HowpreventIslamfromremainingtheStatereligioninacountrywherecivillawandreligiouslawarenotyetplainlyseparated，andwherefaithintheKoranistheonlytiebywhichtheideaofnationalitycanbemaintained？
　　Itwasdifficulttodestroysuchastateofaffairs，sothatwewereboundtoseethere—establishmentofanautocraticorganisationwithanappearanceofconstitutionalism——thatistosay，practicallytheoldsystemonceagain。Suchattemptsaffordagoodexampleofthefactthatapeoplecannotchooseitsinstitutionsuntilithastransformeditsmind。
　　4。SocialelementswhichsurvivethechangesofGovernmentafterRevolution。
　　Whatweshallsaylateronastothestablefoundationofthenationalsoulwillenableustoappreciatetheforceofsystemsofgovernmentthathavebeenlongestablished，suchasancientmonarchies。Amonarchmayeasilybeoverthrownbyconspirators，buttheselatterarepowerlessagainsttheprincipleswhichthemonarchrepresents。Napoleonathisfallwasreplacednotbyhisnaturalheir，butbytheheirofkings。Thelatterincarnatedanancientprinciple，whilethesonoftheEmperorpersonifiedideasthatwereasyetimperfectlyestablishedinmen’sminds。
　　Forthesamereasonaminister，howeverable，howevergreattheserviceshehasrenderedtohiscountry，canveryrarelyoverthrowhisSovereign。Bismarckhimselfcouldnothavedoneso。Thisgreatministerhadsingle—handedcreatedtheunityofGermany，yethismasterhadonlytotouchhimwithhisfingerandhevanished。Amanisasnothingbeforeaprinciplesupportedbyopinion。
　　Butevenwhen，forvariousreasons，theprincipleincarnatedbyagovernmentisannihilatedwiththatgovernment，ashappenedatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，alltheelementsofsocialorganisationdonotperishatthesametime。
　　IfweknewnothingofFrancebutthedisturbancesofthelasthundredyearsandmorewemightsupposethecountrytoliveinastateofprofoundanarchy。Nowhereconomic，industrial，andevenherpoliticallifemanifests，onthecontrary，acontinuitythatseemstobeindependentofallrevolutionsandgovernments。
　　Thefactisthatbesidethegreateventsofwhichhistorytreatsarethelittlefactsofdailylifewhichthebooksneglecttotell。Theyareruledbyimperiousnecessitieswhichhaltfornoman。Theirtotalmassformstherealframeworkofthelifeofthepeople。
　　WhilethestudyofgreateventsshowsusthatthenominalgovernmentofFrancehasbeenfrequentlychangedinthespaceofacentury，anexaminationofthelittledailyeventswillprove，onthecontrary，thatherrealgovernmenthasbeenlittlealtered。
　　Whointrutharetherealrulersofapeople？Kingsandministers，nodoubt，inthegreatcrisesofnationallife，buttheyplaynopartwhateverinthelittlerealitieswhichmakeupthelifeofeveryday。Therealdirectingforcesofacountryaretheadministrations，composedofimpersonalelementswhichareneveraffectedbythechangesofgovernment。Conservativeoftraditions，theyareanonymousandlasting，andconstituteanoccultpowerbeforewhichallothersmusteventuallybow。Theiractionhasevenincreasedtosuchadegreethat，asweshallpresentlyshow，thereisadangerthattheymayformananonymousStatemorepowerfulthantheofficialState。Francehasthuscometobegovernedbyheadsofdepartmentsandgovernmentclerks。Themorewestudythehistoryofrevolutionsthemorewediscoverthattheychangepracticallynothingbutthelabel。Tocreatearevolutioniseasy，buttochangethesoulofapeopleisdifficultindeed。
　　CHAPTERIV
　　THEPARTPLAYEDBYTHEPEOPLEINREVOLUTIONS
