ToestablishsomesortofcompromisebetweentheancienregimeandthenewidealswasthemostdifficultoftheproblemswhichBonapartehadtoresolve。HehadtodiscoverinstitutionswhichwouldsuitthetwomentalitiesintowhichFrancewasdivided。Hesucceeded，aswehaveseen，byconciliatorymeasures，andalsobydressingveryancientthingsinnewnames。
　　HisreignwasoneofthoserareperiodsofFrenchhistoryduringwhichthementalunityofFrancewascomplete。
　　Thisunitycouldnotoutlivehim。Onthemorrowofhisfallalltheoldpartiesreappeared，andhavesurviveduntilthepresentday。Someattachthemselvestotraditionalinfluences；othersviolentlyrejectthem。
　　Ifthislongconflicthadbeenbetweenbelieversandtheindifferent，itcouldnothavelasted，forindifferenceisalwaystolerant；butthestrugglewasreallybetweentwodifferentbeliefs。ThelayChurchverysoonassumedareligiousaspect，anditspretendedrationalismhasbecome，especiallyinrecentyears，abarelyattenuatedformofthenarrowestclericalspirit。Now，wehaveshownthatnoconciliationispossiblebetweendissimilarreligiousbeliefs。Theclericalswheninpowercouldnotthereforeshowthemselvesmoretoleranttowardsfreethinkersthantheselatterareto—daytowardtheclericals。
　　Thesedivisions，determinedbydifferencesofbelief，werecomplicatedbytheadditionofthepoliticalconceptionsderivedfromthosebeliefs。
　　ManysimplesoulshaveforlongbelievedthattherealhistoryofFrancebeganwiththeyearI。oftheRepublic。Thisrudimentaryconceptionisatlastdyingout。Eventhemostrigidrevolutionariesrenounceit，[10]andarequitewillingtorecognisethatthepastwassomethingbetterthananepochofblackbarbarismdominatedbylowsuperstitions。
　　[10]WemayjudgeoftherecentevolutionofideasuponthispointbythefollowingpassagefromaspeechbyM。Jaures，deliveredintheChamberofDeputies：``Thegreatnessofto—dayisbuiltoftheeffortsofpastcenturies。Franceisnotcontainedinadaynorinanepoch，butinthesuccessionofalldays，allperiods，allhertwilightsandallherdawns。’’
　　ThereligiousoriginofmostofthepoliticalbeliefsheldinFranceinspirestheiradeptswithaninextinguishablehatredwhichalwaysstrikesforeignerswithamazement。
　　``Nothingismoreobvious，nothingismorecertain，’’writesMr。
　　Barret—Wendell，inhisbookonFrance，``thanthisfact：thatnotonlyhavetheroyalists，revolutionaries，andBonapartistsalwaysbeenmortallyopposedtooneanother，butthat，owingtothepassionateardouroftheFrenchcharacter，theyhavealwaysentertainedaprofoundintellectualhorrorforoneanother。Menwhobelievethemselvesinpossessionofthetruthcannotrefrainfromaffirmingthatthosewhodonotthinkwiththemareinstrumentsoferror。
　　``Eachpartywillgravelyinformyouthattheadvocatesoftheadversecauseareafflictedbyadensestupidityorareconsciouslydishonest。Yetwhenyoumeettheselatter，whowillsayexactlythesamethingsastheirdetractors，youcannotbutrecognise，inallgoodfaith，thattheyareneitherstupidnordishonest。’’
　　ThisreciprocalexecrationofthebelieversofeachpartyhasalwaysfacilitatedtheoverthrowofGovernmentsandministersinFrance。Thepartiesintheminoritywillneverrefusetoallythemselvesagainstthetriumphantparty。WeknowthatagreatnumberofrevolutionarySocialistshavebeenelectedtothepresentChamberonlybytheaidofthemonarchists，whoarestillasunintelligentastheywereatthetimeoftheRevolution。
