ToassureitselfofdominationintheprovincestheDirectorycausedaso—calledlawofhostagestobepassed，accordingtowhichalistofhostages，responsibleforalloffences，wasdrawnupineachcommune。
　　Itiseasytounderstandwhathatredsuchasystemprovoked。Attheendof1799fourteendepartmentswereinrevoltandforty—sixwerereadytorise。IftheDirectoryhadlastedthedissolutionofsocietywouldhavebeencomplete。
　　Forthatmatter，thisdissolutionwasfaradvanced。Finances，administration，everythingwascrumbling。ThereceiptsoftheTreasury，consistingofdepreciatedassignatsfallentoahundredthpartoftheiroriginalvalue，werenegligible。HoldersofGovernmentstockandofficerscouldnolongerobtainpayment。
　　Franceatthistimegavetravellerstheimpressionofacountryravagedbywarandabandonedbyitsinhabitants。Thebrokenbridgesanddykesandruinedbuildingsmadealltrafficimpossible。Theroads，longdeserted，wereinfestedbybrigands。
　　Certaindepartmentscouldonlybecrossedatthepriceofbuyingasafe—conductfromtheleadersofthesebands。Industryandcommercewereannihilated。InLyons13，000workshopsandmillsoutof15，000hadbeenforcedtoclose。Lille，Havre，Bordeaux，Lyons，Marseilles，&c。，werelikedeadcities。Povertyandfamineweregeneral。
　　Themoraldisorganisationwasnolessterrible。Luxuryandthecravingforpleasure，costlydinners，jewels，andextravaganthouseholdsweretheappanageofanewsocietycomposedentirelyofstock—jobbers，armycontractors，andshadyfinanciersenrichedbypillage。TheygaveParisthatsuperficialaspectofluxuryandgaietywhichhasdeludedsomanyhistoriansofthisperiod，becausetheinsolentprodigalitydisplayedcoveredthegeneralmisery。
　　ThechroniclesoftheDirectoryastoldinbookshelptoshowusofwhatliesthewebofhistoryiswoven。Thetheatrehaslatelygotholdofthisperiod，ofwhichthefashionsarestillimitated。Ithasleftthememoryofajoyousperiodofre—birthafterthegloomydramaoftheTerror。InrealitythedramaoftheDirectorywashardlyanimprovementontheTerrorandwasquiteassanguinary。Finally，itinspiredsuchloathingthattheDirectors，feelingthatitcouldnotlast，soughtthemselvesforthedictatorcapableofreplacingitandalsoofprotectingthem。
　　3。TheAdventofBonaparte。
　　WehaveseenthatattheendoftheDirectorytheanarchyanddisorganisationweresuchthateveryonewasdesperatelycallingforthemanofenergycapableofre—establishingorder。Asearlyas1795anumberofdeputieshadthoughtforamomentofre—
　　establishingroyalty。LouisXVIII。，havingbeentactlessenoughtodeclarethathewouldrestoretheancienregimeinitsentirety，returnallpropertytoitsoriginalowners，andpunishthemenoftheRevolution，wasimmediatelythrownover。
　　ThesenselessexpeditionofQuiberonfinallyalienatedthesupportersofthefuturesovereign。TheroyalistsgaveaproofduringthewholeoftheRevolutionofanincapacityandanarrownessofmindwhichjustifiedmostofthemeasurestakenagainstthem。
　　Themonarchybeingimpossible，itwasnecessarytofindageneral。Onlyoneexistedwhosenamecarriedweight——Bonaparte。
　　ThecampaigninItalyhadjustmadehimfamous。HavingcrossedtheAlps，hehadmarchedfromvictorytovictory，penetratedtoMilanandVenice，andeverywhereobtainedimportantwarcontributions。HethenmadetowardsVienna，andwasonlytwenty—
　　fiveleaguesfromitsgateswhentheEmperorofAustriadecidedtosueforpeace。
　　Butgreataswashisrenown，theyounggeneraldidnotconsideritsufficient。ToincreaseithepersuadedtheDirectorythatthepowerofEnglandcouldbeshakenbyaninvasionofEgypt，andinMay，1798，heembarkedatToulon。
