Theprelatesandtheirnumerousgendarmerieofmonkswhichgrewwiththespreadofpoliticalandreligiousbaiting，weretheobjectsofhatrednotonlyofthepeoplebutalsoofthenobility。Beingdirectlyundertheempire，theprelateswereinthewayoftheprinces。Thefastlivingofthecorpulentbishopsandabbotswiththeirarmyofmonks，rousedtheenvyofthenobilityandtheindignationofthepeoplewhoboretheburden。Hatredwasintensifiedbythefactthatthebehaviouroftheclergywasaslapinthefaceoftheirownpreaching。
Theplebeianfactionoftheclergyconsistedofpreachers，ruralandurban。Thepreacherswereoutsidethefeudalhierarchyofthechurchandparticipatedinnoneofitsriches。Theiractivitieswerelessrigorouslycontrolledand，importantastheywereforthechurch，theywereforthemomentfarlessindispensablethanthepoliceservicesofthebarrackedmonks。Consequently，theywerepaidmuchlessthanthemonks，andtheirprebendswerefarfromlucrative。Beingofamiddle—classorplebeianorigin，theywerenearertothelifeofthemasses，thusbeingabletoretainmiddle—classandplebeiansympathies，inspiteoftheirstatusasclergy。Whiletheparticipationofthemonksinthemovementsoftheirtimewastheexception，thatoftheplebeianclergywastherule。Theygavethemovementitstheoristsandideologists，andmanyofthem，representativesoftheplebeiansandpeasants，diedonthescaffold。Thehatredofthemassesfortheclergyseldomtouchedthisgroup。
Whattheemperorwastotheprincesandnobility，thepopewastothehigherandlowerclergy。Astheemperorreceivedthe"commonpenny，"
theimperialtaxes，sothepopewaspaidthegeneralchurchtaxes，outofwhichhedefrayedtheexpensesoftheluxuriousRomancourt。InnocountrywerehistaxescollectedwithsuchconscientiousnessandrigourasinGermany，duetothepowerandthenumberoftheclergy。Theannateswerecollectedwithparticularseveritywhenabishopricwastobecomevacant。Withthegrowthofthecourt’sdemands，newmeansforraisingrevenueswereinvented，suchasthetrafficinrelicsandindulgences，jubileecollections，etc。
largesumsofmoneywerethusyearlytransportedfromGermanytoRome，andtheincreasedpressurefannednotonlythehatredtowardstheclergy，butitalsoarousednationalfeelings，particularlyamongthenobility，thethenmostnationalclass。
Inthecities，thegrowthofcommerceandhandicraftproducedthreedistinctgroupsoutoftheoriginalcitizenryofmedievaltimes。
Thecitypopulationwasheadedbythepatricianfamilies，theso—called"honourables。"Thoseweretherichestfamilies。Theyalonesatinthecouncil，andheldanthecityoffices。Theynotonlyadministeredalltherevenuesofthecity，buttheyalsoconsumedthem。Strongintheirrichesandtheirancientaristocraticstatus，recognisedbyemperorandempire，theyexploitedineverypossiblewaythecitycommunityaswellasthepeasantsbelongingtothecity。Theypractisedusuryingrainandmoney;theysecuredforthemselvesmonopoliesofvariouskinds;theygraduallydeprivedthecommunityofeveryrighttousethecityforestsandmeadows，andusedthemdirectlyfortheirownprivatebenefit。Theyimposedroad，bridgeandgatepaymentsandotherduties;theysoldtradeandguildprivileges，masterandcitizenrights;andtheytradedwithjustice。Thepeasantsofthecityareaweretreatedbythemwithnomoreconsiderationthanbythenobilityandtheclergy。Onthecontrary，thecitymagistratesandbailiffs，mostlypatricians，broughtintothevillages，togetherwitharistocraticrigidityandavarice，acertainbureaucraticpunctualityincollectingduties。Thecityrevenuesthuscollectedwereadministeredinamostoptionalfashion;citybookkeepingwasasneglectfulandconfusedaspossible;defraudationandtreasurydeficitsweretheorderoftheday。Howeasyitwasforacomparativelysmallcaste，surroundedbyprivileges，andheldtogetherbyfamilytiesandcommunityofinterests，toenrichitselfenormouslyoutofthecityrevenues，willbeunderstoodwhenoneconsidersthenumerousfraudsandswindleswhich1848witnessedinmanycityadministrations。
Thepatricianstookcaretomakedormanttherightsofthecitycommunityeverywhere，particularlyasregardsfinance。Later，whentheextortionsofthesegentlemenbecametoosevere，thecommunitiesstartedamovementtobringatleastthecityadministrationundertheircontrol。
Inmostcitiestheyactuallyregainedtheirrights，butdue，ontheonehand，totheeternalsquabblesbetweentheguildsand，ontheother，tothetenacityofthepatriciansandtheirprotectionbytheempireandthegovernmentsofthealliedcities，thepatriciancouncilmemberssoonrestoredbyshrewdnessorforcetheirdominanceinthecouncils。AtthebeginningoftheSixteenthCentury，thecommunitiesofallthecitieswereagainintheopposition。
Thecityoppositionagainstthepatricianswasdividedintotwofactionswhichstoodoutveryclearlyinthecourseofthepeasantwar。