　　OurreligiousandpoliticaldifferencesdonotconstitutetheonlycauseofdissensioninFrance。TheyareheldbymenpossessingthatparticularmentalitywhichIhavealreadydescribedunderthenameoftherevolutionarymentality。Wehaveseenthateachperiodalwayspresentsacertainnumberofindividualsreadytorevoltagainsttheestablishedorderofthings，whateverthatmaybe，eventhoughitmayrealisealltheirdesires。
　　TheintoleranceofthepartiesinFrance，andtheirdesiretoseizeuponpower，arefurtherfavouredbytheconviction，soprevalentundertheRevolution，thatsocietiescanberemadebymeansoflaws。ThemodernState，whateveritsleader，hasinheritedintheeyesofthemultitudesandtheirleadersthemysticpowerattributedtotheancientkings，whentheselatterwereregardedasanincarnationoftheDivinewill。NotonlythepeopleisinspiredbythisconfidenceinthepowerofGovernment；
　　allourlegislatorsentertainitalso。[11]
　　[11]Afterthepublicationofanarticleofmineconcerninglegislativeillusions，Ireceivedfromoneofourmosteminentpoliticians，M。Boudenotthesenator，aletterfromwhichI
　　extractthefollowingpassage：``TwentyyearspassedintheChamberandtheSenatehaveshownmehowrightyouare。HowmanytimesIhaveheardmycolleaguessay：`TheGovernmentoughttopreventthis，orderthat，’&c。Whatwouldyouhave？therearefourteencenturiesofmonarchicalatavisminourblood。’’
　　Legislatingalways，politiciansneverrealisethatasinstitutionsareeffects，andnotcauses，theyhavenovirtueinthemselves。Heirstothegreatrevolutionaryillusion，theydonotseethatmaniscreatedbyapastwhosefoundationswearepowerlesstoreshape。
　　TheconflictbetweentheprinciplesdividingFrance，whichhaslastedmorethanacentury，willdoubtlesscontinueforalongtimeyet，andnoonecanforeseewhatfreshupheavalsitmayengender。NodoubtifbeforeoureratheAthenianscouldhavedivinedthattheirsocialdissensionswouldhaveledtotheenslavementofGreece，theywouldhaverenouncedthem；buthowcouldtheyhaveforeseenasmuch？M。Guiraudjustlywrites：``A
　　generationofmenveryrarelyrealisesthetaskwhichitisaccomplishing。Itispreparingforthefuture；butthisfutureisoftenthecontraryofwhatitwishes。’’
　　2。SummaryofaCentury’sRevolutionaryMovementinFrance。
　　ThepsychologicalcausesoftherevolutionarymovementswhichFrancehasseenduringthepastcenturyhavingbeenexplained，itwillnowsufficetopresentasummarypictureofthesesuccessiverevolutions。
　　ThesovereignsincoalitionhavingdefeatedNapoleon，theyreducedFrancetoherformerlimits，andplacedLouisXVIII。，theonlypossiblesovereign，onthethrone。
　　Byaspecialcharterthenewkingacceptedthepositionofaconstitutionalmonarchunderarepresentativesystemofgovernment。HerecognisedalltheconquestsoftheRevolution：
　　thecivilCode，equalitybeforethelaw，libertyofworship，irrevocabilityofthesaleofnationalproperty，&c。Therightofsuffrage，however，waslimitedtothosepayingacertainamountintaxes。
　　ThisliberalConstitutionwasopposedbytheultra—royalists。
　　Returnedemigres，theywantedtherestitutionofthenationalproperty，andthere—establishmentoftheirancientprivileges。
　　Fearingthatsuchareactionmightcauseanewrevolution，LouisXVIII。wasreducedtodissolvingtheChamber。Theelectionhavingreturnedmoderatedeputies，hewasabletocontinuetogovernwiththesameprinciples，understandingverywellthatanyattempttogoverntheFrenchbytheancienregimewouldbeenoughtoprovokeageneralrebellion。