　　ThisneedofincreasinghisprestigearosefromaverysoundpsychologicalconceptionwhichheclearlyexpoundedatSt。
　　Helena：——
　　``ThemostinfluentialandenlightenedgeneralshadlongbeenpressingthegeneralofItalytotakestepstoplacehimselfattheheadoftheRepublic。Herefused；hewasnotyetstrongenoughtowalkquitealone。HehadideasupontheartofgoverninganduponwhatwasnecessarytoagreatnationwhichweresodifferentfromthoseofthemenoftheRevolutionandtheassembliesthat，notbeingabletoactalone，hefearedtocompromisehischaracter。HedeterminedtosetoutforEgypt，butresolvedtoreappearifcircumstancesshouldarisetorenderhispresenceusefulornecessary。’’
　　BonapartedidnotstaylonginEgypt。Recalledbyhisfriends，helandedatFrejus，andtheannouncementofhisreturnprovokeduniversalenthusiasm。Therewereilluminationseverywhere。
　　Francecollaboratedinadvanceinthecoupd’etatpreparedbytwoDirectorsandtheprincipalministers。Theplotwasorganisedinthreeweeks。Itsexecutiononthe18thofBrumairewasaccomplishedwiththegreatestease。
　　Allpartiesexperiencedthegreatestdelightatbeingridofthesinistergangswhohadsolongoppressedandexploitedthecountry。TheFrenchweredoubtlessabouttoenteruponadespoticsystemofgovernment，butitcouldnotbesointolerableasthatwhichhadbeenenduredforsomanyyears。
　　Thehistoryofthecoupd’etatofBrumairejustifiesallthatwehavealreadysaidoftheimpossibilityofformingexactjudgmentsofeventswhichapparentlyarefullyunderstoodandattestedbynomatterhowmanywitnesses。
　　WeknowwhatideaspeoplehadthirtyyearsagoconcerningthecoupofBrumaire。Itwasregardedasacrimecommittedbytheambitionofamanwhowassupportedbyhisarmy。Asamatteroffactthearmyplayednopartwhateverintheaffair。Thelittlebodyofmenwhoexpelledthefewrecalcitrantdeputieswerenotsoldierseven，butthegendarmesoftheAssemblyitself。Thetrueauthorofthecoupd’etatwastheGovernmentitself，withthecomplicityofallFrance。
　　4。CausesoftheDurationoftheRevolution。
　　IfwelimittheRevolutiontothetimenecessaryfortheconquestofitsfundamentalprinciples——equalitybeforethelaw，freeaccesstopublicfunctions，popularsovereignty，controlofexpenditures，&c。——wemaysaythatitlastedonlyafewmonths。
　　Towardsthemiddleof1789allthiswasaccomplished，andduringtheyearsthatfollowednothingwasaddedtoit，yettheRevolutionlastedmuchlonger。
　　Confiningthedurationtothedatesadmittedbytheofficialhistorians，weseeitpersistinguntiltheadventofBonaparte，aspaceofsometenyears。
　　Whydidthisperiodofdisorganisationandviolencefollowtheestablishmentofthenewprinciples？Weneednotseekthecauseintheforeignwar，whichmightonseveraloccasionshavebeenterminated，thankstothedivisionsofthealliesandtheconstantvictoriesoftheFrench；neithermustwelookforitinthesympathyofFrenchmenfortherevolutionaryGovernment。
　　NeverwasrulemorecordiallyhatedanddespisedthanthatoftheAssemblies。Byitsrevoltsaswellasbyitsrepeatedvotesagreatpartofthenationdisplayedthehorrorwithwhichitregardedthesystem。
　　Thislastpoint，theaversionofFrancefortherevolutionaryregime，solongmisunderstood，hasbeenwelldisplayedbyrecenthistorians。TheauthorofthelastbookpublishedontheRevolution，M。Madelin，haswellsummarisedtheiropinioninthefollowingwords：——
