Thenletusnowproceedtodescribetheinferiorsortofnatures，beingthecontentiousandambitious，whoanswertotheSpartanpolity；
　　alsotheoligarchical，democratical，andtyrannical。Letusplacethemostjustbythesideofthemostunjust，andwhenweseethemweshallbeabletocomparetherelativehappinessorunhappinessofhimwholeadsalifeofpurejusticeorpureinjustice。Theenquirywillthenbecompleted。Andweshallknowwhetherweoughttopursueinjustice，asThrasymachusadvises，orinaccordancewiththeconclusionsoftheargumenttopreferjustice。
　　Certainly，hereplied，wemustdoasyousay。
　　Shallwefollowouroldplan，whichweadoptedwithaviewtoclearness，oftakingtheStatefirstandthenproceedingtotheindividual，andbeginwiththegovernmentofhonour？——Iknowofnonameforsuchagovernmentotherthantimocracy，orperhapstimarchy。Wewillcomparewiththisthelikecharacterintheindividual；and，afterthat，consideroligarchicalman；andthenagainwewillturnourattentiontodemocracyandthedemocraticalman；
　　andlastly，wewillgoandviewthecityoftyranny，andoncemoretakealookintothetyrant’ssoul，andtrytoarriveatasatisfactorydecision。
　　Thatwayofviewingandjudgingofthematterwillbeverysuitable。
　　First，then，Isaid，letusenquirehowtimocracy（thegovernmentofhonour）arisesoutofaristocracy（thegovernmentofthebest）。
　　Clearly，allpoliticalchangesoriginateindivisionsoftheactualgoverningpower；agovernmentwhichisunited，howeversmall，cannotbemoved。
　　Verytrue，hesaid。
　　Inwhatway，then，willourcitybemoved，andinwhatmannerthetwoclassesofauxiliariesandrulersdisagreeamongthemselvesorwithoneanother？Shallwe，afterthemannerofHomer，praytheMusestotellus’howdiscordfirstarose’？Shallweimaginetheminsolemnmockery，toplayandjestwithusasifwewerechildren，andtoaddressusinaloftytragicvein，makingbelievetobeinearnest？
　　Howwouldtheyaddressus？
　　Afterthismanner：——Acitywhichisthusconstitutedcanhardlybeshaken；but，seeingthateverythingwhichhasabeginninghasalsoanend，evenaconstitutionsuchasyourswillnotlastforever，butwillintimebedissolved。Andthisisthedissolution：——Inplantsthatgrowintheearth，aswellasinanimalsthatmoveontheearth’ssurface，fertilityandsterilityofsoulandbodyoccurwhenthecircumferencesofthecirclesofeacharecompleted，whichinshort—livedexistencespassoverashortspace，andinlong—livedonesoveralongspace。Buttotheknowledgeofhumanfecundityandsterilityallthewisdomandeducationofyourrulerswillnotattain；
　　thelawswhichregulatethemwillnotbediscoveredbyanintelligencewhichisalloyedwithsense，butwillescapethem，andtheywillbringchildrenintotheworldwhentheyoughtnot。Nowthatwhichisofdivinebirthhasaperiodwhichiscontainedinaperfectnumber，buttheperiodofhumanbirthiscomprehendedinanumberinwhichfirstincrementsbyinvolutionandevolution（orsquaredandcubed）
　　obtainingthreeintervalsandfourtermsoflikeandunlike，waxingandwaningnumbers，makeallthetermscommensurableandagreeabletooneanother。Thebaseofthese（3）withathirdadded（4）whencombinedwithfive（20）andraisedtothethirdpowerfurnishestwoharmonies；thefirstasquarewhichisahundredtimesasgreat（400=
　　4X100），andtheotherafigurehavingonesideequaltotheformer，butoblong，consistingofahundrednumberssquareduponrationaldiametersofasquare（i。e。omittingfractions），thesideofwhichisfive（7X7=49X100=4900），eachofthembeinglessbyone（thantheperfectsquarewhichincludesthefractions，sc。50）