Themiddle—classopposition，thepredecessorofourmodernliberals，embracedtherichermiddle—class，themiddle—classofmoderatemeans，andamoreorlessappreciablesectionofthepoorerelements，accordingtolocalconditions。Thisoppositiondemandedcontroloverthecityadministrationandparticipationinthelegislativepowereitherthroughageneralassemblageofthecommunityorthroughrepresentatives（bigcouncil，citycommittee）。
Further，itdemandedmodificationofthepatricianpolicyoffavouringafewfamilieswhichweregaininganexceptionalpositioninsidethepatriciangroup。Asidefromthis，themiddle—classoppositiondemandedthefillingofsomecouncilofficesbycitizensoftheirowngroup。Thisparty，joinedhereandtherebydissatisfiedelementsofimpoverishedpatricians，hadalargemajorityinalltheordinarygeneralassembliesofthecommunityandintheguilds。Theadherentsofthecouncilandthemoreradicaloppositionformedtogetheronlyaminorityamongtherealcitizens。
Weshallseehow，inthecourseoftheSixteenthCentury，thismoderate，"law—abiding，"well—offandintelligentoppositionplayedexactlythesameroleandexactlywiththesamesuccessasitsheir，theconstitutionalpartyinthemovementsof1848and1849。Themiddle—classoppositionhadstillanotherobjectofheatedprotest：theclergy，whoseloosewayoflivingandluxurioushabitsarouseditsbitterscorn。Themiddle—classoppositiondemandedmeasuresagainstthescandalousbehaviourofthoseillustriouspeople。Itdemandedthattheinnerjurisdictionoftheclergyanditsrighttolevytaxesshouldbeabolished，andthatthenumberofthemonksshouldbelimited。
Theplebeianoppositionconsistedofruinedmembersofthemiddle—classandthatmassofthecitypopulationwhichpossessednocitizenshiprights：thejourneymen，thedaylabourers，andthenumerousbeginningsofthelumpenproletariatwhichcanbefoundevenintheloweststagesofdevelopmentofcitylife。Thislow—gradeproletariatis，generallyspeaking，aphenomenonwhich，inamoreorlessdevelopedform，canbefoundinallthephasesofsocietyhithertoobserved。Thenumberofpeoplewithoutadefiniteoccupationandastabledomicilewasatthattimegraduallybeingaugmentedbythedecayoffeudalisminasocietyinwhicheveryoccupation，everyrealmoflife，wasentrenchedbehindanumberofprivileges。InnomoderncountrywasthenumberofvagabondssogreatasinGermany，inthefirsthalfoftheSixteenthCentury。Oneportionofthesetrampsjoinedthearmyinwar—time，anotherbeggeditswaythroughthecountry，athirdsoughttoekeoutameagrelivingasday—labourersinthosebranchesofworkwhichwerenotunderguildjurisdiction。Allthreegroupsplayedaroleinthepeasantwar;thefirstinthearmyoftheprincestowhomthepeasantsuccumbed，thesecondintheconspiraciesandinthetroopsofthepeasantswhereitsdemoralisinginfluencewasmanifestedeverymoment;thethird，inthestrugglesofthepartiesinthecities。Itmustbeborneinmind，however，thatalargeportionofthisclass，namely，theonelivinginthecities，stillretainedaconsiderablefoundationofpeasantnature，andhadnotdevelopedthatdegreeofvenalityanddegradationwhichcharacterisethemoderncivilisedlow—gradeproletariat。
Itisevidentthattheplebeianoppositionofthecitieswasofamixednature。Itcombinedtheruinedelementsoftheold。feudalandguildsocietieswiththebuddingproletarianelementsofacomingmodernbourgeoissociety;ontheonehand，impoverishedguildcitizens，who，duetotheirprivileges，stillclungtotheexistingmiddle—classorder，ontheotherhand，drivenoutpeasantsandex—officerswhowereyetunabletobecomeproletarians。Betweenthesetwogroupswerethejourneymen，forthetimebeingoutsideofficialsocietyandsoclosetothestandardoflivingoftheproletariataswaspossibleundertheindustryofthetimesandtheguildprivileges，but，duetothesameprivileges，almostallprospectivemiddle—classmasterartisans。Thepartyaffiliationsofthismixturewere，naturally，highlyuncertain，andvaryingfromlocalitytolocality。Beforethepeasantwar，theplebeianoppositionappearedinthepoliticalstruggles，notasaparty，butasashouting，rapacioustail—endtothemiddle—classopposition，amobthatcouldbeboughtandsoldforafewbarrelsofwine。
Itwastherevoltofthepeasantsthattransformed;hemintoaparty，andeventhentheywerealmosteverywheredependentuponthepeasants，bothindemandsandinaction——astrikingproofofthefactthatthecitiesofhattimeweregreatlydependentuponthecountry。Insofarastheplebeianoppositionactedindependently，itdemandedextensionofcitytradeprivilegesovertheruraldistricts，anditdidliketoseethecityrevenuescurtailedbyabolitionoffeudalburdensintheruralareabelongingtothecity，etc。Inbrief，insofarasitappearedindependently，itwasreactionary。
Itsubmittedtoitsownmiddle—classelements，andthusformedacharacteristicprologuetothetragiccomedystagedbythemodernpetty—bourgeoisieinthelastthreeyearsundertheheadofdemocracy。
