Ihavefirstofallconsideredmankind；andtheresultofmythoughtshasbeen，thatamidstsuchaninfinitediversityoflawsandmanners，theywerenotsolelyconductedbythecapriceoffancy。
　　Ihavelaiddownthefirstprinciples，andhavefoundthattheparticularcasesfollownaturallyfromthem；thatthehistoriesofallnationsareonlyconsequencesofthem；andthateveryparticularlawisconnectedwithanotherlaw，ordependsonsomeotherofamoregeneralextent。
　　WhenIhavebeenobligedtolookbackintoantiquity，Ihaveendeavouredtoassumethespiritoftheancients，lestIshouldconsiderthosethingsasalikewhicharereallydifferent；andlestIshouldmissthedifferenceofthosewhichappeartobealike。
　　Ihavenotdrawnmyprinciplesfrommyprejudices，butfromthenatureofthings。
　　Hereagreatmanytruthswillnotappeartillwehaveseenthechainwhichconnectsthemwithothers。Themoreweenterintoparticulars，themoreweshallperceivethecertaintyoftheprinciplesonwhichtheyarefounded。Ihavenotevengivenalltheseparticulars，forwhocouldmentionthemallwithoutamostinsupportablefatigue？
　　Thereaderwillnotheremeetwithanyofthoseboldflightswhichseemtocharacterisetheworksofthepresentage。Whenthingsareexaminedwithneversosmalladegreeofextent，thesalliesofimaginationmustvanish；thesegenerallyarisefromthemind’scollectingallitspowerstoviewonlyonesideofthesubject，whileitleavestheotherunobserved。
　　Iwritenottocensureanythingestablishedinanycountrywhatsoever。
　　Everynationwillherefindthereasonsonwhichitsmaximsarefounded；
　　andthiswillbethenaturalinference，thattoproposealterationsbelongsonlytothosewhoaresohappyastobebornwithageniuscapableofpenetratingtheentireconstitutionofastate。
　　Itisnotamatterofindifferencethatthemindsofthepeoplebeenlightened。Theprejudicesofmagistrateshavearisenfromnationalprejudice。Inatimeofignorancetheyhavecommittedeventhegreatestevilswithouttheleastscruple；butinanenlightenedagetheyeventremblewhileconferringthegreatestblessings。Theyperceivetheancientabuses；theyseehowtheymustbereformed；buttheyaresensiblealsooftheabusesofareformation。Theylettheevilcontinue，iftheyfearaworse；theyarecontentwithalessergood，iftheydoubtagreater。Theyexamineintotheparts，tojudgeoftheminconnection；andtheyexamineallthecauses，todiscovertheirdifferenteffects。
　　CouldIbutsucceedsoastoaffordnewreasonstoeverymantolovehisprince，hiscountry，hislaws；newreasonstorenderhimmoresensibleineverynationandgovernmentoftheblessingsheenjoys，Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。
　　CouldIbutsucceedsoastopersuadethosewhocommand，toincreasetheirknowledgeinwhattheyoughttoprescribe；andthosewhoobey，tofindanewpleasureresultingfromobedience——Ishouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmortals。
　　ThemosthappyofmortalsshouldIthinkmyselfcouldIcontributetomakemankindrecoverfromtheirprejudices。ByprejudicesIheremean，notthatwhichrendersmenignorantofsomeparticularthings，butwhateverrendersthemignorantofthemselves。
　　Itisinendeavouringtoinstructmankindthatwearebestabletopractisethatgeneralvirtuewhichcomprehendstheloveofall。Man，thatflexiblebeing，conforminginsocietytothethoughtsandimpressionsofothers，isequallycapableofknowinghisownnature，wheneveritislaidopentohisview；andoflosingtheverysenseofit，whenthisideaisbanishedfromhismind。
　　OftenhaveIbegun，andasoftenhaveIlaidaside，thisundertaking。I
　　haveathousandtimesgiventheleavesIhadwrittentothewinds：I，everyday，feltmypaternalhandsfall。Ihavefollowedmyobjectwithoutanyfixedplan：Ihaveknownneitherrulesnorexceptions；I
　　havefoundthetruth，onlytoloseitagain。ButwhenIoncediscoveredmyfirstprinciples，everythingIsoughtforappeared；andinthecourseoftwentyyears，Ihaveseenmyworkbegun，growingup，advancingtomaturity，andfinished。
　　Ifthisworkmeetswithsuccess，Ishalloweitchieflytothegrandeurandmajestyofthesubject。However，IdonotthinkthatIhavebeentotallydeficientinpointofgenius。WhenIhaveseenwhatsomanygreatmenbothinFrance，England，andGermanyhavesaidbeforeme，I
