Allpoliticianssharethesameopinion，whichiswhyweprogresssoslowly。Eachpartyispersuadedthatbymeansofreformsallevilscouldberemedied。ThisconvictionresultsinstrugglessuchashavemadeFrancethemostdividedcountryintheworldandthemostsubjecttoanarchy。
　　Nooneyetseemstounderstandthatindividualsandtheirmethods，notregulations，makethevalueofapeople。Theefficaciousreformsarenottherevolutionaryreformsbutthetriflingameliorationsofeverydayaccumulatedincourseoftime。Thegreatsocialchanges，likethegreatgeologicalchanges，areeffectedbythedailyadditionofminutecauses。
　　TheeconomichistoryofGermanyduringthelastfortyyearsprovesinastrikingmannerthetruthofthislaw。
　　Manyimportanteventswhichseemtodependmoreorlessonhazard——asbattles，forexample——arethemselvessubjecttothislawoftheaccumulationofsmallcauses。Nodoubtthedecisivestruggleissometimesterminatedinadayorless，butmanyminuteefforts，slowlyaccumulated，areessentialtovictory。Wehadapainfulexperienceofthisin1870，andtheRussianshavelearneditmorerecently。BarelyhalfanhourdidAdmiralTogoneedtoannihilatetheRussianfleet，atthebattleofTsushima，whichfinallydecidedthefateofJapan，butthousandsoflittlefactors，smallandremote，determinedthatsuccess。CausesnotlessnumerousengenderedthedefeatoftheRussians——abureaucracyascomplicatedasours，andasirresponsible；
　　lamentablematerial，althoughpaidforbyitsweightingold；asystemofgraftateverydegreeofthesocialhierarchy，andgeneralindifferencetotheinterestsofthecountry。
　　Unhappilytheprogressinlittlethingswhichbytheirtotalmakeupthegreatnessofanationisrarelyapparent，producesnoimpressiononthepublic，andcannotservetheinterestsofpoliticiansatelections。Theselattercarenothingforsuchmatters，andpermittheaccumulation，inthecountriessubjecttotheirinfluence，ofthelittlesuccessivedisorganisationswhichfinallyresultingreatdownfalls。
　　5。SocialDistinctionsinDemocraciesandDemocraticIdeasinVariousCountries。
　　Whenmenweredividedintocastesanddifferentiatedchieflybybirth，socialdistinctionsweregenerallyacceptedastheconsequencesofanunavoidablenaturallaw。
　　Assoonastheoldsocialdivisionsweredestroyedthedistinctionsoftheclassesappearedartificial，andforthatreasonceasedtobetolerated。
　　Thenecessityofequalitybeingtheoretical，wehaveseenamongdemocraticpeoplestherapiddevelopmentofartificialinequalities，permittingtheirpossessorstomakeforthemselvesaplainlyvisiblesupremacy。Neverwasthethirstfortitlesanddecorationssogeneralasto—day。
　　Inreallydemocraticcountries，suchastheUnitedStates，titlesanddecorationsdonotexertmuchinfluence，andfortunealonecreatesdistinctions。ItisonlybyexceptionthatweseewealthyyoungAmericangirlsallyingthemselvestotheoldnamesoftheEuropeanaristocracy。Theyaretheninstinctivelyemployingtheonlymeanswhichwillpermitayoungracetoacquireapastthatwillestablishitsmoralframework。
　　ButinageneralfashionthearistocracythatweseespringingupinAmericaisbynomeansfoundedontitlesanddecorations。
　　Purelyfinancial，itdoesnotprovokemuchjealousy，becauseeveryonehopesonedaytoformpartofit。
　　When，inhisbookondemocracyinAmerica，Toquevillespokeofthegeneralaspirationtowardsequalityhedidnotrealisethattheprophesiedequalitywouldendintheclassificationofmenfoundedexclusivelyonthenumberofdollarspossessedbythem。
　　NootherexistsintheUnitedStates，anditwilldoubtlessonedaybethesameinEurope。
　　AtpresentwecannotpossiblyregardFranceasademocraticcountrysaveonpaper，andherewefeelthenecessity，alreadyreferredto，ofexaminingthevariousideaswhichindifferentcountriesareexpressedbytheword``democracy。’’