OnlyinThuringiaandinafewotherlocalitieswastheplebeianfactionofthecitycarriedawaybythegeneralstormtosuchanextentthatitsembryoproletarianelementsforabrieftimegainedtheupperhandoveralltheotherfactorsofthemovement。ThistookplaceunderthedirectinfluenceofMuenzerinThuringia，andofhisdisciplesinotherplaces。Thisepisode，formingtheclimaxoftheentirepeasantwar，andgroupedaroundthemagnificentfigureofThomasMuenzer，wasofverybriefduration。Itiseasilyunderstoodwhytheseelementscollapsemorequicklythananyother，whytheirmovementbearsanoutspoken，fantasticstamp，andwhytheexpressionoftheirdemandsmustnecessarilybeextremelyindefinite。
Itwasthisgroupthatfoundleastfirmgroundinthethenexistingconditions。
Atthebottomofalltheclasses，savethelastone，wasthehugeexploitedmassofthenation，thepeasants。Itwasthepeasantwhocarriedtheburdenofalltheotherstrataofsociety：princes，officialdom，nobility，clergy，patriciansandmiddle—class。Whetherthepeasantwasthesubjectofaprince，animperialbaron，abishop，amonasteryoracity，hewaseverywheretreatedasabeastofburden，andworse。Ifhewasaserf，hewasentirelyatthemercyofhismaster。Ifhewasabondsman，thelegaldeliveriesstipulatedbyagreementweresufficienttocrushhim;
eventheywerebeingdailyincreased。Mostofhistime，hehadtoworkonhismaster’sestate。Outofthatwhichheearnedinhisfewfreehours，hehadtopaytithes，dues，groundrents，wartaxes，landtaxes，imperialtaxes，andotherpayments。Hecouldneithermarrynordiewithoutpayingthemaster。Asidefromhisregularworkforthemaster，hehadtogatherlitter，pickstrawberries，pickbilberries，collectsnail—shells，drivethegameforthehunting，chopwood，andsoon。Fishingandhuntingbelongedtothemaster。Thepeasantsawhiscropdestroyedbywildgame。Thecommunitymeadowsandwoodsofthepeasantshadalmosteverywherebeenforciblytakenawaybythemasters。Andinthesamemannerasthemasterreignedoverthepeasant’sproperty，heextendedhiswilfulnessoverhisperson，hiswifeanddaughters。Hepossessedtherightofthefirstnight。Wheneverhepleased，hethrewthepeasantintothetower，wheretherackwaitedforhimjustassurelyastheinvestigatingattorneywaitsforthecriminalinourtimes。Wheneverhepleased，hekilledhimororderedhimbeheaded。
NoneoftheinstructivechaptersoftheCarolinawhichspeaksof"cuttingofears，""cuttingofnoses，""blinding，""choppingoffingers，""beheading，"
"breakingonthewheel，""burning，""pinchingwithburningtongs，""quartering，"
etc。，wasleftunpractisedbythegraciouslordandmasterathispleasure。
Whocoulddefendthepeasant？Thecourtsweremannedbybarons，clergymen，patricians，orjurists，whoknewverywellforwhattheywerebeingpaid……Notinvaindidalltheofficialestatesoftheempireliveontheexploitationofthepeasants。
Incensedaswerethepeasantsunderterrificpressure，itwasstilldifficulttoarousethemtorevolt。Beingspreadoverlargeareas，itwashighlydifficultforthemtocometocommonunderstanding;theoldhabitofsubmissioninheritedfromgenerationtogeneration，thelackofpractiseintheuseofarmsinmanyregions，theunequaldegreeofexploitationdependingonthepersonalityofthemaster，allcombinedtokeepthepeasantquiet。Itisforthesereasonsthat，althoughlocalinsurrectionsofpeasantscanbefoundinmediaevaltimesinlargenumbers，notonegeneralnationalpeasantrevolt，leastofallinGermany，canbeobservedbeforethepeasantwar。Moreover，thepeasantsalonecouldnevermakearevolutionaslongastheywereconfrontedbytheorganisedpoweroftheprinces，nobilityandthecities。Onlybyallyingthemselveswithotherclassescouldtheyhaveachanceofvictory，buthowcouldtheyhavealliedthemselveswithotherclasseswhentheywereequallyexploitedbyall？
AtthebeginningoftheSixteenthCenturythevariousgroupsoftheempire，princes，nobility，clergy，patricians，middle—class，plebeiansandpeasantsformedahighlycomplicatedmasswiththemostvariedrequirementscrossingeachotherindifferentdirections。Everygroupwasinthewayoftheother，andstoodcontinuallyinanovertorcovertstrugglewitheveryothergroup。Asplittingoftheentirenationintotwomajorcamps，aswitnessedinFranceattheoutbreakofthefirstrevolution，andasatpresentmanifestonahigherstageofdevelopmentinthemostprogressivecountries，wasundersuchconditionsarankimpossibility。Somethingapproachingsuchdivisiontookplaceonlywhentheloweststratumofthepopulation，theoneexploitedbyalltherest，arose，namely，theplebeiansandthepeasants。Thetangleofinterests，viewsandendeavoursofthattimewillbeeasilyunderstoodwhenonerememberswhataconfusionwasmanifestedinthelasttwoyearsinasocietyfarlesscomplicatedandconsistingonlyoffeudalnobility，bourgeoisie，petty—bourgeoisie，peasantsandproletariat。
[Topart2]
ThePeasantWarinGermany：Chapter2FrederickEngels’
THEPEASANTWARINGERMANYCHAPTER2