　　Unfortunately，hisdeath，in1824，placedCharlesX。，formerlyComted’Artois，onthethrone。Extremelynarrow，incapableofunderstandingthenewworldwhichsurroundedhim，andboastingthathehadnotmodifiedhisideassince1789，hepreparedaseriesofreactionarylaws——alawbywhichanindemnityoffortymillionssterlingwastobepaidtoemigres；alawofsacrilege；
　　andlawsestablishingtherightsofprimogeniture，thepreponderanceoftheclergy，&c。
　　Themajorityofthedeputiesshowingthemselvesdailymoreopposedtohisprojects，in1830heenactedOrdinancesdissolvingtheChamber，suppressingthelibertyofthePress，andpreparingfortherestorationoftheancienregime。
　　Theeffectwasimmediate。Thisautocraticactionprovokedacoalitionoftheleadersofallparties。Republicans，Bonapartists，Liberals，Royalists——allunitedinordertoraisetheParisianpopulace。FourdaysafterthepublicationoftheOrdinancestheinsurgentsweremastersofthecapital，andCharlesX。fledtoEngland。
　　Theleadersofthemovement——Thiers，Casimir—Perier，LaFayette，&c。——summonedtoParisLouis—Philippe，ofwhoseexistencethepeoplewerescarcelyaware，anddeclaredhimkingoftheFrench。
　　Betweentheindifferenceofthepeopleandthehostilityofthenobles，whohadremainedfaithfultothelegitimatedynasty，thenewkingreliedchieflyuponthebourgeoisie。Anelectorallawhavingreducedtheelectorstolessthan200，000，thisclassplayedanexclusivepartinthegovernment。
　　Thesituationofthesovereignwasnoteasy。HehadtostrugglesimultaneouslyagainstthelegitimistsupportersofHenryV。thegrandsonofCharlesX。，andtheBonapartists，whorecognisedastheirheadLouis—Napoleon，theEmperor’snephew，andfinallyagainsttherepublicans。
　　Bymeansoftheirsecretsocieties，analogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution，thelatterprovokednumerousriotsatvariousintervalsbetween1830and1840，butthesewereeasilyrepressed。
　　Theclericalsandlegitimists，ontheirside，didnotceasetheirintrigues。TheDuchessdeBerry，themotherofHenryV。，triedinvaintoraisetheVendee。Astotheclergy，theirdemandsfinallymadethemsointolerablethataninsurrectionbrokeout，inthecourseofwhichthepalaceofthearchbishopofPariswassacked。
　　Therepublicansasapartywerenotverydangerous，astheChambersidedwiththekinginthestruggleagainstthem。TheministerGuizot，whoadvocatedastrongcentralpower，declaredthattwothingswereindispensabletogovernment——``reasonandcannon。’’Thefamousstatesmanwassurelysomewhatdeludedastothenecessityorefficacyofreason。
　　Despitethisstrongcentralpower，whichinrealitywasnotstrong，therepublicans，andabovealltheSocialists，continuedtoagitate。Oneofthemostinfluential，LouisBlanc，claimedthatitwasthedutyoftheGovernmenttoprocureworkforeverycitizen。TheCatholicparty，ledbyLacordaireandMontalembert，unitedwiththeSocialists——asto—dayinBelgium——toopposetheGovernment。
　　Acampaigninfavourofelectoralreformendedin1848inafreshriot，whichunexpectedlyoverthrewLouis—Philippe。
　　HisfallwasfarlessjustifiablethanthatofCharlesX。Therewaslittlewithwhichhecouldbereproached。Doubtlesshewassuspiciousofuniversalsuffrage，buttheFrenchRevolutionhadmorethanoncebeenquitesuspiciousofit。Louis—Philippenotbeing，liketheDirectory，anabsoluteruler，couldnot，asthelatterhaddone，annulunfavourableelections。