　　orlessbytwoperfectsquaresofirrationaldiameters（ofasquarethesideofwhichisfive=5050=100）；andahundredcubesofthree（27X100=27004900400=8000）。Nowthisnumberrepresentsageometricalfigurewhichhascontroloverthegoodandevilofbirths。Forwhenyourguardiansareignorantofthelawofbirths，andunitebrideandbridegroomoutofseason，thechildrenwillnotbegoodlyorfortunate。Andthoughonlythebestofthemwillbeappointedbytheirpredecessors，stilltheywillbeunworthytoholdtheirfathers’places，andwhentheycomeintopowerasguardians，theywillsoonbefoundtofallintakingcareofus，theMuses，firstbyunder—valuingmusic；whichneglectwillsoonextendtogymnastic；andhencetheyoungmenofyourStatewillbelesscultivated。Inthesucceedinggenerationrulerswillbeappointedwhohavelosttheguardianpoweroftestingthemetalofyourdifferentraces，which，likeHesiod’s，areofgoldandsilverandbrassandiron。Andsoironwillbemingledwithsilver，andbrasswithgold，andhencetherewillarisedissimilarityandinequalityandirregularity，whichalwaysandinallplacesarecausesofhatredandwar。ThistheMusesaffirmtobethestockfromwhichdiscordhassprung，whereverarising；andthisistheiranswertous。
　　Yes，andwemayassumethattheyanswertruly。
　　Why，yes，Isaid，ofcoursetheyanswertruly；howcantheMusesspeakfalsely？
　　AndwhatdotheMusessaynext？
　　Whendiscordarose，thenthetworacesweredrawndifferentways：
　　theironandbrassfelltoacquiringmoneyandlandandhousesandgoldandsilver；butthegoldandsilverraces，notwantingmoneybuthavingthetruerichesintheirownnature，inclinedtowardsvirtueandtheancientorderofthings。Therewasabattlebetweenthem，andatlasttheyagreedtodistributetheirlandandhousesamongindividualowners；andtheyenslavedtheirfriendsandmaintainers，whomtheyhadformerlyprotectedintheconditionoffreemen，andmadeofthemsubjectsandservants；andtheythemselveswereengagedinwarandinkeepingawatchagainstthem。
　　Ibelievethatyouhaverightlyconceivedtheoriginofthechange。
　　Andthenewgovernmentwhichthusariseswillbeofaformintermediatebetweenoligarchyandaristocracy？
　　Verytrue。
　　Suchwillbethechange，andafterthechangehasbeenmade，howwilltheyproceed？Clearly，thenewState，beinginameanbetweenoligarchyandtheperfectState，willpartlyfollowoneandpartlytheother，andwillalsohavesomepeculiarities。
　　True，hesaid。
　　Inthehonourgiventorulers，intheabstinenceofthewarriorclassfromagriculture，handicrafts，andtradeingeneral，intheinstitutionofcommonmeals，andintheattentionpaidtogymnasticsandmilitarytraining——inalltheserespectsthisStatewillresembletheformer。
　　True。
　　Butinthefearofadmittingphilosopherstopower，becausetheyarenolongertobehadsimpleandearnest，butaremadeupofmixedelements；andinturningfromthemtopassionateandlesscomplexcharacters，whoarebynaturefittedforwarratherthanpeace；andinthevaluesetbythemuponmilitarystratagemsandcontrivances，andinthewagingofeverlastingwars——thisStatewillbeforthemostpartpeculiar。
　　Yes。
　　Yes，Isaid；andmenofthisstampwillbecovetousofmoney，likethosewholiveinoligarchies；theywillhave，afiercesecretlongingaftergoldandsilver，whichtheywillhoardindarkplaces，havingmagazinesandtreasuriesoftheirownforthedepositandconcealmentofthem；alsocastleswhicharejustnestsfortheireggs，andinwhichtheywillspendlargesumsontheirwives，oronanyotherswhomtheyplease。