　　havebeenlostinadmiration；butIhavenotlostmycourage：IhavesaidwithCorreggio，"AndIalsoamapainter。"
　　ADVERTISEMENT
　　1。Forthebetterunderstandingofthefirstfourbooksofthiswork，itistobeobservedthatwhatIdistinguishbythenameofvirtue，inarepublic，istheloveofone’scountry，thatis，theloveofequality。
　　Itisnotamoral，noraChristian，butapoliticalvirtue；anditisthespringwhichsetstherepublicangovernmentinmotion，ashonouristhespringwhichgivesmotiontomonarchy。HenceitisthatIhavedistinguishedtheloveofone’scountry，andofequality，bytheappellationofpoliticalvirtue。Myideasarenew，andthereforeIhavebeenobligedtofindnewwords，ortogivenewacceptationstooldterms，inordertoconveymymeaning。They，whoareunacquaintedwiththisparticular，havemademesaymoststrangeabsurdities，suchaswouldbeshockinginanypartoftheworld，becauseinallcountriesandgovernmentsmoralityisrequisite。
　　2。Thereaderisalsotonoticethatthereisavastdifferencebetweensayingthatacertainquality，modificationofthemind，orvirtue，isnotthespringbywhichgovernmentisactuated，andaffirmingthatitisnottobefoundinthatgovernment。WereItosaysuchawheelorsuchapinionisnotthespringwhichsetsthewatchgoing，canyouinferthencethattheyarenottobefoundinthewatch？SofarisitfrombeingtruethatthemoralandChristianvirtuesareexcludedfrommonarchy，thatevenpoliticalvirtueisnotexcluded。Inaword，honourisfoundinarepublic，thoughitsspringbepoliticalvirtue；andpoliticalvirtueisfoundinamonarchicalgovernment，thoughitbeactuatedbyhonour。
　　Toconclude，thehonestmanofwhomwetreatinthethirdbook，chapter5，isnottheChristian，butthepoliticalhonestman，whoispossessedofthepoliticalvirtuetherementioned。Heisthemanwholovesthelawsofhiscountry，andwhoisactuatedbytheloveofthoselaws。I
　　havesetthesemattersinaclearerlightinthepresentedition，bygivingamoreprecisemeaningtomyexpression：andinmostplaceswhereIhavemadeuseofthewordvirtueIhavetakencaretoaddthetermpolitical。
　　BookI。OfLawsinGeneral1。OftheRelationofLawstodifferentBeings。Laws，intheirmostgeneralsignification，arethenecessaryrelationsarisingfromthenatureofthings。Inthissenseallbeingshavetheirlaws：theDeity[1]
　　Hislaws，thematerialworlditslaws，theintelligencessuperiortomantheirlaws，thebeaststheirlaws，manhislaws。
　　Theywhoassertthatablindfatalityproducedthevariouseffectswebeholdinthisworldtalkveryabsurdly；forcananythingbemoreunreasonablethantopretendthatablindfatalitycouldbeproductiveofintelligentbeings？
　　Thereis，then，aprimereason；andlawsaretherelationssubsistingbetweenitanddifferentbeings，andtherelationsofthesetooneanother。
　　Godisrelatedtotheuniverse，asCreatorandPreserver；thelawsbywhichHecreatedallthingsarethosebywhichHepreservesthem。Heactsaccordingtotheserules，becauseHeknowsthem；Heknowsthem，becauseHemadethem；andHemadethem，becausetheyareinrelationtoHiswisdomandpower。
　　Sinceweobservethattheworld，thoughformedbythemotionofmatter，andvoidofunderstanding，subsiststhroughsolongasuccessionofages，itsmotionsmustcertainlybedirectedbyinvariablelaws；andcouldweimagineanotherworld，itmustalsohaveconstantrules，oritwouldinevitablyperish。
　　Thusthecreation，whichseemsanarbitraryact，supposeslawsasinvariableasthoseofthefatalityoftheAtheists。ItwouldbeabsurdtosaythattheCreatormightgoverntheworldwithoutthoserules，sincewithoutthemitcouldnotsubsist。
　　Theserulesareafixedandinvariablerelation。Inbodiesmoved，themotionisreceived，increased，diminished，orlost，accordingtotherelationsofthequantityofmatterandvelocity；eachdiversityisuniformity，eachchangeisconstancy。
