundedonanestablishedcustomamongallmixedpeople，thateverymanshouldliveunderhisownlaw——acustomofwhichIshallspeakmoreatlargeinanotherplace。
　　19。OfCommerceaftertheDecayoftheRomanPowerintheEast。TheMahomedansappeared，conquered，extended，anddispersedthemselves。
　　Egypthadparticularsovereigns；thesecarriedonthecommerceofIndia，andbeingpossessedofthemerchandiseofthiscountry，drewtothemselvestherichesofallothernations。ThesultansofEgyptwerethemostpowerfulprincesofthosetimes。Historyinformsuswithwhataconstantandwell—regulatedforcetheystoppedtheardour，thefire，andtheimpetuosityofthecrusades。
　　20。HowCommercebrokethroughtheBarbarismofEurope。Aristotle’sphilosophybeingcarriedtothewest，pleasedthesubtlegeniuseswhowerethevirtuosiofthosetimesofignorance。Theschoolmenwereinfatuatedwithit，andborrowedfromthatphilosopher[133]agreatmanynotionsonlendinguponinterest，whereasitssourcemighthavebeeneasilytracedinthegospel；inshort，theycondemneditabsolutelyandinallcases。Hencecommerce，whichwastheprofessiononlyofmeanpersons，becamethatofknaves；forwheneverathingisforbidden，whichnaturepermitsornecessityrequires，thosewhodoitarelookeduponasdishonest。
　　Commercewastransferredtoanationcoveredwithinfamy，andsoonrankedwiththemostshamefulusury，withmonopolies，withthelevyingofsubsidies，andwithallthedishonestmeansofacquiringwealth。
　　TheJews，enrichedbytheirexactions，werepillagedbythetyrannyofprinces；whichpleasedindeed，butdidnotease，thepeople。[134]
　　WhatpassedinEnglandmayservetogiveusanideaofwhatwasdoneinothercountries。KingJohn[135]havingimprisonedtheJews，inordertoobtaintheirwealth，therewerefewwhohadnotatleastoneoftheireyespluckedout。Thusdidthatkingadministerjustice。AcertainJew，whohadatoothpulledouteverydayforsevendayssuccessively，gavetenthousandmarksofsilverfortheeighth。HenryIIIextortedfromAaron，aJewatYork，fourteenthousandmarksofsilver，andtenthousandforthequeen，inthosetimestheydidbyviolencewhatisnowdoneinPolandwithsomesemblanceofmoderation。Asprincescouldnotdiveintothepursesoftheirsubjectsbecauseoftheirprivileges，theyputtheJewstothetorture，whowerenotconsideredascitizens。
　　AtlastacustomwasintroducedofconfiscatingtheeffectsofthoseJewswhoembracedChristianity。Thisridiculouscustomisknownonlybythelawwhichsuppressedit。[136]Themostvainandtriflingreasonsweregiveninjustificationofthatproceeding；itwasallegedthatitwaspropertotrythem，inordertobecertainthattheyhadentirelyshakenofftheslaveryofthedevil。Butitisevidentthatthisconfiscationwasaspeciesoftherightofamortisation，torecompensetheprince，orthelords，forthetaxesleviedontheJews，whichceasedontheirembracingChristianity。[137]Inthosetimes，men，likelands，wereregardedasproperty。Icannothelpremarking，bytheway，howthisnationhasbeensportedwithfromoneagetoanother：atonetime，theireffectswereconfiscatedwhentheywerewillingtobecomeChristians；
　　andatanother，iftheyrefusedtoturnChristians，theywereorderedtobeburned。
　　Inthemeantime，commercewasseentoarisefromthebosomofvexationanddespair。TheJews，proscribedbyturnsfromeverycountry，foundoutthewayofsavingtheireffects。Thustheyrenderedtheirretreatsforeverfixed；forthoughprincesmighthavebeenwillingtogetridoftheirpersons，yettheydidnotchoosetogetridoftheirmoney。