　　1。Thestabilityandmalleabilityofthenationalmind。
　　Theknowledgeofapeopleatanygivenmomentofitshistoryinvolvesanunderstandingofitsenvironmentandaboveallofitspast。Theoreticallyonemaydenythatpast，asdidthemenoftheRevolution，asmanymenofthepresentdayhavedone，butitsinfluenceremainsindestructible。
　　Inthepast，builtupbyslowaccumulationsofcenturies，wasformedtheaggregationofthoughts，sentiments，traditions，andprejudicesconstitutingthenationalmindwhichmakesthestrengthofarace。Withoutitnoprogressispossible。Eachgenerationwouldnecessitateafreshbeginning。
　　Theaggregatecomposingthesoulofapeopleissolidlyestablishedonlyifitpossessesacertainrigidity，butthisrigiditymustnotpassacertainlimit，ortherewouldbenosuchthingasmalleability。
　　Withoutrigiditytheancestralsoulwouldhavenofixity，andwithoutmalleabilityitcouldnotadaptitselftothechangesofenvironmentresultingfromtheprogressofcivilization。
　　Excessivemalleabilityofthenationalmindimpelsapeopletoincessantrevolutions。Excessofrigidityleadsittodecadence。Livingspecies，liketheracesofhumanity，disappearwhen，toofixedlyestablishedbyalongpast，theybecomeincapableofadaptingthemselvestonewconditionsofexistence。
　　Fewpeopleshavesucceededineffectingajustequilibriumbetweenthesetwocontraryqualitiesofstabilityandmalleability。TheRomansinantiquityandtheEnglishinmoderntimesmaybecitedamongthosewhohavebestattainedit。
　　Thepeopleswhosemindismostfixedandestablishedofteneffectthemostviolentrevolutions。Nothavingsucceededinevolvingprogressively，inadaptingthemselvestochangesofenvironment，theyareforcedtoadaptthemselvesviolentlywhensuchadaptationbecomesindispensable。
　　Stabilityisonlyacquiredveryslowly。Thehistoryofaraceisaboveallthestoryofitslongeffortstoestablishitsmind。
　　Solongasithasnotsucceededitformsahordeofbarbarianswithoutcohesionandstrength。AftertheinvasionsoftheendoftheRomanEmpireFrancetookseveralcenturiestoformanationalsoul。
　　Shefinallyachievedone；butinthecourseofcenturiesthissoulfinallybecametoorigid。Withalittlemoremalleability，theancientmonarchywouldhavebeenslowlytransformedasitwaselsewhere，andweshouldhaveavoided，togetherwiththeRevolutionanditsconsequences，theheavytaskofremakinganationalsoul。
　　Theprecedingconsiderationsshowusthepartofraceinthegenesisofrevolutions，andexplainwhythesamerevolutionswillproducesuchdifferenteffectsindifferentcountries；why，forexample，theideasoftheFrenchRevolution，welcomedwithsuchenthusiasmbysomepeoples，wererejectedbyothers。
　　CertainlyEngland，althoughaverystablecountry，hassufferedtworevolutionsandslainaking；butthemouldofhermentalarmourwasatoncestableenoughtoretaintheacquisitionsofthepastandmalleableenoughtomodifythemonlywithinthenecessarylimits。NeverdidEnglanddream，asdidthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，ofdestroyingtheancestralheritageinordertoerectanewsocietyinthenameofreason。
　　``WhiletheFrenchman，’’writesM。A。Sorel，``despisedhisgovernment，detestedhisclergy，hatedthenobility，andrevoltedagainstthelaws，theEnglishmanwasproudofhisreligion，hisconstitution，hisaristocracy，hisHouseofLords。ThesewerelikesomanytowersoftheformidableBastilleinwhichheentrenchedhimself，undertheBritishstandard，tojudgeEuropeandcoverherwithcontempt。Headmittedthatthecommandwasdisputedinsidethefort，butnostrangermustapproach。’’
　　TheinfluenceofraceinthedestinyofthepeoplesappearsplainlyinthehistoryoftheperpetualrevolutionsoftheSpanishrepublicsofSouthAmerica。Composedofhalf—castes，thatistosay，ofindividualswhosediversehereditieshavedissociatedtheirancestralcharacteristics，thesepopulationshavenonationalsoulandthereforenostability。Apeopleofhalf—castesisalwaysungovernable。
　　Ifwewouldlearnmoreofthedifferencesofpoliticalcapacitywhichtheracialfactorcreateswemustexaminethesamenationasgovernedbytworacessuccessively。
　　Theeventisnotrareinhistory。IthasbeenmanifestedinastrikingmanneroflateinCubaandthePhilippines，whichpassedsuddenlyfromtheruleofSpaintothatoftheUnitedStates。
　　WeknowinwhatanarchyandpovertyCubaexistedunderSpanishrule；weknow，too，towhatadegreeofprosperitytheislandwasbroughtinafewyearswhenitfellintothehandsoftheUnitedStates。
　　ThesameexperiencewasrepeatedinthePhilippines，whichforcenturieshadbeengovernedbySpain。Finallythecountrywasnomorethanavastjungle，thehomeofepidemicsofeverykind，whereamiserablepopulationvegetatedwithoutcommerceorindustry。AfterafewyearsofAmericanrulethecountrywasentirelytransformed：malaria，yellowfever，plagueandcholerahadentirelydisappeared。Theswampsweredrained；thecountrywascoveredwithrailways，factoriesandschools。Inthirteenyearsthemortalitywasreducedbytwo—thirds。
　　Itistosuchexamplesthatwemustreferthetheoristwhohasnotyetgraspedtheprofoundsignificanceofthewordrace，andhowfartheancestralsoulofapeoplerulesoveritsdestiny。
　　2。HowthepeopleregardsRevolution。
　　Thepartofthepeoplehasbeenthesameinallrevolutions。Itisneverthepeoplethatconceivesthemnordirectsthem。Itsactivityisreleasedbymeansofleaders。
　　Onlywhenthedirectinterestsofthepeopleareinvolveddowesee，asrecentlyinChampagne，anyfractionofthepeoplerisingspontaneously。Amovementthuslocalisedconstitutesamereriot。
　　Revolutioniseasywhentheleadersareveryinfluential。OfthisPortugalandBrazilhaverecentlyfurnishedproofs。Butnewideaspenetratethepeopleveryslowlyindeed。Generallyitacceptsarevolutionwithoutknowingwhy，andwhenbychanceitdoessucceedinunderstandingwhy，therevolutionisoverlongago。
　　Thepeoplewillcreatearevolutionbecauseitispersuadedtodoso，butitdoesnotunderstandverymuchoftheideasofitsleaders；itinterpretstheminitsownfashion，andthisfashionisbynomeansthatofthetrueauthorsoftherevolution。TheFrenchRevolutionfurnishedastrikingexampleofthisfact。
　　TheRevolutionof1789hadasitsrealobjectthesubstitutionofthepowerofthenobilitybythatofthebourgeoisie；thatis，anoldelitewhichhadbecomeincapablewastobereplacedbyanewelitewhichdidpossesscapacity。
　　TherewaslittlequestionofthepeopleinthisfirstphaseoftheRevolution。Thesovereigntyofthepeoplewasproclaimed，butitamountedonlytotherightofelectingitsrepresentatives。
　　Extremelyilliterate，nothoping，likethemiddleclasses，toascendthesocialscale，notinanywayfeelingitselftheequalofthenobles，andnotaspiringevertobecometheirequal，thepeoplehadviewsandinterestsverydifferenttothoseoftheupperclassesofsociety。
　　Thestrugglesoftheassemblywiththeroyalpowerledittocallfortheinterventionofthepeopleinthesestruggles。Itintervenedmoreandmore，andthebourgeoisrevolutionrapidlybecameapopularrevolution。