　　AprovisionalGovernmentwasinstalledintheHoteldeVille，toreplacethefallenmonarchy。ItproclaimedtheRepublic，establisheduniversalsuffrage，anddecreedthatthepeopleshouldproceedtotheelectionofaNationalAssemblyofninehundredmembers。
　　FromthefirstdaysofitsexistencethenewGovernmentfounditselfthevictimofsocialisticmanoeuvresandriots。
　　ThepsychologicalphenomenaobservedduringthefirstRevolutionwerenowtobewitnessedagain。Clubswereformed，whoseleaderssentthepeoplefromtimetotimeagainsttheAssembly，forreasonswhichweregenerallyquitedevoidofcommonsense——forexample，toforcetheGovernmenttosupportaninsurrectioninPoland，&c。
　　InthehopeofsatisfyingtheSocialists，everydaymorenoisyandexigent，theAssemblyorganisednationalworkshops，inwhichtheworkerswereoccupiedinvariousformsoflabour。Inthese100，000mencosttheStatemorethanL40，000weekly。TheirclaimtoreceivepaywithoutworkingforitforcedtheAssemblytoclosetheworkshops。
　　Thismeasurewastheoriginofaformidableinsurrection，50，000
　　workersrevolting。TheAssembly，terrified，confidedalltheexecutivepowerstoGeneralCavaignac。Therewasafour—daysbattlewiththeinsurgents，duringwhichthreegeneralsandtheArchbishopofPariswerekilled；3，000prisonersweredeportedbytheAssemblytoAlgeria，andrevolutionarySocialismwasannihilatedforaspaceoffiftyyears。
　　TheseeventsbroughtGovernmentstockdownfrom116to50francs。
　　Businesswasatastandstill。Thepeasants，whothoughtthemselvesthreatenedbytheSocialists，andthebourgeois，whosetaxestheAssemblyhadincreasedbyhalf，turnedagainsttheRepublic，andwhenLouis—Napoleonpromisedtore—establishorderhefoundhimselfwelcomedwithenthusiasm。AcandidateforthepositionofPresidentoftheRepublic，whoaccordingtothenewConstitutionmustbeelectedbythewholebodyofcitizens，hewaschosenby5，500，000votes。
　　VerysoonatoddswiththeChamber，theprincedecidedonacoupd’etat。TheAssemblywasdissolved；30，000personswerearrested，10，000deported，andahundreddeputieswereexiled。
　　Thiscoupd’etat，althoughsummary，wasveryfavourablyreceived，forwhensubmittedtoaplebisciteitreceived7，500，000votesoutof8，000，000。
　　Onthe2ndofNovember，1852，NapoleonhadhimselfnamedEmperorbyanevengreatermajority：ThehorrorwhichthegeneralityofFrenchmenfeltfordemagoguesandSocialistshadrestoredtheEmpire。
　　InthefirstpartofitsexistenceitconstitutedanabsoluteGovernment，andduringthelatterhalfaliberalGovernment。
　　AftereighteenyearsofruletheEmperorwasoverthrownbytherevolutionofthe4thofSeptember，1870，afterthecapitulationofSedan。
　　Sincethattimerevolutionarymovementshavebeenrare；theonlyoneofimportancewastherevolutionofMarch，1871，whichresultedintheburningofmanyofthemonumentsofParisandtheexecutionofabout20，000insurgents。
　　Afterthewarof1870theelectors，who，amidsomanydisasters，didnotknowwhichwaytoturn，sentagreatnumberofOrleanistandlegitimistdeputiestotheConstituentAssembly。Unabletoagreeupontheestablishmentofamonarchy，theyappointedM。
　　ThiersPresidentoftheRepublic，laterreplacinghimbyMarshalMacMahon。In1876thenewelections，likeallthosethathavefollowed，sentamajorityofrepublicanstotheChamber。
　　Thevariousassemblieswhichhavesucceededtothishavealwaysbeendividedintonumerousparties，whichhaveprovokedinnumerablechangesofministry。
　　However，thankstotheequilibriumresultingfromthisdivisionofparties，wehaveforfortyyearsenjoyedcomparativequiet。