　　``Asearlyas1793apartybynomeansnumeroushadseizeduponFrance，theRevolution，andtheRepublic。Now，three—quartersofFrancelongedfortheRevolutiontobechecked，orratherdeliveredfromitsodiousexploiters；buttheseheldtheunhappycountrybyathousandmeans……AstheTerrorwasessentialtothemiftheyweretorule，theystruckatwhomsoeverseemedatanygivenmomenttobeopposedtotheTerror，weretheythebestservantsoftheRevolution。’’
　　UptotheendoftheDirectorythegovernmentwasexercisedbyJacobins，whomerelydesiredtoretain，alongwiththesupremepower，therichestheyhadaccumulatedbymurderandpillage，andwerereadytosurrenderFrancetoanyonewhowouldguaranteethemfreepossessionofthese。Thattheynegotiatedthecoupd’etatofBrumairewithNapoleonwassimplytothefactthattheyhadnotbeenabletorealisetheirwisheswithregardtoLouisXVIII。
　　ButhowexplainthefactthataGovernmentsotyrannicalandsodishonouredwasabletosurviveforsomanyyears？
　　Itwasnotmerelybecausetherevolutionaryreligionstillsurvivedinmen’sminds，norbecauseitwasforcedonthembymeansofpersecutionandbloodshed，butespecially，asIhavealreadystated，onaccountofthegreatinterestwhichalargeportionofthepopulationhadinmaintainingit。
　　Thispointisfundamental。IftheRevolutionhadremainedatheoreticalreligion，itwouldprobablyhavebeenofshortduration。Butthebeliefwhichhadjustbeenfoundedveryquicklyemergedfromthedomainofpuretheory。
　　TheRevolutiondidnotconfineitselftodespoilingthemonarchy，thenobility，andtheclergyoftheirpowersofgovernment。Inthrowingintothehandsofthebourgeoisieandthelargenumbersofpeasantrythewealthandtheemploymentsoftheoldprivilegedclassesithadatthesamestroketurnedthemintoobstinatesupportersoftherevolutionarysystem。Allthosewhohadacquiredthepropertyofwhichthenoblesandclergyhadbeendespoiledhadobtainedlandsandchateauxatlowprices，andwereterrifiedlesttherestorationofthemonarchyshouldforcethemtomakegeneralrestitution。
　　ItwaslargelyforthesereasonsthataGovernmentwhich，atanynormalperiod，wouldneverhavebeenendured，wasabletosurviveuntilamastershouldre—establishorder，whilepromisingtomaintainnotonlythemoralbutalsothematerialconquestsoftheRevolution。Bonaparterealisedtheseanxieties，andwaspromptlyandenthusiasticallywelcomed。Materialconquestswhichwerestillcontestableandtheoreticalprincipleswhichwerestillfragilewerebyhimincorporatedininstitutionsandthelaws。ItisanerrortosaythattheRevolutionterminatedwithhisadvent。Farfromdestroyingit，heratifiedandconsolidatedit。
　　CHAPTERII
　　THERESTORATIONOFORDER。THECONSULARREPUBLIC
　　1。HowtheWorkoftheRevolutionwasConfirmedbytheConsulate。
　　ThehistoryoftheConsulateisasrichastheprecedingperiodinpsychologicalmaterial。Inthefirstplaceitshowsusthattheworkofapowerfulindividualissuperiortothatofacollectivity。BonaparteimmediatelyreplacedthebloodyanarchyinwhichtheRepublichadfortenyearsbeenwrithingbyaperiodoforder。ThatwhichnoneofthefourAssembliesoftheRevolutionhadbeenabletorealise，despitethemostviolentoppression，asinglemanaccomplishedinaveryshortspaceoftime。
　　HisauthorityimmediatelyputanendtoalltheParisianinsurrectionsandtheattemptsatmonarchicalresistance，andre—
　　establishedthemoralunityofFrance，soprofoundlydividedbyintensehatreds。Bonapartereplacedanunorganisedcollectivedespotismbyaperfectlyorganisedindividualdespotism。
　　Everyonegainedthereby，forhistyrannywasinfinitelylessheavythanthatwhichhadbeenenduredfortenlongyears。Wemustsuppose，moreover，thatitwasunwelcometoveryfew，asitwasverysoonacceptedwithimmenseenthusiasm。