　　Anideahavingnoforceofitsown，andactingonlybyvirtueofpossessinganaffectiveandmysticsubstratumwhichsupportsit，thetheoreticalideasofthebourgeoisie，beforetheycouldactonthepeople，hadtobetransformedintoanewandverydefinitefaith，springingfromobviouspracticalinterests。
　　ThistransformationwasrapidlyeffectedwhenthepeopleheardthemenenvisagedbyitastheGovernmentassuringitthatitwastheequalofitsformermasters。Itbegantoregarditselfasavictim，andproceededtopillage，burn，andmassacre，imaginingthatinsodoingitwasexercisingaright。
　　Thegreatstrengthoftherevolutionaryprincipleswasthattheygaveafreecoursetotheinstinctsofprimitivebarbaritywhichhadbeenrestrainedbythesecularandinhibitoryactionofenvironment，tradition，andlaw。
　　Allthesocialbondsthatformerlycontainedthemultitudeweredaybydaydissolving，sothatitconceivedanotionofunlimitedpower，andthejoyofseeingitsancientmastersferretedoutanddespoiled。Havingbecomethesovereignpeople，werenotallthingspermissibletoit？
　　ThemottoofLiberty，Equality，Fraternity，atruemanifestationofhopeandfaithatthebeginningoftheRevolution，soonmerelyservedtocoveralegaljustificationofthesentimentsofjealousy，cupidity，andhatredofsuperiors，thetruemotivesofcrowdsunrestrainedbydiscipline。ThisiswhytheRevolutionsosoonendedindisorder，violence，andanarchy。
　　FromthemomentwhentheRevolutiondescendedfromthemiddletothelowerclassesofsociety，itceasedtobeadominationoftheinstinctivebytherational，andbecame，onthecontrary，theeffortoftheinstinctivetooverpowertherational。
　　Thislegaltriumphoftheatavisticinstinctswasterrible。Thewholeeffortofsocietiesaneffortindispensabletotheircontinuedexistence——hadalwaysbeentorestrain，thankstothepoweroftradition，customs，andcodes，certainnaturalinstinctswhichmanhasinheritedfromhisprimitiveanimality。Itispossibletodominatethem——andthemoreapeopledoesovercomethemthemoreciviliseditis——buttheycannotbedestroyed。Theinfluenceofvariousexcitingcauseswillreadilyresultintheirreappearance。
　　Thisiswhytheliberationofpopularpassionsissodangerous。
　　Thetorrent，onceescapedfromitsbed，doesnotreturnuntilithasspreaddevastationfarandwide。``Woetohimwhostirsupthedregsofanation，’’saidRivarolatthebeginningoftheRevolution。``Thereisnoageofenlightenmentforthepopulace。’’
　　3。ThesupposedPartofthePeopleduringRevolution。
　　Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowusthatthepeopleneveractswithoutleaders，andthatalthoughitplaysaconsiderablepartinrevolutionsbyfollowingandexaggeratingtheimpulsesreceived，itneverdirectsitsownmovements。
　　Inallpoliticalrevolutionswediscovertheactionofleaders。
　　Theydonotcreatetheideaswhichserveasthebasisofrevolutions，buttheyutilisethemasameansofaction。Ideas，leaders，armies，andcrowdsconstitutefourelementswhichallhavetheirparttoplayinrevolutions。
　　Thecrowd，rousedbytheleaders，actsespeciallybymeansofitsmass。Itsactioniscomparabletothatoftheshellwhichperforatesanarmour—platebythemomentumofaforceitdidnotcreate。Rarelydoesthecrowdunderstandanythingoftherevolutionsaccomplishedwithitsassistance。Itobedientlyfollowsitsleaderswithouteventryingtofindoutwhattheywant。ItoverthrewCharlesX。becauseofhisOrdinanceswithouthavinganyideaofthecontentsofthelatter，andwouldhavebeengreatlyembarrassedhaditbeenaskedatalaterdatewhyitoverthrewLouis—Philippe。