TheMainOppositionGroupsandtheirProgrammes;LutherandMuenzerThegroupingofthenumerousandvariegatedgroupsintobiggerunitswasatthattimemadeimpossiblebydecentralisation，bylocalandprovincialindependence，byindustrialandcommercialisolationoftheprovincesfromeachother，andbypoormeansofcommunication。Thisgroupingdevelopsonlywiththegeneralspreadofrevolutionary，religiousandpoliticalideas，inthecourseoftheReformation。Thevariousgroupsofthepopulationwhicheitheracceptoropposethoseideas，concentratethenation，veryslowlyandonlyapproximatelyindeed，intothreelargecamps，thereactionaryorCatholic，thereformistmiddle—classorLutheran，andtherevolutionaryelements。Ifwediscoverlittlelogiceveninthisgreatdivisionofthenation，ifthefirsttwocampsincludepartlythesameelements，itisduetothefactthatmostoftheofficialgroupingsbroughtoverfromtheMiddleAgeshadbeguntodissolveandtobecomedecentralised，whichcircumstancegavetothesamegroupsindifferentlocalitiesamomentaryopposingorientation。InthelastyearswehavesooftenmetwithsimilarfactsinGermanythatwewillnotbesurprisedatthisapparentmixtureofgroupsandclassesunderthemuchmorecomplicatedconditionsoftheSixteenthCentury。
TheGermanideologyofto—dayseesinthestrugglestowhichtheMiddleAgeshadsuccumbednothingbutviolenttheologicalbickerings，thisnotwithstandingourmodernexperiences。Hadthepeopleofthattimeonlybeenabletoreachanunderstandingconcerningthecelestialthings，sayourpatriotichistoriansandwisestatesmen，therewouldhavebeennogroundwhateverforstruggleoverearthlyaffairs。Theseideologistsweregullibleenoughtoacceptontheirfacevaluealltheillusionswhichanepochmaintainsaboutitself，orwhichtheideologistsofacertainperiodmaintainedaboutthatperiod。Thisclassofpeople，whichsawintherevolutionof1789
nothingbutaheateddebateovertheadvantagesofaconstitutionalmonarchyascomparedwithabsolutism，wouldseeintheJulyRevolutionapracticalcontroversyovertheuntenabilityoftheempirebythegraceofGod，andinthe’FebruaryRevolution，anattemptatsolvingtheproblemofarepublicormonarchy，etc。Oftheclassstruggleswhichwerebeingfoughtoutintheseconvulsions，andwhosemereexpressionisbeingeverytimewrittenasapoliticalsloganonthebanneroftheseclassstruggles，ourideologistshavenoconceptionevenatthepresenttime，althoughmanifestationsofthemareaudibleenoughnotonlyabroad，butalsofromthegrumblingandtheresentmentofmanythousandsofhomeproletarians。
Intheso—calledreligiouswarsoftheSixteenthCentury，verypositivematerialclass—interestswereatplay，andthosewarswereclasswarsjustaswerethelatercollisionsinEnglandandFrance。Iftheclassstrugglesofthattimeappeartobearreligiousearmarks，iftheinterests，requirementsanddemandsofthevariousclasseshidthemselvesbehindareligiousscreen，itlittlechangestheactualsituation，andistobeexplainedbyconditionsofthetime。
TheMiddleAgeshaddevelopedoutofrawprimitiveness。Ithaddoneawaywitholdcivilisation，oldphilosophy，politicsandjurisprudence，inordertobeginanewineveryrespect。TheonlythingwhichithadretainedfromtheoldshatteredworldwasChristianityandanumberofhalf—ruinedcitiesdeprivedoftheircivilisation。Asaconsequence，theclergyretainedamonopolyofintellectualeducation，aphenomenontobefoundineveryprimitivestageofdevelopment，andeducationitselfhadacquiredapredominantlytheologicalnature。
Inthehandsoftheclergy，politicsandjurisprudence，aswellasothersciences，remainedbranchesoftheology，andweretreatedaccordingtotheprinciplesprevailinginthelatter。Thedogmasofthechurchwereatthesametimepoliticalaxioms，andBiblequotationshadthevalidityoflawineverycourt。Evenaftertheformationofaspecialclassofjurists，jurisprudencelongremainedunderthetutelageoftheology。Thissupremacyoftheologyintherealmofintellectualactivitieswasatthesametimealogicalconsequenceofthesituationofthechurchasthemostgeneralforcecoordinatingandsanctioningexistingfeudaldomination。
Itisobviousthatundersuchconditions，allgeneralandovertattacksonfeudalism，inthefirstplaceattacksonthechurch，allrevolutionary，socialandpoliticaldoctrines，necessarilybecametheologicalheresies。
Inordertobeattacked，existingsocialconditionshadtobestrippedoftheiraureoleofsanctity。
TherevolutionaryoppositiontofeudalismwasalivethroughoutalltheMiddleAges。Accordingtoconditionsofthetime，itappearedeitherintheformofmysticism，asopenheresy，orofarmedinsurrection。Asmysticism，itiswellknownhowindispensableitwasforthereformersoftheSixteenthCentury。Muenzerhimselfwaslargelyindebtedtoit。TheheresieswerepartlyanexpressionofthereactionofthepatriarchalAlpineshepherdsagainsttheencroachmentsoffeudalismintheirrealm（Waldenses）
，partlyanoppositiontofeudalismofthecitiesthathadout—grownit（TheAlbigenses，ArnoldofBrescia，etc。），andpartlydirectinsurrectionsofpeasants（JohnBall，themasterfromHungaryinPicardy，etc。）。Wecanomit，inthisconnection，thepatriarchalheresyoftheWaldenses，aswellastheinsurrectionoftheSwiss，whichbyformandcontents，wasareactionaryattemptatstemmingthetideofhistoricdevelopment，andofapurelylocalimportance。Intheothertwoformsofmediaevalheresy，wefindasearlyastheTwelfthCenturytheprecursorsofthegreatdivisionbetweenthemiddle—classandthepeasant—plebeianoppositionwhichcausedthecollapseofthepeasantwar。ThisdivisionismanifestthroughoutthelaterMiddleAges。