　　OftrulydemocraticnationswecanpracticallymentiononlyEnglandandtheUnitedStates。There，democracyoccursindifferentforms，butthesameprinciplesareobserved——notably，aperfecttolerationofallopinions。Religiouspersecutionsareunknown。Realsuperiorityeasilyrevealsitselfinthevariousprofessionswhichanyonecanenteratanyageifhepossessesthenecessarycapacity。Thereisnobarriertoindividualeffort。
　　Insuchcountriesmenbelievethemselvesequalbecauseallhavetheideathattheyarefreetoattainthesameposition。Theworkmanknowshecanbecomeforeman，andthenengineer。Forcedtobeginonthelowerrungsoftheladderinsteadofhighupthescale，asinFrance，theengineerdoesnotregardhimselfasmadeofdifferentstufftotherestofmankind。Itisthesameinallprofessions。Thisiswhytheclasshatred，sointenseinEurope，issolittledevelopedinEnglandandAmerica。
　　InFrancethedemocracyispracticallynon—existentsaveinspeeches。Asystemofcompetitionsandexaminations，whichmustbeworkedthroughinyouth，firmlyclosesthedoorupontheliberalprofessions，andcreatesinimicalandseparateclasses。
　　TheLatindemocraciesarethereforepurelytheoretical。TheabsolutismoftheStatehasreplacedmonarchicalabsolutism，butitisnolesssevere。Thearistocracyoffortunehasreplacedthatofbirth，anditsprivilegesarenolessconsiderable。
　　Monarchiesanddemocraciesdifferfarmoreinformthaninsubstance。Itisonlythevariablementalityofmenthatvariestheireffects。Allthediscussionsastovarioussystemsofgovernmentarereallyofnointerest，forthesehavenospecialvirtueofthemselves。Theirvaluewillalwaysdependonthatofthepeoplegoverned。Apeopleeffectsgreatandrapidprogresswhenitdiscoversthatitisthesumofthepersonaleffortsofeachindividualandnotthesystemofgovernmentthatdeterminestherankofanationintheworld。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　THENEWFORMSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEF
　　1。TheConflictbetweenCapitalandLabour。
　　Whileourlegislatorsarereformingandlegislatingathazard，thenaturalevolutionoftheworldisslowlypursuingitscourse。
　　Newinterestsarise，theeconomiccompetitionbetweennationandnationincreasesinseverity，theworking—classesarebestirringthemselves，andonallsidesweseethebirthofformidableproblemswhichtheharanguesofthepoliticianswillneverresolve。
　　Amongthesenewproblemsoneofthemostcomplicatedwillbetheproblemoftheconflictbetweenlabourandcapital。ItisbecomingacuteeveninsuchacountryoftraditionasEngland。
　　Workingmenareceasingtorespectthecollectivecontractswhichformerlyconstitutedtheircharter，strikesaredeclaredforinsignificantmotives，andunemploymentandpauperismareattainingdisquietingproportions。
　　InAmericathesestrikeswouldfinallyhaveaffectedallindustriesbutthattheveryexcessoftheevilcreatedaremedy。
　　Duringthelasttenyearstheindustrialleadershaveorganisedgreatemployers’federations，whichhavebecomepowerfulenoughtoforcetheworkerstosubmittoarbitration。
　　ThelabourquestioniscomplicatedinFrancebytheinterventionofnumerousforeignworkers，whichthestagnationofourpopulationhasrenderednecessary。[13]ThisstagnationwillalsomakeitdifficultforFrancetocontendwithherrivals，whosesoilwillsoonnolongerbeabletonourishitsinhabitants，who，followingoneoftheoldestlawsofhistory，willnecessarilyinvadethelessdenselypeopledcountries。
　　[13]PopulationoftheGreatPowers：——
　　1789。1906。
　　Russia……28，000，000129，000，000
　　Germany……28，000，00057，000，000
　　Austria……18，000，00044，000，000
　　England……12，000，00040，000，000
　　France……26，000，00039，000，000
　　TheseconflictsbetweentheworkersandemployersofthesamenationwillberenderedstillmoreacutebytheincreasingeconomicstrugglebetweentheAsiatics，whoseneedsaresmall，andwhocanthereforeproducemanufacturedarticlesatverylowprices，andtheEuropeans，whoseneedsaremany。Fortwenty—fiveyearsIhavelaidstressuponthispoint。GeneralHamilton，ex—