　　Deceivedbyappearances，manyauthors，fromMichelettoAulard，havesupposedthatthepeopleeffectedourgreatRevolution。
　　``Theprincipalactor，’’saidMichelet，``isthepeople。’’
　　``Itisanerrortosay，’’writesM。Aulard，``thattheFrenchRevolutionwaseffectedbyafewdistinguishedpeopleorafewheroes……Ibelievethatinthewholehistoryoftheperiodincludedbetween1789and1799notasinglepersonstandsoutwholedorshapedevents：neitherLouisXVI。norMirabeaunorDantonnorRobespierre。MustwesaythatitwastheFrenchpeoplethatwastherealherooftheFrenchRevolution？Yes——providedweseetheFrenchpeoplenotasamultitudebutasanumberoforganisedgroups。’’
　　AndinarecentworkM。A。Cochininsistsonthisconceptionofpopularaction。
　　``Andhereisthewonder：Micheletisright。Inproportionasweknowthembetterthefactsseemtoconsecratethefiction：
　　thiscrowd，withoutchiefsandwithoutlaws，theveryimageofchaos，didforfiveyearsgovernandcommand，speakandact，withaprecision，aconsistency，andanentiretythatweremarvellous。Anarchygavelessonsinorderanddisciplinetothedefeatedpartyoforder……twenty—fivemillionsofmen，spreadoveranareaof30，000squareleagues，actedasone。’’
　　Certainlyifthissimultaneousconductofthepeoplehadbeenspontaneous，astheauthorsupposes，itwouldhavebeenmarvellous。M。Aulardhimselfunderstandsverywelltheimpossibilitiesofsuchaphenomenon，forheiscareful，inspeakingofthepeople，tosaythatheisspeakingofgroups，andthatthesegroupsmayhavebeenguidedbyleaders：——
　　``Andwhat，then，cementedthenationalunity？Whosavedthisnation，attackedbythekingandrentbycivilwar？WasitDanton？WasitRobespierre？WasitCarnot？Certainlytheseindividualmenwereofservice：butunitywasinfactmaintainedandindependenceassuredbythegroupingoftheFrenchintocommunesandpopularsocieties——people’sclubs。ItwasthemunicipalandJacobinorganisationofFrancethatforcedthecoalitionofEuropetoretreat。Butineachgroup，ifwelookmoreclosely，thereweretwoorthreeindividualsmorecapablethantherest，who，whetherleadersorled，executeddecisionsandhadtheappearanceofleaders，butwho（if，forinstance，wereadtheproceedingsofthepeople’sclubs）seemtoustohavedrawntheirstrengthfarmorefromtheirgroupthanfromthemselves。
　　M。Aulard’smistakeconsistsinsupposingthatallthesegroupswerederived``fromaspontaneousmovementoffraternityandreason。’’Franceatthattimewascoveredwiththousandsoflittleclubs，receivingasingleimpulsionfromthegreatJacobinClubofParis，andobeyingitwithperfectdocility。
　　Thisiswhatrealityteachesus，thoughtheillusionsoftheJacobinsdonotpermitthemtoacceptthefact。[3]
　　[3]InthehistoricalmanualswhichM。AulardhaspreparedfortheuseofclassesincollaborationwithM。Debidourtheroleattributedtothepeopleasanentityisevenmoremarked。Weseeitinterveningcontinuallyandspontaneously；
　　hereareafewexamples：——
　　The``Day’’ofJunethe20th：``ThekingdismissedtheGirondistmembers。ThepeopleofParis，indignant，rosespontaneouslyandinvadedtheTuileries。’’
　　The``Day’’ofAugust10th：``TheLegislativeAssemblydarednotoverthrowit；itwasthepeopleofParis，aidedbytheFederalsoftheDepartments，whoeffectedthisrevolutionatthepriceofitsblood。’’