Theheresyofthecities，whichistheactualofficialheresyoftheMiddleAges，directeditselfprimarilyagainsttheclergy，whoserichesandpoliticalimportanceitattacked。Intheverysamemannerasthebourgeoisieatpresentdemandsa"gouvernementàbonmarché"（cheapgovernment），sothemiddle—classofmediaevaltimesdemandedfirstofallan"égliseàbonmarché（cheapchurch）。
Reactionaryinform，asiseveryheresywhichseesinthefurtherdevelopmentofchurchanddogma，onlyadegeneration，themiddle—classheresydemandedtherestorationoftheancientsimplechurchconstitutionandtheabolitionofanexclusiveclassofpriests。Thischeaparrangementwouldeliminatethemonks，theprelates，theRomancourt，inbrief，everythingwhichwasexpensiveforthechurch。Intheirattackagainstpapacy，thecities，themselvesrepublicsalthoughundertheprotectionofmonarchs，expressedforthefirsttimeinageneralformtheideathatthenormalformofgovernmentforthebourgeoisiewastherepublic。Theirhostilitytowardsmanyadogmaandchurchlawispartlyexplainedbytheforegoingandpartlybytheirconditions。Whytheyweresobitteragainstcelibacy，noonehasgivenabetterexplanationthanBoccaccio。ArnoldofBresciainItalyandGermany，theAlbigensesinsouthFrance，JohnWycliffeinEngland，HussandtheCalixtinesinBohemia，werethechiefrepresentativesofthisopposition。
Thattheoppositionagainstfeudalismshouldappearhereonlyasanoppositionagainstreligiousfeudalism，iseasilyunderstoodwhenoneremembersthat，atthattime，thecitieswerealreadyarecognisedestatesufficientlycapableoffightinglayfeudalismwithitsprivilegeseitherbyforceofarmsorinthecityassemblies。
Here，asinsouthFrance，inEnglandandBohemia，wefindthelowernobilityjoininghandswiththecitiesintheirstruggleagainsttheclergyandintheirheresies，aphenomenonduetothedependenceofthelowernobilityuponthecitiesandtothecommunityofinterestsofbothgroupsasagainsttheprincesandtheprelates。Thesamephenomenonisfoundinthepeasantwar。
Atotallydifferentcharacterwasassumedbythatheresywhichwasadirectexpressionofthepeasantandplebeiandemands，andwhichwasalmostalwaysconnectedwithaninsurrection。Thisheresy，sharingallthedemandsofmiddle—classheresyrelativetotheclergy，thepapacy，andtherestorationoftheancientChristianchurchorganisation，wentfarbeyondthem。ItdemandedtherestorationofancientChristianequalityamongthemembersofthecommunity，thistoberecognisedasaruleforthemiddle—classworldaswell。FromtheequalityofthechildrenofGoditmadetheimplicationastocivilequality，andpartlyalsoastoequalityofproperty。Tomakethenobilityequaltothepeasant，thepatriciansandtheprivilegedmiddle—classequaltotheplebeians，toabolishserfdom，groundrents，taxes，privileges，andatleastthemostflagrantdifferencesofproperty——theseweredemandsputforthwithmoreorlessdefinitenessandregardedasnaturallyemanatingfromtheancientChristiandoctrine。
Thispeasant—plebeianheresy，inthefullnessoffeudalism，e。g。，amongtheAlbigenses，hardlydistinguishablefromthemiddle—classopposition，grewinthecourseoftheFourteenthandFifteenthCenturiestobeastronglydefinedpartyopinionappearingindependentlyalongsidetheheresyofthemiddle—class。ThisisthecasewithJohnBall，preacheroftheWatTylerinsurrectioninEnglandalongsidetheWycliffemovement。ThisisalsothecasewiththeTaborites"alongsidetheCalixtinesinBohemia。TheTaboritesshowedevenarepublicantendencyundertheocraticcolouring，aviewlaterdevelopedbytherepresentativesoftheplebeiansinGermanyintheFifteenthandatthebeginningoftheSixteenthCentury。
Thisformofheresywasjoinedinbythedreamvisionsofthemysticsects，suchastheScourgingFriars，theLollards，etc。，whichintimesofsuppressioncontinuedrevolutionarytradition。
Theplebeiansofthattimeweretheonlyclassoutsideoftheexistingofficialsociety。Itwasoutsidethefeudal，aswellasoutsidethemiddle—classOrganisation。Ithadneitherprivilegesnorproperty;
itwasdeprivedevenofthepossessionsownedbypeasantorpettybourgeois，burdenedwithcrushingdutiesasmuchastheymightbe;itwasdeprivedofpropertyandrightsineveryrespect;itlivedinsuchamannerthatitdidnotevencomeintodirectcontactwiththeexistinginstitutions，whichignoreditcompletely。Itwasalivingsymptomofthedissolutionofthefeudalandguildmiddle—classsocieties，anditwasatthesametimethefirstprecursorofmodernbourgeoissociety。
Thispositionoftheplebeiansissufficientexplanationastowhytheplebeianoppositionofthattimecouldnotbesatisfiedwithfightingfeudalismandtheprivilegedmiddle—classalone;why，infantasy，atleast，itreachedbeyondmodernbourgeoissocietythenonlyinitsinception;