　　militaryattachetotheJapanesearmy，whoforesawtheJapanesevictorieslongbeforetheoutbreakofhostilities，writesasfollowsinanessaytranslatedbyGeneralLanglois：——
　　``TheChinaman，suchasIhaveseenhiminManchuria，iscapableofdestroyingthepresenttypeofworkerofthewhiteraces。Hewilldrivehimoffthefaceoftheearth。TheSocialists，whopreachequalitytothelabourer，arefarfromthinkingwhatwouldbethepracticalresultofcarryingouttheirtheories。Isit，then，thedestinyofthewhiteracestodisappearinthelongrun？Inmyhumbleopinionthisdestinydependsupononesinglefactor：Shallweorshallwenothavethegoodsensetocloseourearstospeecheswhichpresentwarandpreparationforwarasauselessevil？
　　``Ibelievetheworkersmustchoose。Giventhepresentconstitutionoftheworld，theymustcultivateintheirchildrenthemilitaryideal，andacceptgracefullythecostandtroublewhichmilitarismentails，ortheywillbeletinforacruelstruggleforlifewitharivalworkerofwhosesuccessthereisnottheslightestdoubt。ThereisonlyonemeansofrefusingAsiaticstherighttoemigrate，tolowerwagesbycompetition，andtoliveinourmidst，andthatisthesword。IfAmericansandEuropeansforgetthattheirprivilegedpositionisheldonlybyforceofarms，Asiawillsoonhavetakenherrevenge。’’
　　WeknowthatinAmericatheinvasionofChineseandJapanese，owingtothecompetitionbetweenthemandtheworkersofwhiterace，hasbecomeanationalcalamity。InEuropetheinvasioniscommencing，buthasnotasyetgonefar。ButalreadyChineseemigrantshaveformedimportantcoloniesincertaincentres——
　　London，Cardiff，Liverpool，&c。Theyhaveprovokedseveralriotsbyworkingforlowwages。Theirappearancehasalwaysloweredsalaries。
　　Buttheseproblemsbelongtothefuture，andthoseofthepresentaresodisquietingthatitisuselessatthemomenttooccupyourselveswithothers。
　　2。TheEvolutionoftheWorking—ClassesandtheSyndicalistMovement。
　　Themostimportantdemocraticproblemofthedaywillperhapsresultfromtherecentdevelopmentoftheworking—classengenderedbytheSyndicalistorTradesUnionmovement。
　　TheaggregationofsimilarinterestsknownasSyndicalismhasrapidlyassumedsuchenormousdevelopmentsinallcountriesthatitmaybecalledworld—wide。CertaincorporationshavebudgetscomparabletothoseofsmallStates。SomeGermanleagueshavebeencitedashavingsavedoverthreemillionssterlinginsubscriptions。
　　Theextensionofthelabourmovementinallcountriesshowsthatitisnot，likeSocialism，adreamofUtopiantheorists，buttheresultofeconomicnecessities。Initsaim，itsmeansofaction，anditstendencies，SyndicalismpresentsnokinshipwithSocialism。HavingsufficientlyexplaineditinmyPoliticalPsychology，itwillsufficeheretorecallinafewwordsthedifferencebetweenthetwodoctrines。
　　Socialismwouldobtainpossessionofallindustries，andhavethemmanagedbytheState，whichwoulddistributetheproductsequallybetweenthecitizens。Syndicalism，ontheotherhand，wouldentirelyeliminatetheactionoftheState，anddividesocietyintosmallprofessionalgroupswhichwouldbeself—governing。
　　AlthoughdespisedbytheSyndicalistsandviolentlyattackedbythem，theSocialistsaretryingtoignoretheconflict，butitisrapidlybecomingtooobvioustobeconcealed。ThepoliticalinfluencewhichtheSocialistsstillpossesswillsoonescapethem。
　　IfSyndicalismiseverywhereincreasingattheexpenseofSocialism，itis，Irepeat，becausethiscorporativemovement，althougharenewalofthepast，synthetisescertainneedsbornofthespecialisationofmodernindustry。
　　Weseeitsmanifestationsunderagreatvarietyofcircumstances。
　　InFranceitssuccesshasnotasyetbeenasgreataselsewhere。
　　Havingtakentherevolutionaryformalreadymentioned，ithasfallen，atleastforthetimebeing，intothehandsoftheanarchists，whocareaslittleforSyndicalismasforanysortoforganisation，andaresimplyusingthenewdoctrineinanattempttodestroymodernsociety。Socialists，Syndicalists，andanarchists，althoughdirectedbyentirelydifferentconceptions，arethuscollaboratinginthesameeventualaim——theviolentsuppressionoftherulingclassesandthepillageoftheirwealth。