　　TheconflictoftheGirondistsandtheMountain：``Thisdiscordinthefaceoftheenemywasdangerous。Thepeopleputanendtoitonthedaysofthe31stofMayandthe2ndofJune，1793，whenitforcedtheConventiontoexpeltheleadersoftheGirondefromitsmidstandtodecreetheirarrest。’’
　　4。ThePopularEntityanditsConstituentElements。
　　Inordertoanswertocertaintheoreticalconceptionsthepeoplewaserectedintoamysticentity，endowedwithallthepowersandallthevirtues，incessantlypraisedbythepoliticians，andoverwhelmedwithflattery。WeshallseewhatwearetomakeofthisconceptionofthepartplayedbythepeopleintheFrenchRevolution。
　　TotheJacobinsofthisepoch，astothoseofourowndays，thispopularentityconstitutesasuperiorpersonalitypossessingtheattributes，peculiartodivinities，ofneverhavingtoanswerforitsactionsandnevermakingamistake。Itswishesmustbehumblyacceded。Thepeoplemaykill，burn，ravage，committhemostfrightfulcruelties，glorifyitsheroto—dayandthrowhimintothegutterto—morrow；itisallone；thepoliticianswillnotceasetovauntitsvirtues，itshighwisdom，andtobowtoitseverydecision。[4]
　　[4]Thesepretensionsdoatleastseemtobegrowinguntenabletothemoreadvancedrepublicans。
　　``Theragewiththesocialists’’writesM。Clemenceau，``istoendowwithallthevirtues，asthoughbyasuperhumanreason，thecrowdwhosereasoncannotbemuchtoboastof。’’Thefamousstatesmanmightsaymorecorrectlythatreasonnotonlycannotbeprominentinthecrowdbutispracticallynonexistent。
　　Nowinwhatdoesthisentityreallyconsist，thismysteriousfetichwhichrevolutionistshavereveredformorethanacentury？
　　Itmaybedecomposedintotwodistinctcategories。Thefirstincludesthepeasants，traders，andworkersofallsortswhoneedtranquillityandorderthattheymayexercisetheircalling。
　　Thispeopleformsthemajority，butamajoritywhichnevercausedarevolution。Livinginlaborioussilence，itisignoredbythehistorians。
　　Thesecondcategory，whichplaysacapitalpartinallnationaldisturbances，consistsofasubversivesocialresiduedominatedbyacriminalmentality。Degeneratesofalcoholismandpoverty，thieves，beggars，destitute``casuals，’’indifferentworkerswithoutemployment——theseconstitutethedangerousbulkofthearmiesofinsurrection。
　　Thefearofpunishmentpreventsmanyofthemfrombecomingcriminalsatordinarytimes，buttheydobecomecriminalsassoonastheycanexercisetheirevilinstinctswithoutdanger。
　　Tothissinistersubstratumareduethemassacreswhichstainallrevolutions。
　　Itwasthisclasswhich，guidedbyitsleaders，continuallyinvadedthegreatrevolutionaryAssemblies。Theseregimentsofdisorderhadnootheridealthanthatofmassacre，pillage，andincendiarism。Theirindifferencetotheoriesandprincipleswascomplete。
　　Totheelementsrecruitedfromthelowestdregsofthepopulaceareadded，bywayofcontagion，ahostofidleandindifferentpersonswhoaresimplydrawnintothemovement。Theyshoutbecausetherearemenshouting，andrevoltbecausethereisarevolt，withouthavingthevaguestideaofthecauseofshoutingorrevolution。Thesuggestivepoweroftheirenvironmentabsolutelyhypnotisesthem，andimpelsthemtoaction。
　　Thesenoisyandmaleficentcrowds，thekernelofallinsurrections，fromantiquitytoourowntimes，aretheonlycrowdsknowntotheorator。Totheoratortheyarethesovereignpeople。AsamatteroffactthissovereignpeopleisprincipallycomposedofthelowerpopulaceofwhomThierssaid：——