　　Thatismosttrue，hesaid。
　　Andtheyaremiserlybecausetheyhavenomeansofopenlyacquiringthemoneywhichtheyprize；theywillspendthatwhichisanotherman’sonthegratificationoftheirdesires，stealingtheirpleasuresandrunningawaylikechildrenfromthelaw，theirfather：
　　theyhavebeenschoolednotbygentleinfluencesbutbyforce，fortheyhaveneglectedherwhoisthetrueMuse，thecompanionofreasonandphilosophy，andhavehonouredgymnasticmorethanmusic。
　　Undoubtedly，hesaid，theformofgovernmentwhichyoudescribeisamixtureofgoodandevil。
　　Why，thereisamixture，Isaid；butonething，andonethingonly，ispredominantlyseen，——thespiritofcontentionandambition；andtheseareduetotheprevalenceofthepassionateorspiritedelement。
　　Assuredly，hesaid。
　　SuchistheoriginandsuchthecharacterofthisState，whichhasbeendescribedinoutlineonly；themoreperfectexecutionwasnotrequired，forasketchisenoughtoshowthetypeofthemostperfectlyjustandmostperfectlyunjust；andtogothroughalltheStatesandallthecharactersofmen，omittingnoneofthem，wouldbeaninterminablelabour。
　　Verytrue，hereplied。
　　Nowwhatmananswerstothisformofgovernment—howdidhecomeintobeing，andwhatishelike？
　　SOCRATES—ADEIMANTUS
　　Ithink，saidAdeimantus，thatinthespiritofcontentionwhichcharacteriseshim，heisnotunlikeourfriendGlaucon。
　　Perhaps，Isaid，hemaybelikehiminthatonepoint；butthereareotherrespectsinwhichheisverydifferent。
　　Inwhatrespects？
　　Heshouldhavemoreofself—assertionandbelesscultivated，andyetafriendofculture；andheshouldbeagoodlistener，butnospeaker。Suchapersonisapttoberoughwithslaves，unliketheeducatedman，whoistooproudforthat；andhewillalsobecourteoustofreemen，andremarkablyobedienttoauthority；heisaloverofpowerandaloverofhonour；claimingtobearuler，notbecauseheiseloquent，oronanygroundofthatsort，butbecauseheisasoldierandhasperformedfeatsofarms；heisalsoaloverofgymnasticexercisesandofthechase。
　　Yes，thatisthetypeofcharacterwhichanswerstotimocracy。
　　Suchanonewilldespiserichesonlywhenheisyoung；butashegetsolderhewillbemoreandmoreattractedtothem，becausehehasapieceoftheavariciousnatureinhim，andisnotsinglemindedtowardsvirtue，havinglosthisbestguardian。
　　Whowasthat？saidAdeimantus。
　　Philosophy，Isaid，temperedwithmusic，whocomesandtakesherabodeinaman，andistheonlysaviourofhisvirtuethroughoutlife。
　　Good，hesaid。
　　Such，Isaid，isthetimocraticalyouth，andheislikethetimocraticalState。
　　Exactly。
　　Hisoriginisasfollows：——Heisoftentheyoungsonofagravefather，whodwellsinanill—governedcity，ofwhichhedeclinesthehonoursandoffices，andwillnotgotolaw，orexerthimselfinanyway，butisreadytowaivehisrightsinorderthathemayescapetrouble。
　　Andhowdoesthesoncomeintobeing？
　　Thecharacterofthesonbeginstodevelopwhenhehearshismothercomplainingthatherhusbandhasnoplaceinthegovernment，ofwhichtheconsequenceisthatshehasnoprecedenceamongotherwomen。