why，beinganabsolutelypropertylessfaction，itquestionedinstitutions，viewsandconceptionscommontoeverysocietybasedondivisionofclasses。
Thechiliasticdream—visionsancientChristianityofferedinthisrespectaveryserviceablestarting—point。Ontheotherhand，thisreachingoutbeyondnotonlythepresentbutalsothefuture，couldnothelpbeingviolentlyfantastic。Atthefirstpracticalapplication，itnaturallyfellbackintonarrowlimitssetbyprevailingconditions。Theattackonprivateproperty，thedemandforcommunityofpossessionhadtosolveitselfintoacrudeOrganisationofcharity;vagueChristianequalitycouldresultinnothingbutcivicequalitybeforethelaw;abolitionofallofficialdomtransformeditselffinallyintheOrganisationofrepublicangovernmentselectedbythepeople。Anticipationofcommunismbyhumanfantasywasinrealityanticipationofmodernbourgeoisconditions。
Thisanticipationofcomingstagesofhistoricdevelopment，forcedinitself，butanaturaloutcomeofthelifeconditionsoftheplebeiangroup，isfirsttobenotedinGermany，intheteachingsofThomasMuenzerandhisparty。AlreadytheTaboritesshowedakindofchiliasticcommunityofproperty，butthiswasapurelymilitarymeasure。OnlyintheteachingsofMuenzerdidthesecommunistnotionsfindexpressionasthedesiresofavitalsectionofsociety。Throughhimtheywereformulatedwithacertaindefiniteness，andwereafterwardsfoundineverygreatconvulsionofthepeople，untilgraduallytheymergedwiththemodernproletarianmovement。
SomethingsimilarweobserveintheMiddleAges，wherethestrugglesofthefreepeasantsagainstincreasingfeudaldominationmergedwiththestrugglesoftheserfsandbondsmenforthecompleteabolitionofthefeudalsystem。
Whilethefirstofthethreelargecamps，theconservativeCatholics，embracedalltheelementsinterestedinmaintainingtheexistingimperialpower，theecclesiasticalandasectionofthelayprinces，therichernobility，theprelatesandthecitypatricians——themiddle—classmoderateLutheranreformgatheredunderitsbannerallthepropertiedelementsoftheopposition，themassofthelowernobility，themiddle—classandevenaportionofthelayprinceswhohopedtoenrichthemselvesthroughtheconfiscationofthechurchestatesandtoseizetheopportunityforestablishinggreaterindependencefromtheempire。Astothepeasantsandplebeians，theygroupedthemselvesaroundtherevolutionarypartywhosedemandsanddoctrinesfoundtheirboldestexpressioninMuenzer。
LutherandMuenzer，intheirdoctrines，intheircharacters，intheiractions，accuratelyembodiedthetenetsoftheirseparateparties。
Between1517and1525，LutherhadgonethroughthesametransformationsastheGermanconstitutionalistsbetween1846and1849。Thishasbeenthecasewitheverymiddle—classpartywhich，havingmarchedforawhileattheheadofthemovement，hasbeenoverwhelmedbytheplebeian—proletarianpartypressingfromtherear。
Whenin1517oppositionagainstthedogmasandtheorganisationoftheCatholicchurchwasfirstraisedbyLuther，itstillhadnodefinitecharacter。Notexceedingthedemandsoftheearliermiddle—classheresy，itdidnotexcludeanytrendofopinionwhichwentfurther。Itcouldnotdosobecausethefirstmomentofthestruggledemandedthatallopposingelementsbeunited，themostaggressiverevolutionaryenergybeutilised。
andthetotalityoftheexistingheresiesfightingtheCatholicorthodoxyberepresented。Inasimilarfashion，ourliberalbourgeoisieof1847werestillrevolutionary。Theycalledthemselvessocialistsandcommunists，andtheydiscussedemancipationoftheworkingclass。Luther’ssturdypeasantnatureasserteditselfinthestormiestfashioninthefirstperiodofhisactivities。"Iftheragingmadness[oftheRomanchurchmen]weretocontinue，itseemstomenobettercounselandremedycouldbefoundagainstitthanthatkingsandprincesapplyforce，armthemselves，attackthoseevilpeoplewhohavepoisonedtheentireworld，andonceandforallmakeanendtothisgame，witharms，notwithwords。Ifthievesarebeingpunishedwithswords，murdererswithropes，andhereticswithfire，whydowenotseize，witharmsinhand，allthoseevilteachersofperdition，thosepopes，bishops，cardinals，andtheentirecrewofRomanSodom？Whydowenotwashourhandsintheirblood？"
Thisrevolutionaryardourdidnotlastlong。ThelightningthrustbyLuthercausedaconflagration。AmovementstartedamongtheentireGermanpeople。Inhisappealsagainsttheclergy，inhispreachingofChristianfreedom，peasantsandplebeiansperceivedthesignalforinsurrection。