　　Particularintelligentbeingsmayhavelawsoftheirownmaking，buttheyhavesomelikewisewhichtheynevermade。Beforetherewereintelligentbeings，theywerepossible；theyhadthereforepossiblerelations，andconsequentlypossiblelaws。Beforelawsweremade，therewererelationsofpossiblejustice。Tosaythatthereisnothingjustorunjustbutwhatiscommandedorforbiddenbypositivelaws，isthesameassayingthatbeforethedescribingofacirclealltheradiiwerenotequal。
　　Wemustthereforeacknowledgerelationsofjusticeantecedenttothepositivelawbywhichtheyareestablished：as，forinstance，ifhumansocietiesexisted，itwouldberighttoconformtotheirlaws；iftherewereintelligentbeingsthathadreceivedabenefitofanotherbeing，theyoughttoshowtheirgratitude；ifoneintelligentbeinghadcreatedanotherintelligentbeing，thelatteroughttocontinueinitsoriginalstateofdependence；ifoneintelligentbeinginjuresanother，itdeservesaretaliation；andsoon。
　　Buttheintelligentworldisfarfrombeingsowellgovernedasthephysical。Forthoughtheformerhasalsoitslaws，whichoftheirownnatureareinvariable，itdoesnotconformtothemsoexactlyasthephysicalworld。Thisisbecause，ontheonehand，particularintelligentbeingsareofafinitenature，andconsequentlyliabletoerror；andontheother，theirnaturerequiresthemtobefreeagents。Hencetheydonotsteadilyconformtotheirprimitivelaws；andeventhoseoftheirowninstitutingtheyfrequentlyinfringe。
　　Whetherbrutesbegovernedbythegenerallawsofmotion，orbyaparticularmovement，wecannotdetermine。Bethatasitmay，theyhavenotamoreintimaterelationtoGodthantherestofthematerialworld；
　　andsensationisofnootherusetothemthanintherelationtheyhaveeithertootherparticularbeingsortothemselves。
　　Bytheallurementofpleasuretheypreservetheindividual，andbythesameallurementtheypreservetheirspecies。Theyhavenaturallaws，becausetheyareunitedbysensation；positivelawstheyhavenone，becausetheyarenotconnectedbyknowledge。Andyettheydonotinvariablyconformtotheirnaturallaws；thesearebetterobservedbyvegetables，thathaveneitherunderstandingnorsense。
　　Brutesaredeprivedofthehighadvantageswhichwehave；buttheyhavesomewhichwehavenot。Theyhavenotourhopes，buttheyarewithoutourfears；theyaresubjectlikeustodeath，butwithoutknowingit；
　　evenmostofthemaremoreattentivethanwetoself—preservation，anddonotmakesobadauseoftheirpassions。
　　Man，asaphysicalbeing，islikeotherbodiesgovernedbyinvariablelaws。Asanintelligentbeing，heincessantlytransgressesthelawsestablishedbyGod，andchangesthoseofhisowninstituting。Heislefttohisprivatedirection，thoughalimitedbeing，andsubject，likeallfiniteintelligences，toignoranceanderror：evenhisimperfectknowledgeheloses；andasasensiblecreature，heishurriedawaybyathousandimpetuouspassions。SuchabeingmighteveryinstantforgethisCreator；Godhasthereforeremindedhimofhisdutybythelawsofreligion。Suchabeingisliableeverymomenttoforgethimself；
　　philosophyhasprovidedagainstthisbythelawsofmorality。Formedtoliveinsociety，hemightforgethisfellow—creatures；legislatorshavethereforebypoliticalandcivillawsconfinedhimtohisduty。
　　2。OftheLawsofNature。Antecedenttotheabove—mentionedlawsarethoseofnature，socalled，becausetheyderivetheirforceentirelyfromourframeandexistence。Inordertohaveaperfectknowledgeoftheselaws，wemustconsidermanbeforetheestablishmentofsociety：
　　thelawsreceivedinsuchastatewouldbethoseofnature。
　　Thelawwhich，impressingonourmindstheideaofaCreator，inclinesustowardsHim，isthefirstinimportance，thoughnotinorder，ofnaturallaws。Maninastateofnaturewouldhavethefacultyofknowing，beforehehadacquiredanyknowledge。Plainitisthathisfirstideaswouldnotbeofaspeculativenature；hewouldthinkofthepreservationofhisbeing，beforehewouldinvestigateitsorigin。Suchamanwouldfeelnothinginhimselfatfirstbutimpotencyandweakness；
　　hisfearsandapprehensionswouldbeexcessive；asappearsfrominstances（werethereanynecessityofprovingit）ofsavagesfoundinforests，[2]tremblingatthemotionofaleaf，andflyingfromeveryshadow。
　　Inthisstateeveryman，insteadofbeingsensibleofhisequality，wouldfancyhimselfinferior。Therewouldthereforebenodangeroftheirattackingoneanother；peacewouldbethefirstlawofnature。