　　Weknowbetterto—daythantorepeatwiththeoldhistoriansthatBonaparteoverthrewtheRepublic。Onthecontrary，heretainedofitallthatcouldberetained，andneverwouldhavebeenretainedwithouthim，byestablishingallthepracticableworkoftheRevolution——theabolitionofprivileges，equalitybeforethelaw，&c。——ininstitutionsandcodesoflaw。TheConsularGovernmentcontinued，moreover，tocallitselftheRepublic。
　　ItisinfinitelyprobablethatwithouttheConsulateamonarchicalrestorationwouldhaveterminatedtheDirectory，andwouldhavewipedoutthegreaterpartoftheworkoftheRevolution。LetussupposeBonaparteerasedfromhistory。Noone，Ithink，willimaginethattheDirectorycouldhavesurvivedtheuniversalwearinessofitsrule。Itwouldcertainlyhavebeenoverturnedbytheroyalistconspiracieswhichwerebreakingoutdaily，andLouisXVIII。wouldprobablyhaveascendedthethrone。Certainlyhewastomountitsixteenyearslater，butduringthisintervalBonapartegavesuchforcetotheprinciplesoftheRevolution，byestablishingtheminlawsandcustoms，thattherestoredsovereigndarednottouchthem，norrestorethepropertyofthereturnedemigres。
　　MatterswouldhavebeenverydifferenthadLouisXVIII。
　　immediatelyfollowedtheDirectory。Hewouldhavebroughtwithhimalltheabsolutismoftheancienregime，andfreshrevolutionswouldhavebeennecessarytoabolishit。WeknowthatamereattempttoreturntothepastoverthrewCharlesX。
　　ItwouldbealittleingenuoustocomplainofthetyrannyofBonaparte。UndertheancienregimeFrenchmenhadsupportedeveryspeciesoftyranny，andtheRepublichadcreatedadespotismevenheavierthanthatofthemonarchy。Despotismwasthenanormalcondition，whicharousednoprotestsavewhenitwasaccompaniedbydisorder。
　　Aconstantlawofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowsthemascreatinganarchy，andthenseekingthemasterwhowillenablethemtoemergetherefrom。Bonapartewasthismaster。
　　2。TheReorganisationofFrancebytheConsulate。
　　UponassumingpowerBonaparteundertookacolossaltask。Allwasinruins；allwastoberebuilt。OnthemorrowofthecoupofBrumairehedrafted，almostsingle—handed，theConstitutiondestinedtogivehimtheabsolutepowerwhichwastoenablehimtoreorganisethecountryandtoprevailoverthefactions。Inamonthitwascompleted。
　　ThisConstitution，knownasthatoftheyearVIII。，survived，withslightmodifications，untiltheendofhisreign。TheexecutivepowerwastheattributeofthreeConsuls，twoofwhompossessedaconsultativevoiceonly。ThefirstConsul，Bonaparte，wasthereforesolemasterofFrance。Heappointedministers，councillorsofstate，ambassadors，magistrates，andotherofficials，anddecideduponpeaceorwar。Thelegislativepowerwashisalso，sinceonlyhecouldinitiatethelaws，whichweresubsequentlysubmittedtothreeAssemblies——theCouncilofState，theTribunate，andtheLegislativeCorps。AfourthAssembly，theSenate，actedeffectuallyastheguardianoftheConstitution。
　　Despoticashewasandbecame，BonapartealwayscalledtheotherConsulsabouthimbeforeproceedingwiththemosttrivialmeasure。TheLegislativeCorpsdidnotexercisemuchinfluenceduringhisreign，buthesignednodecreesofanykindwithoutfirstdiscussingthemwiththeCouncilofState。ThisCouncil，composedofthemostenlightenedandlearnedmenofFrance，preparedlaws，whichwerethenpresentedtotheLegislativeCorps，whichcouldcriticisethemveryfreely，sincevotingwassecret。PresidedoverbyBonaparte，theCouncilofStatewasakindofsovereigntribunal，judgingeventheactionsofministers。[9]