　　FourPresidentsoftheRepublichavebeenoverthrownwithoutrevolution，andtheriotsthathaveoccurred，suchasthoseofChampagneandtheMidi，havenothadseriousconsequences。
　　Agreatpopularmovement，in1888，didnearlyoverthrowtheRepublicforthebenefitofGeneralBoulanger，butithassurvivedandtriumphedovertheattacksofallparties。
　　VariousreasonscontributetothemaintenanceofthepresentRepublic。Inthefirstplace，oftheconflictingfactionsnoneisstrongenoughtocrushtherest。Inthesecondplace，theheadoftheStatebeingpurelydecorative，andpossessingnopower，itisimpossibletoattributetohimtheevilsfromwhichthecountrymaysuffer，andtofeelsurethatmatterswouldbedifferentwereheoverthrown。Finally，asthesupremepowerisdistributedamongthousandsofhands，responsibilitiesaresodisseminatedthatitwouldbedifficulttoknowwheretobegin。
　　Atyrantcanbeoverthrown，butwhatcanbedoneagainstahostoflittleanonymoustyrannies？
　　IfwewishedtosumupinawordthegreattransformationswhichhavebeeneffectedinFrancebyacenturyofriotsandrevolutions，wemightsaythatindividualtyranny，whichwasweakandthereforeeasilyoverthrown，hasbeenreplacedbycollectivetyrannies，whichareverystronganddifficulttodestroy。ToapeopleavidofequalityandhabituatedtoholditsGovernmentsresponsibleforeveryeventindividualtyrannyseemedinsupportable，whileacollectivetyrannyisreadilyendured，althoughgenerallymuchmoresevere。
　　TheextensionofthetyrannyoftheStatehasthereforebeenthefinalresultofallourrevolutions，andthecommoncharacteristicofallsystemsofgovernmentwhichwehaveknowninFrance。Thisformoftyrannymayberegardedasaracialideal，sincesuccessiveupheavalsofFrancehaveonlyfortifiedit。StatismistherealpoliticalsystemoftheLatinpeoples，andtheonlysystemthatreceivesallsuffrages。Theotherformsofgovernment——republic，monarchy，empire——representemptylabels，powerlessshadows。
　　PARTIII
　　THERECENTEVOLUTIONOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLES
　　CHAPTERI
　　THEPROGRESSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEFSSINCETHEREVOLUTION
　　1。GradualPropagationofDemocraticIdeasaftertheRevolution。
　　Ideaswhicharefirmlyestablished，incrusted，asitwere，inmen’sminds，continuetoactforseveralgenerations。ThosewhichresultedfromtheFrenchRevolutionwere，likeothers，subjecttothislaw。
　　AlthoughthelifeoftheRevolutionasaGovernmentwasshort，theinfluenceofitsprincipleswas，onthecontrary，verylong—
　　lived。Becomingaformofreligiousbelief，theyprofoundlymodifiedtheorientationofthesentimentsandideasofseveralgenerations。
　　Despiteafewintervals，theFrenchRevolutionhascontinueduptothepresent，andstillsurvives。TheroleofNapoleonwasnotconfinedtooverturningtheworld，changingthemapofEurope，andremakingtheexploitsofAlexander。Thenewrightsofthepeople，createdbytheRevolutionandestablishedbyitsinstitutions，haveexercisedaprofoundinfluence。Themilitaryworkoftheconquerorwassoondissolved，buttherevolutionaryprincipleswhichhecontributedtopropagatehavesurvivedhim。
　　ThevariousrestorationswhichfollowedtheEmpirecausedmenatfirsttobecomesomewhatforgetfuloftheprinciplesoftheRevolution。Forfiftyyearsthispropagationwasfarfromrapid。