Likewise，themoderatemiddle—classandalargesectionofthelowernobilityjoinedhim，andevenprincesweredrawnintothetorrent。Whiletheformerbelievedthedayhadcomeinwhichtowreakvengeanceuponalltheiroppressors，thelatteronlywishedtobreakthepoweroftheclergy，thedependenceuponRome，theCatholichierarchy，andtoenrichthemselvesthroughtheconfiscationofchurchproperty。Thepartiesbecameseparatedfromeachother，andeachfoundadifferentspokesman。Lutherhadtochoosebetweenthetwo。Luther，theprotégéoftheElectorofSaxony，therespectedprofessorofWittenbergwhohadbecomepowerfulandfamousovernight，thegreatmanwhowassurroundedbyacoterieofservilecreaturesandflatterers，didnothesitateamoment。Hedroppedthepopularelementsofthemovement，andjoinedthetrainofthemiddle—class，thenobilityandtheprinces。AppealstowarofexterminationagainstRomewereheardnomore。Lutherwasnowpreachingpeacefulprogressandpassiveresistance。（Cf。TothenobilityoftheGermannation，1520，etc。）
InvitedbyHuttentovisithimandSickingeninthecastleofEbern，thecentreofthenobleconspiracyagainstclergyandprinces，Lutherreplied：
"IshouldnotliketoseetheGospeldefendedbyforceandbloodshed。TheworldwasconqueredbytheWord，theChurchhasmaintaineditselfbytheWord，theChurchwillcomeintoitsownagainthroughtheWord，andasAntichristgainedascendancywithoutviolence，sowithoutviolencehewillfall。"
Outofthisturnofmind，or，tobemoreexact，outofthisdefinitedelineationofLuther’spolicy，sprangthatpolicybarteringandhagglingoverinstitutionsanddogmastoberetainedorreformed，thatuglydiplomatising，conceding，intriguingandcompromising，theresultofwhichwastheAugsburgConfession，thefinaldraftoftheconstitutionthereformedmiddle—classchurch。Itwasthesamepettytradingwhich，inthepoliticalfield，repeateditselfadnauseamintherecentGermannationalassemblies，unitygatherings，chambersofrevision，andintheparliamentsErfurt。ThePhilistinemiddle—classcharacteroftheofficialreformationappearedinthesenegotiationsmostclearly。
TherewerevalidreasonswhyLuther，nowtherecognisedrepresentativeofmiddle—classreform，chosetopreachlawfulprogress。Themassofthecitieshadjoinedthecauseofmoderatereform;thelowernobilitybecamemoreandmoredevotedtoit;onesectionoftheprincesjoinedit，anothervacillated。SuccesswasalmostcertainatleastinalargeportionofGermany。
Undercontinuedpeacefuldevelopmenttheotherregionscouldnotinthelongrunwithstandthepressureofmoderateopposition。Violentconvulsions，ontheotherhand，wereboundtoresultinaconflictbetweenthemoderatesandtheextremeplebeianandpeasantparty，thustoalienatetheprinces，thenobility，andanumberofcitiesfromthemovementandtoleaveopenthealternativeofeitherthemiddle—classpartybeingovershadowedbythepeasantsandplebeians，ortheentiremovementbeingcrushedbyCatholicrestoration。Howmiddle—classparties，havingachievedtheslightestvictory，attempttosteertheirwaybetweentheScyllaofrevolutionandtheCharybdisofrestorationbymeansoflawfulprogress，wehavehadoccasionsenoughtoobserveintheeventsofrecenttimes。
Itwasinthenatureofthethenprevailingsocialandpoliticalconditionsthattheresultsofeverychangewereadvantageoustotheprinces，increasingtheirpower。Thusitcameaboutthatthemiddle—classreform，havingpartedwayswiththeplebeianandpeasantelements，fellmoreandmoreunderthecontrolofthereformprinces。Luther’ssubserviencetothemincreased，andthepeopleknewverywellwhattheyweredoingwhentheyaccusedhimofhavingbecomeaslaveoftheprincesaswerealltheothers，andwhentheypursuedhimwithstonesinOrlamuende。
Whenthepeasantwarbrokeout，becomingmorepredominantinregionswithCatholicnobilityandprinces，Lutherstrovetomaintainaconciliatoryposition。Heresolutelyattackedthegovernments。Hesaiditwasduetotheiroppressionthattherevoltshadstarted，thatnotthepeasantsalonewereagainstthem，butGodaswell。Ontheotherhand，healsosaidthattherevoltwasungodlyandagainsttheGospel。Headvisedbothpartiestoyield，toreachapeacefulunderstanding。
Notwithstandingthesesincereattemptsatconciliation，however，therevoltspreadrapidlyoverlargeareas，includingsuchsectionsasweredominatedbyProtestantLutheranprinces，noblesandcities，andrapidlyoutgrewthemiddle—class"circumspect"reform。ThemostdeterminedfactionoftheinsurgentsunderMuenzeropenedtheirheadquartersinLuther’sveryproximity，inThuringia。Afewmoresuccesses，andGermanywouldhavebeenonebigconflagration，Lutherwouldhavebeensurrounded，perhapspikedasatraitor，andmiddle—classreformwouldhavebeensweptawaybythetidesofapeasant—plebeianrevolution。Therewasnomoretimeforcircumspection。
Inthefaceoftherevolution，alloldanimositieswereforgotten。Comparedwiththehordesofpeasants，theservantsoftheRomanSodomwereinnocentlambs，sweet—temperedchildrenofGod。Burgherandprince，nobleandclergyman，Lutherandthepopeunited"againstthemurderousandplunderinghordesofthepeasants。""Theyshouldbeknockedtopieces，strangledandstabbed，secretlyandopenly，byeverybodywhocandoit，justasonemustkillamaddogI"Luthercried。"Therefore，deargentlemen，hearkenhere，savethere，stab，knock，stranglethematwill，andifthoudiest，thouartblessed;nobetterdeathcanstthoueverattain。"Nofalsemercywastobepractisedinrelationtothepeasants。"WhoeverhathpityonthosewhomGodpitiesnot，whomHewishespunishedanddestroyed，shallbeclassedamongtherebellioushimself。"Later，hesaid，thepeasantswouldlearntothankGodwhentheyhadtogiveawayonecowinorderthattheymightenjoytheotherinpeace。Throughtherevolution，hesaid，theprinceswouldlearnthespiritofthemobwhichcouldreignbyforceonly。"Thewisemansays：’Cibus，onusetvirgamasino。’Theheadsofthepeasantsarefullofchaff。TheydonothearkentotheWord，andtheyaresenseless，sotheymusthearkentothevirgaandthegun，andthisisonlyjust。Wemustprayforthemthattheyobey。Wheretheydonot，thereshouldnotbemuchmercy。Letthegunsroaramongthem，orelsetheywillmakeitathousandtimesworse。"