　　Further，whensheseesherhusbandnotveryeageraboutmoney，andinsteadofbattlingandrailinginthelawcourtsorassembly，takingwhateverhappenstohimquietly；andwhensheobservesthathisthoughtsalwayscentreinhimself，whilehetreatsherwithveryconsiderableindifference，sheisannoyed，andsaystohersonthathisfatherisonlyhalfamanandfartooeasy—going：addingalltheothercomplaintsaboutherownill—treatmentwhichwomenaresofondofrehearsing。
　　Yes，saidAdeimantus，theygiveusplentyofthem，andtheircomplaintsaresolikethemselves。
　　Andyouknow，Isaid，thattheoldservantsalso，whoaresupposedtobeattachedtothefamily，fromtimetotimetalkprivatelyinthesamestraintotheson；andiftheyseeanyonewhoowesmoneytohisfather，oriswronginghiminanyway，andhefallstoprosecutethem，theytelltheyouththatwhenhegrowsuphemustretaliateuponpeopleofthissort，andbemoreofamanthanhisfather。Hehasonlytowalkabroadandhehearsandseesthesamesortofthing：thosewhodotheirownbusinessinthecityarecalledsimpletons，andheldinnoesteem，whilethebusy—bodiesarehonouredandapplauded。Theresultisthattheyoungman，hearingandseeingallthesething——hearingtoo，thewordsofhisfather，andhavinganearerviewofhiswayoflife，andmakingcomparisonsofhimandothers——isdrawnoppositeways：whilehisfatheriswateringandnourishingtherationalprincipleinhissoul，theothersareencouragingthepassionateandappetitive；andhebeingnotoriginallyofabadnature，buthavingkeptbadcompany，isatlastbroughtbytheirjointinfluencetoamiddlepoint，andgivesupthekingdomwhichiswithinhimtothemiddleprincipleofcontentiousnessandpassion，andbecomesarrogantandambitious。
　　Youseemtometohavedescribedhisoriginperfectly。
　　Thenwehavenow，Isaid，thesecondformofgovernmentandthesecondtypeofcharacter？
　　Wehave。
　　Next，letuslookatanothermanwho，asAeschylussays，IssetoveragainstanotherState；
　　orrather，asourplanrequires，beginwiththeState。
　　Byallmeans。
　　Ibelievethatoligarchyfollowsnextinorder。
　　Andwhatmannerofgovernmentdoyoutermoligarchy？
　　Agovernmentrestingonavaluationofproperty，inwhichtherichhavepowerandthepoormanisdeprivedofit。
　　Iunderstand，hereplied。
　　OughtInottobeginbydescribinghowthechangefromtimocracytooligarchyarises？
　　Yes。
　　Well，Isaid，noeyesarerequiredinordertoseehowtheonepassesintotheother。
　　How？
　　Theaccumulationofgoldinthetreasuryofprivateindividualsisruintheoftimocracy；theyinventillegalmodesofexpenditure；forwhatdotheyortheirwivescareaboutthelaw？
　　Yes，indeed。
　　Andthenone，seeinganothergrowrich，seekstorivalhim，andthusthegreatmassofthecitizensbecomeloversofmoney。
　　Likelyenough。
　　Andsotheygrowricherandricher，andthemoretheythinkofmakingafortunethelesstheythinkofvirtue；forwhenrichesandvirtueareplacedtogetherinthescalesofthebalance，theonealwaysrisesastheotherfalls。
　　True。
　　AndinproportionasrichesandrichmenarehonouredintheState，virtueandthevirtuousaredishonoured。
　　Clearly。
　　Andwhatishonourediscultivated，andthatwhichhasnohonourisneglected。
　　Thatisobvious。
　　Andsoatlast，insteadoflovingcontentionandglory，menbecomeloversoftradeandmoney；theyhonourandlookuptotherichman，andmakearulerofhim，anddishonourthepoorman。
　　Theydoso。
　　Theynextproceedtomakealawwhichfixesasumofmoneyasthequalificationofcitizenship；thesumishigherinoneplaceandlowerinanother，astheoligarchyismoreorlessexclusive；andtheyallownoonewhosepropertyfallsbelowtheamountfixedtohaveanyshareinthegovernment。Thesechangesintheconstitutiontheyeffectbyforceofarms，ifintimidationhasnotalreadydonetheirwork。