　　Onemightalmosthavesupposedthatthepeoplehadforgottenthem。Onlyasmallnumberoftheoristsmaintainedtheirinfluence。Heirstothe``simplicist’’spiritoftheJacobins，believing，likethem，thatsocietiescanberemadefromtoptobottombythelaws，andpersuadedthattheEmpirehadonlyinterruptedthetaskofrevolution，theywishedtoresumeit。
　　Whilewaitinguntiltheycouldrecommence，theyattemptedtospreadtheprinciplesoftheRevolutionbymeansoftheirwritings。FaithfulimitatorsofthemenoftheRevolution，theyneverstoppedtoaskiftheirschemesforreformwereinconformitywithhumannature。Theytoowereerectingachimericalsocietyforanidealman，andwerepersuadedthattheapplicationoftheirdreamswouldregeneratethehumanspecies。
　　Deprivedofallconstructivepower，thetheoristsofalltheageshavealwaysbeenveryreadytodestroy。NapoleonatSt。Helenastatedthat``ifthereexistedamonarchyofgranitetheidealistsandtheoristswouldmanagetoreduceittopowder。’’
　　AmongthegalaxyofdreamerssuchasSaint—Simon，Fourier，PierreLeroux，LouisBlanc，Quinet，&c。，wefindthatonlyAugusteComteunderstoodthatatransformationofmannersandideasmustprecedepoliticalreorganisation。
　　Farfromfavouringthediffusionofdemocraticideas，theprojectsofreformofthetheoristsofthisperiodmerelyimpededtheirprogress。CommunisticSocialism，whichseveralofthemprofessedwouldrestoretheRevolution，finallyalarmedthebourgeoisieandeventheworking—classes。WehavealreadyseenthatthefearoftheirideaswasoneoftheprincipalcausesoftherestorationoftheEmpire。
　　Ifnoneofthechimericallucubrationsofthewritersofthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturydeservetobediscussed，itisnonethelessinterestingtoexaminetheminordertoobservethepartplayedbyreligiousandmoralideaswhichto—dayareregardedwithcontempt。Persuadedthatanewsocietycouldnot，anymorethanthesocietiesofold，bebuiltupwithoutreligiousandmoralbeliefs，thereformerswerealwaysendeavouringtofoundsuchbeliefs。
　　Butonwhatcouldtheybebased？Evidentlyonreason。Bymeansofreasonmencreatecomplicatedmachines：whynotthereforeareligionandamorality，thingswhichareapparentlysosimple？
　　Notoneofthemsuspectedthefactthatnoreligiousormoralbeliefeverhadrationallogicasitsbasis。AugusteComtesawnomoreclearly。Weknowthathefoundedaso—calledpositivistreligion，whichstillhasafewfollowers。ScientistsweretoformaclergydirectedbyanewPope，whowastoreplacetheCatholicPope。
　　Alltheseconceptions——political，religious，ormoral——had，I
　　repeat，nootherresultsforalongtimethantoturnthemultitudeawayfromdemocraticprinciples。
　　Iftheseprinciplesdidfinallybecomewidespread，itwasnotonaccountofthetheorists，butbecausenewconditionsoflifehadarisen。Thankstothediscoveriesofscience，industrydevelopedandledtotheerectionofimmensefactories。EconomicnecessitiesincreasinglydominatedthewillsofGovernmentsandthepeopleandfinallycreatedafavourablesoilfortheextensionofSocialism，andaboveallofSyndicalism，themodernformsofdemocraticideas。
　　2。TheUnequalInfluenceoftheThreeFundamentalPrinciplesoftheRevolution。
　　TheheritageoftheRevolutionissummedupinitsentiretyintheonephrase——Liberty，equality，andFraternity。Theprincipleofequality，aswehaveseen，hasexertedapowerfulinfluence，butthetwoothersdidnotshareitslot。