　　``SincethetimewhenTacitussawitapplaudthecrimesoftheemperorsthevilepopulacehasnotchanged。Thesebarbarianswhoswarmatthebottomofsocietiesarealwaysreadytostainthepeoplewitheverycrime，atthebeckofeverypower，andtothedishonourofeverycause。’’
　　AtnoperiodofhistorywastheroleofthelowestelementsofthepopulationexercisedinsuchalastingfashionasintheFrenchRevolution。
　　Themassacresbeganassoonasthebeastwasunchained——thatis，from1789，longbeforetheConvention。Theywerecarriedoutwithallpossiblerefinementsofcruelty。DuringthekillingofSeptembertheprisonerswereslowlychoppedtobitsbysabre—
　　cutsinordertoprolongtheiragoniesandamusethespectators，whoexperiencedthegreatestdelightbeforethespectacleoftheconvulsionsofthevictimsandtheirshrieksofagony。
　　SimilarsceneswereobservedalloverFrance，evenintheearlydaysoftheRevolution，althoughtheforeignwardidnotexcusethemthen，noranyotherpretext。
　　FromMarchtoSeptemberawholeseriesofburnings，killings，andpillagingsdrenchedallFranceinblood。Tainecitesonehundredandtwentysuchcases。Rouen，Lyons，Strasbourg，&c。，fellintothepowerofthepopulace。
　　TheMayorofTroyes，hiseyesdestroyedbyblowsofscissors，wasmurderedafterhoursofsuffering。TheColonelofDragoonsBelzucewascuttopieceswhileliving。Inmanyplacestheheartsofthevictimsweretornoutandcarriedaboutthecitiesonthepointofapike。
　　Suchisthebehaviourofthebasepopulacesosoonasimprudenthandshavebrokenthenetworkofconstraintswhichbindsitsancestralsavagery。Itmeetswitheveryindulgencebecauseitisintheinterestsofthepoliticianstoflatterit。Butletusforamomentsupposethethousandsofbeingswhoconstituteitcondensedintoonesinglebeing。Thepersonalitythusformedwouldappearasacruelandnarrowandabominablemonster，morehorriblethanthebloodiesttyrantsofhistory。
　　Thisimpulsiveandferociouspeoplehasalwaysbeeneasilydominatedsosoonasastrongpowerhasopposedit。Ifitsviolenceisunlimited，soisitsservility。Allthedespotismshavehaditfortheirservant。TheCaesarsarecertainofbeingacclaimedbyit，whethertheyarenamedCaligula，Nero，Marat，Robespierre，orBoulanger。
　　Besidethesedestructivehordeswhoseactionduringrevolutioniscapital，thereexists，aswehavealreadyremarked，themassofthetruepeople，whichasksonlytherighttolabour。Itsometimesbenefitsbyrevolutions，butnevercausesthem。Therevolutionarytheoristsknowlittleofitanddistrustit，awareofitstraditionalandconservativebasis。Theresistantnucleusofacountry，itmakesthestrengthandcontinuityofthelatter。
　　Extremelydocilethroughfear，easilyinfluencedbyitsleaders，itwillmomentarilycommiteveryexcesswhileundertheirinfluence，buttheancestralinertiaoftheracewillsoontakechargeagain，whichisthereasonwhyitsoquicklytiresofrevolution。Itstraditionalsoulquicklyincitesittoopposeitselftoanarchywhenthelattergoestoofar。Atsuchtimesitseekstheleaderwhowillrestoreorder。
　　Thispeople，resignedandpeaceable，hasevidentlynoveryloftynorcomplicatedpoliticalconceptions。Itsgovernmentalidealisalwaysverysimple，issomethingverylikedictatorship。Thisiswhy，fromthetimesoftheGreekstoourown，dictatorshiphasalwaysfollowedanarchy。ItfolloweditafterthefirstRevolution，whenBonapartewasacclaimed，andagainwhen，despiteopposition，foursuccessiveplebiscitesraisedLouisNapoleontotheheadoftherepublic，ratifiedhiscoupd’etat，re—establishedtheEmpire，andin1870，beforethewar，approvedofhisrule。