　　Verytrue。
　　Andthis，speakinggenerally，isthewayinwhicholigarchyisestablished。
　　Yes，hesaid；butwhatarethecharacteristicsofthisformofgovernment，andwhatarethedefectsofwhichwewerespeaking？
　　Firstofall，Isaid，considerthenatureofthequalificationjustthinkwhatwouldhappenifpilotsweretobechosenaccordingtotheirproperty，andapoormanwererefusedpermissiontosteer，eventhoughhewereabetterpilot？
　　Youmeanthattheywouldshipwreck？
　　Yes；andisnotthistrueofthegovernmentofanything？
　　Ishouldimagineso。
　　Exceptacity？——orwouldyouincludeacity？
　　Nay，hesaid，thecaseofacityisthestrongestofall，inasmuchastheruleofacityisthegreatestandmostdifficultofall。
　　This，then，willbethefirstgreatdefectofoligarchy？
　　Clearly。
　　Andhereisanotherdefectwhichisquiteasbad。
　　Whatdefect？
　　Theinevitabledivision：suchaStateisnotone，buttwoStates，theoneofpoor，theotherofrichmen；andtheyarelivingonthesamespotandalwaysconspiringagainstoneanother。
　　That，surely，isatleastasbad。
　　Anotherdiscreditablefeatureis，that，foralikereason，theyareincapableofcarryingonanywar。Eithertheyarmthemultitude，andthentheyaremoreafraidofthemthanoftheenemy；or，iftheydonotcallthemoutinthehourofbattle，theyareoligarchsindeed，fewtofightastheyarefewtorule。Andatthesametimetheirfondnessformoneymakesthemunwillingtopaytaxes。
　　Howdiscreditable！
　　And，aswesaidbefore，undersuchaconstitutionthesamepersonshavetoomanycallings——theyarehusbandmen，tradesmen，warriors，allinone。Doesthatlookwell？
　　Anythingbutwell。
　　Thereisanotherevilwhichis，perhaps，thegreatestofall，andtowhichthisStatefirstbeginstobeliable。
　　Whatevil？
　　Amanmaysellallthathehas，andanothermayacquirehisproperty；yetafterthesalehemaydwellinthecityofwhichheisnolongerapart，beingneithertrader，norartisan，norhorseman，norhoplite，butonlyapoor，helplesscreature。
　　Yes，thatisanevilwhichalsofirstbeginsinthisState。
　　Theeviliscertainlynotpreventedthere；foroligarchieshaveboththeextremesofgreatwealthandutterpoverty。
　　True。
　　Butthinkagain：Inhiswealthydays，whilehewasspendinghismoney，wasamanofthissortawhitmoregoodtotheStateforthepurposesofcitizenship？Ordidheonlyseemtobeamemberoftherulingbody，althoughintruthhewasneitherrulernorsubject，butjustaspendthrift？
　　Asyousay，heseemedtobearuler，butwasonlyaspendthrift。
　　Maywenotsaythatthisisthedroneinthehousewhoislikethedroneinthehoneycomb，andthattheoneistheplagueofthecityastheotherisofthehive？
　　Justso，Socrates。
　　AndGodhasmadetheflyingdrones，Adeimantus，allwithoutstings，whereasofthewalkingdroneshehasmadesomewithoutstingsbutothershavedreadfulstings；ofthestinglessclassarethosewhointheiroldageendaspaupers；ofthestingerscomeallthecriminalclass，astheyaretermed。
　　Mosttrue，hesaid。
　　Clearlythen，wheneveryouseepaupersinaState，somewhereinthatneighborhoodtherearehiddenawaythieves，andcutpursesandrobbersoftemples，andallsortsofmalefactors。
　　Clearly。
　　Well，Isaid，andinoligarchicalStatesdoyounotfindpaupers？
　　Yes，hesaid；nearlyeverybodyisapauperwhoisnotaruler。
　　Andmaywebesoboldastoaffirmthattherearealsomanycriminalstobefoundinthem，rogueswhohavestings，andwhomtheauthoritiesarecarefultorestrainbyforce？