　　[9]NapoleonnaturallyoftenoverruledtheCouncilofState，butbynomeansalwaysdidso。Inoneinstance，reportedintheMemorialdeSainte—Helene，hewastheonlyoneofhisownopinion，andacceptedthatofthemajorityinthefollowingterms：``Gentlemen，mattersaredecidedherebymajority，andbeingalone，Imustgiveway；butIdeclarethatinmyconscienceIyieldonlytoform。Youhavereducedmetosilence，butinnowayconvincedme。’’
　　AnotherdaytheEmperor，interruptedthreetimesintheexpressionofhisopinion，addressedhimselftothespeakerwhohadjustinterruptedhim：``Sir，Ihavenotyetfinished；Ibegyoutoallowmetocontinue。Afterall，itseemstomethateveryonehasaperfectrighttoexpresshisopinionhere。’’
　　``TheEmperor，contrarytotheacceptedopinion，wassofarfromabsolute，andsoeasywithhisCouncilofState，thatheoftenresumedadiscussion，orevenannulledadecision，becauseoneofthemembersoftheCouncilhadsince，inprivate，givenhimfreshreasons，orhadurgedthattheEmperor’spersonalopinionhadinfluencedthemajority。’’
　　ThenewmasterhadgreatconfidenceinthisCouncil，asitwascomposedmoreparticularlyofeminentjurists，eachofwhomdealtwithhisownspeciality。Hewastoogoodapsychologistnottoentertainthegreatestsuspicionoflargeandincompetentassembliesofpopularorigin，whosedisastrousresultshadbeenobvioustohimduringthewholeoftheRevolution。
　　Wishingtogovernforthepeople，butneverwithitsassistance，Bonaparteaccordeditnopartinthegovernment，reservingtoitonlytherightofvoting，onceforall，fororagainsttheadoptionofthenewConstitution。Heonlyinrareinstanceshadrecoursetouniversalsuffrage。ThemembersoftheLegislativeCorpsrecruitedthemselves，andwerenotelectedbythepeople。
　　IncreatingaConstitutionintendedsolelytofortifyhisownpower，theFirstConsulhadnoillusionthatitwouldservetorestorethecountry。Consequently，whilehewasdraftingithealsoundertooktheenormoustaskoftheadministrative，judicial，andfinancialreorganisationofFrance。ThevariouspowerswerecentralisedinParis。Eachdepartmentwasdirectedbyaprefect，assistedbyaconsul—general；thearrondissementbyasub—
　　prefect，assistedbyacouncil；thecommunebyamayor，assistedbyamunicipalcouncil。Allwereappointedbytheministers，andnotbyelection，asundertheRepublic。
　　Thissystem，whichcreatedtheomnipotentStateandapowerfulcentralisation，wasretainedbyallsubsequentGovernmentsandispreservedto—day。Centralisationbeing，inspiteofitsdrawbacks，theonlymeansofavoidinglocaltyranniesinacountryprofoundlydividedwithinitself，hasalwaysbeenmaintained。
　　Thisorganisation，basedonaprofoundknowledgeofthesouloftheFrenchpeople，immediatelyrestoredthattranquillityandorderwhichhadforsolongbeenunknown。
　　Tocompletethementalpacificationofthecountry，thepoliticalexileswererecalledandthechurchesrestoredtothefaithful。
　　Continuingtorebuildthesocialedifice，Bonapartebusiedhimselfalsowiththedraftingofacode，thegreaterpartofwhichconsistedofcustomsborrowedfromtheancienregime。
　　Itwas，ashasbeensaid，asortoftransitionorcompromisebetweentheoldlawandthenew。
　　ConsideringtheenormoustaskaccomplishedbytheFirstConsulinsoshortatime，werealisethathehadneed，beforeall，ofaConstitutionaccordinghimabsolutepower。IfallthemeasuresbywhichherestoredFrancehadbeensubmittedtoassembliesofattorneys，hecouldneverhaveextricatedthecountryfromthedisorderintowhichithadfallen。
　　TheConstitutionoftheyearVIII。obviouslytransformedtheRepublicintoamonarchyatleastasabsoluteasthe``Divineright’’monarchyofLouisXIV。BeingtheonlyConstitutionadaptedtotheneedsofthemoment，itrepresentedapsychologicalnecessity。