　　ThenaturalimpulseordesirewhichHobbesattributestomankindofsubduingoneanotherisfarfrombeingwellfounded。Theideaofempireanddominionissocomplex，anddependsonsomanyothernotions，thatitcouldneverbethefirstwhichoccurredtothehumanunderstanding。
　　Hobbes[3]inquires，"Forwhatreasongomenarmed，andhavelocksandkeystofastentheirdoors，iftheybenotnaturallyinastateofwar？"
　　Butisitnotobviousthatheattributestomankindbeforetheestablishmentofsocietywhatcanhappenbutinconsequenceofthisestablishment，whichfurnishesthemwithmotivesforhostileattacksandself—defence？
　　Nexttoasenseofhisweaknessmanwouldsoonfindthatofhiswants。
　　Henceanotherlawofnaturewouldprompthimtoseekfornourishment。
　　Fear，Ihaveobserved，wouldinducementoshunoneanother；butthemarksofthisfearbeingreciprocal，wouldsoonengagethemtoassociate。Besides，thisassociationwouldquicklyfollowfrom。theverypleasureoneanimalfeelsattheapproachofanotherofthesamespecies。Again，theattractionarisingfromthedifferenceofsexeswouldenhancethispleasure，andthenaturalinclinationtheyhaveforeachotherwouldformathirdlaw。
　　Besidethesenseorinstinctwhichmanpossessesincommonwithbrutes，hehastheadvantageofacquiredknowledge；andthencearisesasecondtie，whichbruteshavenot。Mankindhavethereforeanewmotiveofuniting；andafourthlawofnatureresultsfromthedesireoflivinginsociety。
　　3。OfPositiveLaws。Assoonasmanentersintoastateofsocietyhelosesthesenseofhisweakness；equalityceases，andthencommencesthestateofwar。
　　Eachparticularsocietybeginstofeelitsstrength，whencearisesastateofwarbetweendifferentnations。Theindividualslikewiseofeachsocietybecomesensibleoftheirforce；hencetheprincipaladvantagesofthissocietytheyendeavourtoconverttotheirownemolument，whichconstitutesastateofwarbetweenindividuals。
　　Thesetwodifferentkindsofstatesgiverisetohumanlaws。Consideredasinhabitantsofsogreataplanet，whichnecessarilycontainsavarietyofnations，theyhavelawsrelatingtotheirmutualintercourse，whichiswhatwecallthelawofnations。Asmembersofasocietythatmustbeproperlysupported，theyhavelawsrelatingtothegovernorsandthegoverned，andthiswedistinguishbythenameofpoliticlaw。Theyhavealsoanothersortoflaw，astheystandinrelationtoeachother；
　　bywhichisunderstoodthecivillaw。
　　Thelawofnationsisnaturallyfoundedonthisprinciple，thatdifferentnationsoughtintimeofpeacetodooneanotherallthegoodtheycan，andintimeofwaraslittleinjuryaspossible，withoutprejudicingtheirrealinterests。
　　Theobjectofwarisvictory；thatofvictoryisconquest；andthatofconquestpreservation。Fromthisandtheprecedingprincipleallthoserulesarederivedwhichconstitutethelawofnations。
　　Allcountrieshavealawofnations，notexceptingtheIroquoisthemselves，thoughtheydevourtheirprisoners：fortheysendandreceiveambassadors，andunderstandtherightsofwarandpeace。Themischiefisthattheirlawofnationsisnotfoundedontrueprinciples。
　　Besidesthelawofnationsrelatingtoallsocieties，thereisapolityorcivilconstitutionforeachparticularlyconsidered。Nosocietycansubsistwithoutaformofgovernment。"Theunitedstrengthofindividuals，"asGravina[4]wellobserves，"constituteswhatwecallthebodypolitic。"
　　Thegeneralstrengthmaybeinthehandsofasingleperson，orofmany。
　　Somethinkthatnaturehavingestablishedpaternalauthority，themostnaturalgovernmentwasthatofasingleperson。Buttheexampleofpaternalauthorityprovesnothing。Forifthepowerofafatherrelatestoasinglegovernment，thatofbrothersafterthedeathofafather，andthatofcousins—germanafterthedeceaseofbrothers，refertoagovernmentofmany。Thepoliticalpowernecessarilycomprehendstheunionofseveralfamilies。
　　Betterisittosay，thatthegovernmentmostconformabletonatureisthatwhichbestagreeswiththehumouranddispositionofthepeopleinwhosefavouritisestablished。