　　Certainly，wemaybesobold。
　　Theexistenceofsuchpersonsistobeattributedtowantofeducation，ill—training，andanevilconstitutionoftheState？
　　True。
　　Such，then，istheformandsucharetheevilsofoligarchy；andtheremaybemanyotherevils。
　　Verylikely。
　　Thenoligarchy，ortheformofgovernmentinwhichtherulersareelectedfortheirwealth，maynowbedismissed。LetusnextproceedtoconsiderthenatureandoriginoftheindividualwhoanswerstothisState。
　　Byallmeans。
　　Doesnotthetimocraticalmanchangeintotheoligarchicalonthiswise？
　　How？
　　Atimearriveswhentherepresentativeoftimocracyhasason：atfirsthebeginsbyemulatinghisfatherandwalkinginhisfootsteps，butpresentlyheseeshimofasuddenfounderingagainsttheStateasuponasunkenreef，andheandallthathehasislost；
　　hemayhavebeenageneralorsomeotherhighofficerwhoisbroughttotrialunderaprejudiceraisedbyinformers，andeitherputtodeath，orexiled，ordeprivedoftheprivilegesofacitizen，andallhispropertytakenfromhim。
　　Nothingmorelikely。
　　Andthesonhasseenandknownallthis——heisaruinedman，andhisfearhastaughthimtoknockambitionandpassionhead—foremostfromhisbosom’sthrone；humbledbypovertyhetakestomoney—makingandbymeanandmiserlysavingsandhardworkgetsafortunetogether。
　　Isnotsuchanonelikelytoseattheconcupiscentandcovetouselementonthevacantthroneandtosufferittoplaythegreatkingwithinhim，girtwithtiaraandchainandscimitar？
　　Mosttrue，hereplied。
　　Andwhenhehasmadereasonandspiritsitdownonthegroundobedientlyoneithersideoftheirsovereign，andtaughtthemtoknowtheirplace，hecompelstheonetothinkonlyofhowlessersumsmaybeturnedintolargerones，andwillnotallowtheothertoworshipandadmireanythingbutrichesandrichmen，ortobeambitiousofanythingsomuchastheacquisitionofwealthandthemeansofacquiringit。
　　Ofallchanges，hesaid，thereisnonesospeedyorsosureastheconversionoftheambitiousyouthintotheavariciousone。
　　Andtheavaricious，Isaid，istheoligarchicalyouth？
　　Yes，hesaid；atanyratetheindividualoutofwhomhecameisliketheStateoutofwhicholigarchycame。
　　Letusthenconsiderwhetherthereisanylikenessbetweenthem。
　　Verygood。
　　First，then，theyresembleoneanotherinthevaluewhichtheysetuponwealth？
　　Certainly。
　　Alsointheirpenurious，laboriouscharacter；theindividualonlysatisfieshisnecessaryappetites，andconfineshisexpendituretothem；hisotherdesireshesubdues，undertheideathattheyareunprofitable。
　　True。
　　Heisashabbyfellow，whosavessomethingoutofeverythingandmakesapurseforhimself；andthisisthesortofmanwhomthevulgarapplaud。IshenotatrueimageoftheStatewhichherepresents？
　　Heappearstometobeso；atanyratemoneyishighlyvaluedbyhimaswellasbytheState。
　　Youseethatheisnotamanofcultivation，Isaid。
　　Iimaginenot，hesaid；hadhebeeneducatedhewouldneverhavemadeablindgoddirectorofhischorus，orgivenhimchiefhonour。
　　Excellent！Isaid。Yetconsider：Mustwenotfurtheradmitthatowingtothiswantofcultivationtherewillbefoundinhimdronelikedesiresasofpauperandrogue，whichareforciblykeptdownbyhisgeneralhabitoflife？
　　True。
　　Doyouknowwhereyouwillhavetolookifyouwanttodiscoverhisrogueries？
　　WheremustIlook？
　　Youshouldseehimwherehehassomegreatopportunityofactingdishonestly，asintheguardianshipofanorphan。
　　Aye。