　　3。PsychologicalElementswhichdeterminedtheSuccessoftheWorkoftheConsulate。
　　Alltheexternalforceswhichactuponmen——economic，historical，geographical，&c。——maybefinallytranslatedintopsychologicalforces。Thesepsychologicalforcesarulermustunderstandinordertogovern。TheRevolutionaryAssemblieswerecompletelyignorantofthem；Bonaparteknewhowtoemploythem。
　　ThevariousAssemblies，theConventionnotably，werecomposedofconflictingparties。Napoleonunderstoodthattodominatethemhemustnotbelongtoanyoneoftheseparties。Verywellawarethatthevalueofacountryisdisseminatedamongthesuperiorintelligencesofthevariousparties，hetriedtoutilisethemall。Hisagentsofgovernment——ministers，priests，magistrates，&c。——weretakenindifferentlyfromamongtheLiberals，Royalists，Jacobites，&c。，havingregardonlytotheircapacities。
　　Whileacceptingtheassistanceofmenoftheancienregime，BonapartetookcaretomakeitunderstoodthatheintendedtomaintainthefundamentalprinciplesoftheRevolution。
　　NeverthelessmanyRoyalistsralliedroundthenewGovernment。
　　OneofthemostremarkablefeatsoftheConsulate，fromthepsychologicalpointofview，wastherestorationofreligiouspeace。Francewasfarmoredividedbyreligiousdisagreementthanbypoliticaldifferences。ThesystematicdestructionofaportionoftheVendeehadalmostcompletelyterminatedthestrugglebyforceofarms，butwithoutpacifyingmen’sminds。Asonlyoneman，andhetheheadofChristianity，couldassistinthispacification，Bonapartedidnothesitatetotreatwithhim。
　　Hisconcordatwastheworkofarealpsychologist，whoknewthatmoralforcesdonotuseviolence，andthegreatdangerofpersecutingsuch。Whileconciliatingtheclergyhecontrivedtoplacethemunderhisowndomination。ThebishopsweretobeappointedandremuneratedbytheState，sothathewouldstillbemaster。
　　ThereligiouspolicyofNapoleonhadabearingwhichescapesourmodernJacobins。Blindedbytheirnarrowfanaticism，theydonotunderstandthattodetachtheChurchfromtheGovernmentistocreateastatewithintheState，sothattheyareliabletofindthemselvesopposedbyaformidablecaste，directedbyamasteroutsideFrance，andnecessarilyhostiletoFrance。Togiveone’senemiesalibertytheydidnotpossessisextremelydangerous。
　　NeverwouldNapoleon，noranyofthesovereignswhoprecededhim，haveconsentedtomaketheclergyindependentoftheState，astheyhavebecometo—day。
　　ThedifficultiesofBonapartetheFirstConsulwerefargreaterthanthosehehadtosurmountafterhiscoronation。Onlyaprofoundknowledgeofmenenabledhimtotriumphoverthem。Thefuturemasterwasfarfrombeingthemasterasyet。Manydepartmentswerestillininsurrection。Brigandagepersisted，andtheMidiwasravagedbythestrugglesofpartisans。
　　Bonaparte，asConsul，hadtoconciliateandhandleTalleyrand，Fouche，andanumberofgeneralswhothoughtthemselveshisequal。Evenhisbrothersconspiredagainsthispower。Napoleon，asEmperor，hadnohostilepartytoface，butasConsulhehadtocombatallthepartiesandtoholdthebalanceequalamongthem。Thismustindeedhavebeenadifficulttask，sinceduringthelastcenturyveryfewGovernmentshavesucceededinaccomplishingit。
　　Thesuccessofsuchanundertakingdemandedanextremelysubtlemixtureoffinesse，firmness，anddiplomacy。Notfeelinghimselfpowerfulenoughasyet，BonapartetheConsulmadearule，accordingtohisownexpression，``ofgoverningmenasthegreaternumberwishtobegoverned。’’AsEmperorheoftenmanagedtogovernthemaccordingtohisownideal。