　　TheSyndicalistdoctrinedoesnotinanywayderivefromtheprinciplesofRevolution。OnmanypointsitisentirelyincontradictionwiththeRevolution。SyndicalismrepresentsratherareturntocertainformsofcollectiveorganisationsimilartotheguildsorcorporationsproscribedbytheRevolution。ItthusconstitutesoneofthosefederationswhichtheRevolutioncondemned。ItentirelyrejectstheStatecentralisationwhichtheRevolutionestablished。
　　Syndicalismcaresnothingforthedemocraticprinciplesofliberty，equality，andfraternity。TheSyndicalistsdemandoftheirmembersanabsolutedisciplinewhicheliminatesallliberty。
　　Notbeingasyetstrongenoughtoexercisemutualtyranny，thesyndicatessofarprofesssentimentsinrespectofoneanotherwhichmightbyastretchbecalledfraternal。Butassoonastheyaresufficientlypowerful，whentheircontraryinterestswillnecessarilyenterintoconflict，asduringtheSyndicalistperiodoftheoldItalianrepublics——FlorenceandSiena，forexample——thepresentfraternitywillspeedilybeforgotten，andequalitywillbereplacedbythedespotismofthemostpowerful。
　　Suchafutureseemsnearathand。Thenewpowerisincreasingveryrapidly，andfindstheGovernmentspowerlessbeforeit，abletodefendthemselvesonlybyyieldingtoeverydemand——anodiouspolicy，whichmayserveforthemoment，butwhichheavilycompromisesthefuture。
　　Itwas，however，tothispoorrecoursethattheEnglishGovernmentrecentlyresortedinitsstruggleagainsttheMiners’
　　Union，whichthreatenedtosuspendtheindustriallifeofEngland。TheUniondemandedaminimumwageforitsmembers，buttheywerenotboundtofurnishaminimumofwork。
　　Althoughsuchademandwasinadmissible，theGovernmentagreedtoproposetoParliamentalawtosanctionsuchameasure。WemayprofitablyreadtheweightywordspronouncedbyMr。BalfourbeforetheHouseofCommons：——
　　``Thecountryhasneverinitssolongandvariedhistoryhadtofaceadangerofthisnatureandthisimportance。
　　``Weareconfrontedwiththestrangeandsinisterspectacleofamereorganisationthreateningtoparalyse——andparalysinginalargemeasure——thecommerceandmanufacturesofacommunitywhichlivesbycommerceandmanufacture。
　　``Thepowerpossessedbytheminersisinthepresentstateofthelawalmostunlimited。Haveweeverseenthelikeofit？Dideverfeudalbaronexertacomparabletyranny？WasthereeveranAmericantrustwhichservedtherightswhichitholdsfromthelawwithsuchcontemptofthegeneralinterest？Theverydegreeofperfectiontowhichwehavebroughtourlaws，oursocialorganisation，themutualrelationbetweenthevariousprofessionsandindustries，exposesusmorethanourpredecessorsinruderagestothegraveperilwhichatpresentthreatenssociety……Wearewitnessesatthepresentmomentofthefirstmanifestationofthepowerofelementswhich，ifwearenotheedful，willsubmergethewholeofsociety……TheattitudeoftheGovernmentinyieldingtotheinjunctionoftheminersgivessomeappearanceofrealitytothevictoryofthosewhoarepittingthemselvesagainstsociety。’’
　　3。WhycertainmodernDemocraticGovernmentsaregraduallybeingtransformedintoGovernmentsbyAdministrativeCastes。
　　Anarchyandthesocialconflictsresultingfromdemocraticideasareto—dayimpellingsomeGovernmentstowardsanunforeseencourseofevolutionwhichwillendbyleavingthemonlyanominalpower。Thisdevelopment，ofwhichIshallbrieflydenotetheeffects，iseffectedspontaneouslyunderthestressofthoseimperiousnecessitieswhicharestillthechiefcontrollingpowerofevents。
　　TheGovernmentsofdemocraticcountriesto—dayconsistoftherepresentativeselectedbyuniversalsuffrage。Theyvotelaws，andappointanddismissministerschosenfromthemselves，andprovisionallyentrustedwiththeexecutivepower。Theseministersarenaturallyoftenreplaced，sinceavotewilldoit。Thosewhofollowthem，belongingtoadifferentparty，willgovernaccordingtodifferentprinciples。