　　Althoughthesenseofthesetermsseemsclearenough，theywerecomprehendedinverydifferentfashionsaccordingtomenandtimes。Weknowthatthevariousinterpretationofthesamewordsbypersonsofdifferentmentalityhasbeenoneofthemostfrequentcausesoftheconflictsofhistory。
　　TothememberoftheConventionlibertysignifiedmerelytheexerciseofitsunlimiteddespotism。Toayoungmodern``intellectual’’thesamewordmeansageneralreleasefromeverythingirksome：tradition，law，superiority，&c。TothemodernJacobinlibertyconsistsespeciallyintherighttopersecutehisadversaries。
　　Althoughpoliticaloratorsstilloccasionallymentionlibertyintheirspeeches，theyhavegenerallyceasedtoevokefraternity。
　　Itistheconflictofthedifferentclassesandnottheiralliancethattheyteachto—day。Neverdidamoreprofoundhatreddividethevariousstrataofsocietyandthepoliticalpartieswhichleadthem。
　　Butwhilelibertyhasbecomeverydoubtfulandfraternityhascompletelyvanished，theprincipleofequalityhasgrownunchecked。IthasbeensupremeinallthepoliticalupheavalsofwhichFrancehasbeenthestageduringthelastcentury，andhasreachedsuchadevelopmentthatourpoliticalandsociallife，ourlaws，manners，andcustomsareatleastintheorybasedonthisprinciple。ItconstitutesthereallegacyoftheRevolution。Thecravingforequality，notonlybeforethelaw，butinpositionandfortune，istheverypivotofthelastproductofdemocracy：Socialism。Thiscravingissopowerfulthatitisspreadinginalldirections，althoughincontradictionwithallbiologicalandeconomiclaws。Itisanewphaseoftheinterruptedstruggleofthesentimentsagainstreason，inwhichreasonsorarelytriumphs。
　　2。TheDemocracyofthe``Intellectuals’’andPopularDemocracy。
　　Allideasthathavehithertocausedanupheavaloftheworldofmenhavebeensubjecttotwolaws：theyevolveslowly，andtheycompletelychangetheirsenseaccordingtothementalitiesinwhichtheyfindreception。
　　Adoctrinemaybecomparedtoalivingbeing。Itsubsistsonlybyprocessoftransformation。Thebooksarenecessarilysilentuponthesevariations，sothatthephaseofthingswhichtheyestablishbelongsonlytothepast。Theydonotreflecttheimageoftheliving，butofthedead。Thewrittenstatementofadoctrineoftenrepresentsthemostnegligiblesideofthatdoctrine。
　　Ihaveshowninanotherworkhowinstitutions，arts，andlanguagesaremodifiedinpassingfromonepeopletoanother，andhowthelawsofthesetransformationsdifferfromthetruthasstatedinbooks。Ialludetothismatternowmerelytoshowwhy，inexaminingthesubjectofdemocraticideas，weoccupyourselvessolittlewiththetextofdoctrines，andseekonlyforthepsychologicalelementsofwhichtheyconstitutethevestment，andthereactionswhichtheyprovokeinthevariouscategoriesofmenwhohaveacceptedthem。
　　Modifiedrapidlybymenofdifferentmentalities，theoriginaltheoryissoonnomorethanalabelwhichdenotessomethingquiteunlikeitself。
　　Applicabletoreligiousbeliefs，theseprinciplesareequallysotopoliticalbeliefs。Whenamanspeaksofdemocracy，forexample，mustweinquirewhatthiswordmeanstovariouspeoples，andalsowhetherinthesamepeoplethereisnotagreatdifferencebetweenthedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’andpopulardemocracy。
　　Inconfiningourselvesnowtotheconsiderationofthislatterpointweshallreadilyperceivethatthedemocraticideastobefoundinbooksandjournalsarepurelythetheoriesofliterarypeople，ofwhichthepeopleknownothing，andbytheapplicationofwhichtheywouldhavenothingtogain。Althoughtheworking—