　　TheJewsinventedlettersofexchange；[138]commerce，bythismethod，becamecapableofeludingviolence，andofmaintainingeverywhereitsground；therichestmerchanthavingnonebutinvisibleeffects，whichhecouldconveyimperceptiblywhereverhepleased。
　　TheTheologianswereobligedtolimittheirprinciples；andcommerce，whichtheyhadbeforeconnectedbymainforcewithknavery，reentered，ifImaysoexpressmyself，thebosomofprobity。
　　Thusweowetothespeculationsoftheschoolmenallthemisfortuneswhichaccompaniedthedestructionofcommerce；[139]andtotheavariceofprinces，theestablishmentofapracticewhichputsitinsomemeasureoutoftheirpower。
　　Fromthistimeitbecamenecessarythatprincesshouldgovernwithmoreprudencethantheythemselvescouldeverhaveimagined；forgreatexertionsofauthoritywere，intheevent，foundtobeimpolitic；andfromexperienceitismanifestthatnothingbutthegoodnessandlenityofagovernmentcanmakeitflourish。
　　WebegintobecuredofMachiavelism，andrecoverfromiteveryday。
　　Moremoderationhasbecomenecessaryinthecouncilsofprinces。Whatwouldformerlyhavebeencalledamaster—strokeinpoliticswouldbenow，independentofthehorroritmightoccasion，thegreatestimprudence。
　　Happyisitformenthattheyareinasituationinwhich，thoughtheirpassionspromptthemtobewicked，itis，nevertheless，totheirinteresttobehumaneandvirtuous。
　　21。TheDiscoveryoftwonewWorlds，andinwhatMannerEuropeisaffectedbyit。Thecompassopened，ifImaysoexpressmyself，theuniverse。AsiaandAfricawerefound，ofwhichonlysomeborderswereknown；andAmerica，ofwhichweknewnothing。
　　ThePortuguese，sailingontheAtlanticOcean，discoveredthemostsouthernpointofAfrica；theysawavastsea，whichcarriedthemtotheEastIndies。Theirdangeruponthissea，thediscoveryofMozambique，Melinda，andCalicut，havebeensungbyCamoens，whosepoemsmakeusfeelsomethingofthecharmsoftheOdysseyandthemagnificenceofthe？neid。
　　TheVenetianshadhithertocarriedonthetradeoftheIndiesthroughtheTurkishdominions，andpursueditinthemidstofoppressionsanddiscouragements。BythediscoveryoftheCapeofGoodHope，andthosewhichweremadesometimeafter，Italywasnolongerthecentreofthetradingworld；itwas，ifImaybepermittedtheexpression，onlyacorneroftheuniverse，andissostill。ThecommerceevenoftheLevantdependingnowonthatofthegreattradingnationstoboththeIndies，Italyeveninthatbranchcannolongerbeconsideredasaprincipal。
　　ThePortuguesetradedtotheIndiesinrightofconquest。TheconstraininglawswhichtheDutchatpresentimposeonthecommerceofthelittleIndianprinceshadbeenestablishedbeforebythePortuguese。[140]
　　ThefortuneofthehouseofAustriawasprodigious。CharlesVsucceededtothepossessionofBurgundy，Castile，andAragon；hearrivedafterwardsattheimperialdignity；andtoprocurehimanewkindofgrandeur，theglobeextendeditself，andtherewasseenanewworldpayinghimobeisance。
　　ChristopherColumbusdiscoveredAmerica；andthoughSpainsentthitheronlyaforcesosmallthattheleastprinceinEuropecouldhavesentthesame，yetitsubduedtwovastempires，andothergreatstates。
　　WhiletheSpaniardsdiscoveredandconqueredthewest，thePortuguesepushedtheirconquestsanddiscoveriesintheeast。Thesetwonationsmeteachother；theyhadrecoursetoPopeAlexanderVI，whomadethecelebratedlineofpartition，anddeterminedthegreatsuit。
　　ButtheothernationsofEuropewouldnotsufferthemquietlytoenjoytheirshares。TheDutchchasedthePortuguesefromalmostalltheirsettlementsintheEastIndies；andseveralothernationsplantedcoloniesinAmerica。