　　Itmightatfirstseemthatacountrythuspulledtoandfrobyvariousinfluencescouldhavenocontinuityorstability。ButinspiteofalltheseconditionsofinstabilityademocraticGovernmentlikethatofFranceworkswithfairregularity。Howexplainsuchaphenomenon？
　　Itsinterpretation，whichisverysimple，resultsfromthefactthattheministerswhohavetheappearanceofgoverningreallygovernthecountryonlytoaverylimitedextent。Strictlylimitedandcircumscribed，theirpowerisexercisedprincipallyinspeecheswhicharehardlynoticedandinafewinorganicmeasures。
　　Butbehindthesuperficialauthorityofministers，withoutforceorduration，theplaythingsofeverydemandofthepolitician，ananonymouspowerissecretlyatworkwhosemightiscontinuallyincreasingtheadministrations。Possessingtraditions，ahierarchy，andcontinuity，theyareapoweragainstwhich，astheministersquicklyrealise，theyareincapableofstruggling。[14]
　　Responsibilityissodividedintheadministrativemachinethataministermayneverfindhimselfopposedbyanypersonofimportance。Hismomentaryimpulsesarecheckedbyanetworkofregulations，customs，anddecrees，whicharecontinuallyquotedtohim，andwhichheknowssolittlethathedarenotinfringethem。
　　[14]Theimpotenceofministersintheirowndepartmentshasbeenwelldescribedbyoneofthem，M。Cruppi，inarecentbook。Themostardentwishesoftheministerbeingimmediatelyparalysedbyhisdepartment，hepromptlyceasestostruggleagainstit。
　　ThisdiminutionofthepowerofdemocraticGovernmentscanonlydevelop。OneofthemostconstantlawsofhistoryisthatofwhichIhavealreadyspoken：Immediatelyanyoneclassbecomespreponderant——nobles，clergy，army，orthepeople——itspeedilytendstoenslaveothers。SuchweretheRomanarmies，whichfinallyappointedandoverthrewtheemperors；suchweretheclergy，againstwhomthekingsofoldcouldhardlystruggle；suchweretheStatesGeneral，whichatthemomentofRevolutionspeedilyabsorbedallthepowersofgovernment，andsupplantedthemonarchy。
　　Thecasteoffunctionariesisdestinedtofurnishafreshproofofthetruthofthislaw。Preponderantalready，theyarebeginningtospeakloudly，tomakethreats，andeventoindulgeinstrikes，suchasthatofthepostmen，whichwasquicklyfollowedbythatoftheGovernmentrailwayemployees。TheadministrativepowerthusformsalittleStatewithintheState，andifitspresentrateofrevolutioncontinuesitwillsoonconstitutetheonlypowerintheState。UnderaSocialistGovernmenttherewouldbenootherpower。Allourrevolutionswouldthenhaveresultedinstrippingthekingofhispowersandhisthroneinordertobestowthemupontheirresponsible，anonymousanddespoticclassofGovernmentclerks。
　　Toforeseetheissueofalltheconflictswhichthreatentocloudthefutureisimpossible。Wemuststeerclearofpessimismasofoptimism；allwecansayisthatnecessitywillalwaysfinallybringthingstoanequilibrium。Theworldpursuesitswaywithoutbotheringitselfwithourspeeches，andsoonerorlaterwemanagetoadaptourselvestothevariationsofourenvironment。Thedifficultyistodosowithouttoomuchfriction，andabovealltoresistthechimericalconceptionsofdreamers。Alwayspowerlesstore—organisetheworld，theyhaveoftencontrivedtoupsetit。
　　Athens，Rome，Florence，andmanyothercitieswhichformerlyshoneinhistory，werevictimsoftheseterribletheorists。Theresultsoftheirinfluencehasalwaysbeenthesame——anarchy，dictatorship，anddecadence。
　　ButsuchlessonswillnotaffectthenumerousCatilinesofthepresentday。Theydonotyetseethatthemovementsunchainedbytheirambitionsthreatentosubmergethem。AlltheseUtopianshaveawakenedimpossiblehopesinthemindofthecrowd，excitedtheirappetites，andsappedthedykeswhichhavebeenslowlyerectedduringthecenturiestorestrainthem。