　　Wehavetravelledalongwaysincethetimewhenhistorians，intheirsingularblindness，andgreatpoets，whopossessedmoretalentthanpsychology，wouldholdforthinindignantaccentsagainstthecoupd’etatofBrumaire。Whatprofoundillusionsunderlaytheassertionthat``FrancelayfairinMessidor’sgreatsun’’！AndotherillusionsnolessprofoundunderlaysuchverdictsasthatofVictorHugoconcerningthisperiod。Wehaveseenthatthe``CrimeofBrumaire’’hadasanenthusiasticaccomplice，notonlytheGovernmentitselfbutthewholeofFrance，whichitdeliveredfromanarchy。
　　Onemaywonderhowintelligentmencouldsomisjudgeaperiodofhistorywhichisneverthelesssoclear。Itwasdoubtlessbecausetheysaweventsthroughtheirownconvictions，andweknowwhattransformationsthetruthmaysufferforthemanwhoisimprisonedinthevalleysofbelief。Themostluminousfactsareobscured，andthehistoryofeventsisthehistoryofhisdreams。
　　Thepsychologistwhodesirestounderstandtheperiodwhichwehavesobrieflysketchedcanonlydosoif，beingattachedtonoparty，hestandsclearofthepassionswhicharethesoulofparties。Hewillneverdreamofrecriminatingapastwhichwasdictatedbysuchimperiousnecessities。CertainlyNapoleonhascostFrancedear：hisepicwasterminatedbytwoinvasions，andtherewasyettobeathird，whoseconsequencesarefeltevento—day，whentheprestigewhichheexertedevenfromthetombsetuponthethronetheinheritorofhisname。
　　Alltheseeventsarenarrowlyconnectedintheirorigin。Theyrepresentthepriceofthatcapitalphenomenonintheevolutionofapeople，achangeofideal。Mancannevermaketheattempttobreaksuddenlywithhisancestorswithoutprofoundlyaffectingthecourseofhisownhistory。
　　CHAPTERIII
　　POLITICALCONSEQUENCESOFTHECONFLICTBETWEENTRADITIONSAND
　　REVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLESDURINGTHELASTCENTURY
　　1。ThePsychologicalCausesofthecontinuedRevolutionaryMovementstowhichFrancehasbeensubject。
　　Inexamining，inasubsequentchapter，theevolutionofrevolutionaryideasduringthelastcentury，weshallseethatduringmorethanfiftyyearstheyveryslowlyspreadthroughthevariousstrataofsociety。
　　Duringthewholeofthisperiodthegreatmajorityofthepeopleandthebourgeoisierejectedthem，andtheirdiffusionwaseffectedonlybyaverylimitednumberofapostles。Buttheirinfluence，thanksprincipallytothefaultsofGovernments，wassufficienttoprovokeseveralrevolutions。Weshallexaminethesebrieflywhenwehaveexaminedthepsychologicalinfluenceswhichgavethembirth。
　　Thehistoryofourpoliticalupheavalsduringthelastcenturyisenoughtoprove，evenifwedidnotyetrealisethefact，thatmenaregovernedbytheirmentalitiesfarmorethanbytheinstitutionswhichtheirrulersendeavourtoforceuponthem。
　　ThesuccessiverevolutionswhichFrancehassufferedhavebeentheconsequencesofstrugglesbetweentwoportionsofthenationwhosementalitiesaredifferent。Oneisreligiousandmonarchicalandisdominatedbylongancestralinfluences；theotherissubjectedtothesameinfluences，butgivesthemarevolutionaryform。
　　FromthecommencementoftheRevolutionthestrugglebetweencontrarymentalitieswasplainlymanifested。WehaveseenthatinspiteofthemostfrightfulrepressioninsurrectionsandconspiracieslasteduntiltheendoftheDirectory。Theyprovedthatthetraditionsofthepasthadleftprofoundrootsinthepopularsoul。AtacertainmomentsixtydepartmentswereinrevoltagainstthenewGovernment，andwereonlyrepressedbyrepeatedmassacresonavastscale。