　　TheSpaniardsconsideredthesenewly—discoveredcountriesasthesubjectofconquest；whileothers，morerefinedintheirviews，foundthemtobethepropersubjectsofcommerce，anduponthisprincipledirectedtheirproceedings。Henceseveralnationshaveconductedthemselveswithsomuchwisdomthattheyhavegivenakindofsovereigntytocompaniesofmerchants，who，governingthesefar—distantcountriesonlywithaviewtotrade，havemadeagreataccessorypowerwithoutembarrassingtheprincipalstate。
　　Thecoloniestheyhaveformedareunderakindofdependence，ofwhichtherearebutveryfewinstancesinallthecoloniesoftheancients；
　　whetherweconsiderthemasholdingsofthestateitself，orofsometradingcompanyestablishedinthestate。
　　Thedesignofthesecoloniesistotradeonmoreadvantageousconditionsthancouldotherwisebedonewiththeneighbouringpeople，withwhomalladvantagesarereciprocal。Ithasbeenestablishedthatthemetropolis，[141]ormothercountry，aloneshalltradeinthecolonies，andthatfromverygoodreason；becausethedesignofthesettlementwastheextensionofcommerce，notthefoundationofacityorofanewempire。
　　ThusitisstillafundamentallawofEuropethatallcommercewithaforeigncolonyshallberegardedasameremonopoly，punishablebythelawsofthecountry；andinthiscasewearenottobedirectedbythelawsandprecedentsoftheancients，whicharenotatallapplicable。[142]
　　Itislikewiseacknowledgedthatacommerceestablishedbetweenthemothercountriesdoesnotincludeapermissiontotradeinthecolonies；
　　forthesealwayscontinueinastateofprohibition。
　　Thedisadvantageofacolonythatlosesthelibertyofcommerceisvisiblycompensatedbytheprotectionofthemothercountry，whodefendsitbyherarms，orsupportsitbyherlaws。
　　HencefollowsathirdlawofEurope，thatwhenaforeigncommercewithacolonyisprohibited，itisnotlawfultotradeinthoseseas，exceptinsuchcasesasareexceptedbytreaty。Nationswhoare，withrespecttothewholeglobe，whatindividualsareinastate，aregovernedlikethelatterbythelawsofnature，andbyparticularlawsoftheirownmaking。Onenationmayresigntoanotherthesea，aswellastheland。
　　TheCarthaginiansforbadetheRomanstosailbeyondcertainlimits，[143]
　　astheGreekshadobligedtheKingofPersiatokeepasfardistantfromthesea—coastasahorsecouldgallop。[144]
　　Thegreatdistanceofourcoloniesisnotaninconveniencethataffectstheirsafety；forifthemothercountry，onwhomtheydependfortheirdefence，isremote，nolessremotearethosenationswhorivalthemothercountry，andbywhomtheymaybeafraidofbeingconquered。
　　Besides，thisdistanceisthecausethatthosewhoareestablishedtherecannotconformtothemanneroflivinginaclimatesodifferentfromtheirown；theyareobligedthereforetodrawfromthemothercountryalltheconveniencesoflife。TheCarthaginians，[145]torendertheSardiniansandCorsicansmoredependent，forbadetheirplanting，sowing，ordoinganythingofthekind，underpainofdeath；sothattheysuppliedthemwithnecessariesfromAfrica。
　　TheEuropeanshavecompassedthesamething，withouthavingrecoursetosuchseverelaws。OurcoloniesintheCaribbeanislandsareunderanadmirableregulationinthisrespect；thesubjectoftheircommerceiswhatweneitherhavenorcanproduce；andtheywantwhatisthesubjectofours。