　　Thestruggleoftheblindmultitudesagainsttheelectisoneofthecontinuousfactsofhistory，andthetriumphofpopularsovereigntieswithoutcounterpoisehasalreadymarkedtheendofmorethanonecivilisation。Theelectcreate，theplebsdestroys。Assoonasthefirstlosetheirholdthelatterbeginsitspreciouswork。
　　Thegreatcivilisationshaveonlyprosperedbydominatingtheirlowerelements。ItisnotonlyinGreecethatanarchy，dictatorship，invasion，and，finally，thelossofindependencehasresultedfromthedespotismofademocracy。Individualtyrannyisalwaysbornofcollectivetyranny。ItendedthefirstcycleofthegreatnessofRome；theBarbariansachievedthesecond。
　　CONCLUSIONS
　　Theprincipalrevolutionsofhistoryhavebeenstudiedinthisvolume。Butwehavedealtmoreespeciallywiththemostimportantofall——thatwhichformorethantwentyyearsoverwhelmedallEurope，andwhoseechoesarestilltobeheard。
　　TheFrenchRevolutionisaninexhaustiblemineofpsychologicaldocuments。Noperiodofthelifeofhumanityhaspresentedsuchamassofexperience，accumulatedinsoshortatime。
　　Oneachpageofthisgreatdramawehavefoundnumerousapplicationsoftheprinciplesexpoundedinmyvariousworks，concerningthetransitorymentalityofcrowdsandthepermanentsoulofthepeoples，theactionofbeliefs，theinfluenceofmystic，affective，andcollectiveelements，andtheconflictbetweenthevariousformsoflogic。
　　TheRevolutionaryAssembliesillustratealltheknownlawsofthepsychologyofcrowds。Impulsiveandtimid，theyaredominatedbyasmallnumberofleaders，andusuallyactinasensecontrarytothewishesoftheirindividualmembers。
　　TheRoyalistConstituentAssemblydestroyedanancientmonarchy；
　　thehumanitarianLegislativeAssemblyallowedthemassacresofSeptember。ThesamepacificbodyledFranceintothemostformidablecampaigns。
　　ThereweresimilarcontradictionsduringtheConvention。Theimmensemajorityofitsmembersabhorredviolence。Sentimentalphilosophers，theyexaltedequality，fraternity，andliberty，yetendedbyexertingthemostterribledespotism。
　　ThesamecontradictionswerevisibleduringtheDirectory。
　　Extremelymoderateintheirintentionsattheoutset，theAssemblieswerecontinuallyeffectingbloodthirstycoupsd’etat。Theywishedtore—establishreligiouspeace，andfinallysentthousandsofpriestsintoimprisonment。TheywishedtorepairtheruinswhichcoveredFrance，andonlysucceededinaddingtothem。
　　ThustherewasalwaysacompletecontradictionbetweentheindividualwillsofthemenoftherevolutionaryperiodandthedeedsoftheAssembliesofwhichtheywereunits。
　　Thetruthisthattheyobeyedinvisibleforcesofwhichtheywerenotthemasters。Believingthattheyactedinthenameofpurereason，theywerereallysubjecttomystic，affective，andcollectiveinfluences，incomprehensibletothem，andwhichweareonlyto—daybeginningtounderstand。
　　Intelligencehasprogressedinthecourseoftheages，andhasopenedamarvellousoutlooktoman，althoughhischaracter，therealfoundationofhismind，andthesuremotiveofhisactions，hasscarcelychanged。Overthrownonemoment，itreappearsthenext。Humannaturemustbeacceptedasitis。
　　ThefoundersoftheRevolutiondidnotresignthemselvestothefactsofhumannature。Forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofhumanitytheyattemptedtotransformmenandsocietyinthenameofreason。
　　Neverwasanyundertakingcommencedwithsuchchancesofsuccess。
　　Thetheorists，whoclaimedtoeffectit，hadapowerintheirhandsgreaterthanthatofanydespot。
　　Yet，despitethispower，despitethesuccessofthearmies，despiteDraconianlawsandrepeatedcoupsd’etat，theRevolutionmerelyheapedruinuponruin，andendedinadictatorship。
　　Suchanattemptwasnotuseless，sinceexperienceisnecessarytotheeducationofthepeoples。WithouttheRevolutionitwouldhavebeendifficulttoprovethatpurereasondoesnotenableustochangehumannature，and，consequently，thatnosocietycanberebuiltbythewilloflegislators，howeverabsolutetheirpower。