　　Thestrengthofindividualscannotbeunitedwithoutaconjunctionofalltheirwills。"Theconjunctionofthosewills，"asGravinaagainveryjustlyobserves，"iswhatwecallthecivilstate。"
　　Lawingeneralishumanreason，inasmuchasitgovernsalltheinhabitantsoftheearth：thepoliticalandcivillawsofeachnationoughttobeonlytheparticularcasesinwhichhumanreasonisapplied。
　　Theyshouldbeadaptedinsuchamannertothepeopleforwhomtheyareframedthatitshouldbeagreatchanceifthoseofonenationsuitanother。
　　Theyshouldbeinrelationtothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；whethertheyformit，asmaybesaidofpoliticlaws；orwhethertheysupportit，asinthecaseofcivilinstitutions。
　　Theyshouldbeinrelationtotheclimateofeachcountry，tothequalityofitssoil，toitssituationandextent，totheprincipaloccupationofthenatives，whetherhusbandmen，huntsmen，orshepherds：
　　theyshouldhaverelationtothedegreeoflibertywhichtheconstitutionwillbear；tothereligionoftheinhabitants，totheirinclinations，riches，numbers，commerce，manners，andcustoms。Infine，theyhaverelationstoeachother，asalsototheirorigin，totheintentofthelegislator，andtotheorderofthingsonwhichtheyareestablished；inallofwhichdifferentlightstheyoughttobeconsidered。
　　ThisiswhatIhaveundertakentoperforminthefollowingwork。TheserelationsIshallexamine，sinceallthesetogetherconstitutewhatI
　　calltheSpiritofLaws。
　　Ihavenotseparatedthepoliticalfromthecivilinstitutions，asIdonotpretendtotreatoflaws，butoftheirspirit；andasthisspiritconsistsinthevariousrelationswhichthelawsmaybeartodifferentobjects，itisnotsomuchmybusinesstofollowthenaturalorderoflawsasthatoftheserelationsandobjects。
　　Ishallfirstexaminetherelationswhichlawsbeartothenatureandprincipleofeachgovernment；andasthisprinciplehasastronginfluenceonlaws，Ishallmakeitmystudytounderstanditthoroughly：
　　andifIcanbutonceestablishit，thelawswillsoonappeartoflowthenceasfromtheirsource。Ishallproceedafterwardstootherandmoreparticularrelations。
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　　1。"Law，"saysPlutarch，"isthekingofmortalandimmortalbeings。"
　　Seehistreatise，ADiscoursetoanUnlearnedPrince。
　　2。WitnessthesavagefoundintheforestsofHanover，whowascarriedovertoEnglandduringthereignofGeorgeI。
　　3。Inpref。，Decive。
　　4。Italianpoetandjurist，1664—1718。
　　BookII。OfLawsDirectlyDerivedfromtheNatureofGovernment1。OftheNatureofthethreedifferentGovernments。Therearethreespeciesofgovernment：republican，monarchical，anddespotic。Inordertodiscovertheirnature，itissufficienttorecollectthecommonnotion，whichsupposesthreedefinitions，orratherthreefacts：thatarepublicangovernmentisthatinwhichthebody，oronlyapartofthepeople，ispossessedofthesupremepower；monarchy，thatinwhichasinglepersongovernsbyfixedandestablishedlaws；adespoticgovernment，thatinwhichasinglepersondirectseverythingbyhisownwillandcaprice。
　　ThisiswhatIcallthenatureofeachgovernment；wemustnowinquireintothoselawswhichdirectlyconformtothisnature，andconsequentlyarethefundamentalinstitutions。
　　2。OftheRepublicanGovernment，andtheLawsinrelationtoDemocracy。[1]Whenthebodyofthepeopleispossessedofthesupremepower，itiscalledademocracy。Whenthesupremepowerislodgedinthehandsofapartofthepeople，itisthenanaristocracy。
　　Inademocracythepeopleareinsomerespectsthesovereign，andinothersthesubject。
　　Therecanbenoexerciseofsovereigntybutbytheirsuffrages，whicharetheirownwill；nowthesovereign’swillisthesovereignhimself。
　　Thelawsthereforewhichestablishtherightofsuffragearefundamentaltothisgovernment。Andindeeditisasimportanttoregulateinarepublic，inwhatmanner，bywhom，towhom，andconcerningwhat，suffragesaretobegiven，asitisinamonarchytoknowwhoistheprince，andafterwhatmannerheoughttogovern。
　　Libanius[2]saysthatatAthensastrangerwhointermeddledintheassembliesofthepeoplewaspunishedwithdeath。Thisisbecausesuchamanusurpedtherightsofsovereignty。