　　AconsequenceofthediscoveryofAmericawastheconnectingAsiaandAfricawithEurope；itfurnishedmaterialsforatradewiththatvastpartofAsiaknownbythenameoftheEastIndies。Silver，thatmetalsousefulasthemediumofcommerce，becamenowasmerchandisethebasisofthegreatestcommerceintheworld。Infine，thenavigationtoAfricabecamenecessaryinordertofurnishuswithmentolabourinthemines，andtocultivatethelandsofAmerica。
　　Europehasarrivedatsohighadegreeofpowerthatnothinginhistorycanbecomparedwithit，whetherweconsidertheimmensityofitsexpenses，thegrandeurofitsengagements，thenumberofitstroops，andtheregularpaymentsevenofthosethatareleastserviceable，andwhicharekeptonlyforostentation。
　　FatherDuHaldesays[146]thattheinteriortradeofChinaismuchgreaterthanthatofallEurope。Thatmightbe，ifourforeigntradedidnotaugmentourinlandcommerce。Europecarriesonthetradeandnavigationoftheotherthreepartsoftheworld；asFrance，England，andHollanddonearlythatofEurope。
　　22。OftheRicheswhichSpaindrewfromAmerica。IfEuropehasderivedsomanyadvantagesfromtheAmericantrade，itseemsnaturaltoimaginethatSpainmusthavederivedmuchgreater。[147]Shedrewfromthenewly—
　　discoveredworldsoprodigiousaquantityofgoldandsilver，thatallwehadbeforecouldnotbecomparedwithit。
　　But（whatonecouldneverhaveexpected）thisgreatkingdomwaseverywherebaffledbyitsmisfortunes。PhilipII，whosucceededCharlesV，wasobligedtomakethecelebratedbankruptcyknowntoalltheworld。
　　Thereneverwasaprincewhosufferedmorefromthemurmurs，theinsolence，andtherevoltoftroopsconstantlyill—paid。
　　FromthattimethemonarchyofSpainhasbeenincessantlydeclining。
　　Thishasbeenowingtoaninteriorandphysicaldefectinthenatureofthoseriches，whichrendersthemvain——adefectwhichincreaseseveryday。
　　Goldandsilverareeitherafictitiousorarepresentativewealth。Therepresentativesignsofwealthareextremelydurable，and，intheirownnature，butlittlesubjecttodecay。Butthemoretheyaremultiplied，themoretheylosetheirvalue，becausethefewerarethethingswhichtheyrepresent。
　　TheSpaniards，aftertheconquestofMexicoandPeru，abandonedtheirnaturalriches，inpursuitofarepresentativewealthwhichdailydegradeditself。GoldandsilverwereextremelyscarceinEurope，andSpainbecomingallofasuddenmistressofaprodigiousquantityofthesemetals，conceivedhopestowhichshehadneverbeforeaspired。Thewealthshefoundintheconqueredcountries，greatasitwas，didnot，however，equalthatoftheirmines。TheIndiansconcealedpartofit；
　　andbesides，thesepeople，whomadenootheruseofgoldandsilverthantogivemagnificencetothetemplesoftheirgodsandtothepalacesoftheirkings，soughtnotforitwithanavaricelikeours。Inshort，theyhadnotthesecretofdrawingthesemetalsfromeverymine；butonlyfromthoseinwhichtheseparationmightbemadewithfire：theywerestrangerstothemannerofmakinguseofmercury，andperhapstomercuryitself。
　　However，itwasnotlongbeforethespecieofEuropewasdoubled；thisappearedfromthepriceofcommodities，whicheverywherewasdoubled。
　　TheSpaniardsrakedintothemines，scoopedoutmountains，inventedmachinestodrawoutwater，tobreaktheore，andseparateit；andastheysportedwiththelivesoftheIndians，theyforcedthemtolabourwithoutmercy。ThespecieofEuropesoondoubled，andtheprofitofSpaindiminishedinthesameproportion；theyhadeveryyearthesamequantityofmetal，whichhadbecomebyone—halflessprecious。
　　Indoublethetimethespeciestilldoubled，andtheprofitstilldiminishedanotherhalf。