Itisthesamelanguagethatwasusedbyourlatesocialistandphilanthropicbourgeoisie，when，aftertheMarchdaystheproletariatalsodemandeditsshareinthefruitsofvictory。
Lutherhadgiventheplebeianmovementapowerfulweapon——atranslationoftheBible。ThroughtheBible，hecontrastedfeudalChristianityofhistimewithmoderateChristianityofthefirstcentury。Inoppositiontodecayingfeudalsociety，heheldupthepictureofanothersocietywhichknewnothingoftheramifiedandartificialfeudalhierarchy。Thepeasantshadmadeextensiveuseofthisweaponagainsttheforcesoftheprinces，thenobility，andtheclergy。NowLutherturnedthesameweaponagainstthepeasants，extractingfromtheBibleaveritablehymntotheauthoritiesordainedbyGod——afeathardlyexceededbyanylackeyofabsolutemonarchy。
PrincedombythegraceofGod，passiveresistance，evenserfdom，werebeingsanctionedbytheBible。ThusLutherrepudiatednotonlythepeasantinsurrectionbutevenhisownrevoltagainstreligiousandlayauthority。Henotonlybetrayedthepopularmovementtotheprinces，butthemiddle—classmovementaswell。
Needwementionotherbourgeoiswhorecentlygaveusexamplesofrepudiatingtheirownpast？
Letusnowcomparetheplebeianrevolutionary，Muenzer，withthemiddle—classreformist，Luther。
ThomasMuenzerwasborninStolberg，intheHarz，in1498。Itissaidthathisfatherdiedonthescaffold，avictimofthewilfulnessoftheCountofStolberg。Inhisfifteenthyear，MuenzerorganisedattheHalleschoolasecretunionagainsttheArchbishopofMagdeburgandtheRomanChurchingeneral。Hisscholarlyattainmentsinthetheologyofhistimebroughthimearlythedoctor’sdegreeandthepositionofchaplaininaHallenunnery。Herehebegantotreatthedogmasandritesofthechurchwiththegreatestcontempt。Atmassheomittedthewordsofthetransubstantiation，andate，asLuthersaid，thealmightygodsunconsecrated。
Mediaevalmystics，especiallythechiliasticworksofJoachimofCalabria，werethemainsubjectofhisstudies。ItseemedtoMuenzerthatthemillenniumandthedayofjudgmentoverthedegeneratedchurchandthecorruptedworld，asannouncedandpicturedbythatmystic，hadcomeintheformoftheReformationandthegeneralrestlessnessofhistime。Hepreachedinhisneighbourhoodwithgreatsuccess。In1520hewenttoZwickauasthefirstevangelistpreacher。Therehefoundoneofthosedreamycbiliasticsectswhichcontinuedtheirexistenceinmanylocalities，hidingbehindanappearanceofhumilityanddetachment，theranklygrowingoppositionofthelowerstrataofsocietyagainstexistingconditions，andwiththegrowthofagitation，beginningtopresstotheforegroundmoreboldlyandwithmoreendurance。ItwasthesectoftheAnabaptistsheadedbyNicolasStorch。TheAnabaptistspreachedtheapproachoftheDayofjudgmentandofthemillennium;theyhad"visions，convulsions，andthespiritofprophecy。"TheysooncameintoconflictwiththecouncilofZwickau。Muenzerdefendedthem，thoughhehadneverjoinedthemunconditionally，andhadratherbroughtthemunderhisowninfluence。Thecounciltookdecisivestepsagainstthem，theywerecompelledtoleavethecity，andMuenzerdepartedwiththem。Thiswasattheendof1521。
HethenwenttoPragueand，inordertogainground，attemptedtojointheremnantsoftheHussitemovement。Hisproclamations，however，madeitnecessaryforhimtofleeBohemiaalso。In1522，hebecamepreacheratAltstedtinThuringia。Herehestartedwithreformingthecult。BeforeevenLutherdaredtogosofar，heentirelyabolishedtheLatinlanguage，andorderedtheentireBible，notonlytheprescribedSundayGospelsandepistles，tobereadtothepeople。Atthesametime，heorganisedpropagandainhislocality。Peopleflockedtohimfromalldirections，andsoonAltstedtbecamethecentreofthepopularanti—priestmovementofentireThuringia。
Muenzeratthattimewasstilltheologianbeforeeverythingelse。
Hedirectedhisattacksalmostexclusivelyagainstthepriests。Hedidnot，however，preachquietdebateandpeacefulprogress，asLutherhadbeguntodoatthattime，buthecontinuedtheearlyviolentpreachmentsofLuther，appealingtotheprincesofSaxonyandthepeopletoriseinarmsagainsttheRomanpriests。"IsitnotChristwhosaid：’Ihavecometobring，notpeace，butthesword’？Whatcanyou[theprincesofSaxony]
dowiththatsword？Youcandoonlyonething：IfyouwishtobetheservantsofGod，youmustdriveoutanddestroytheeviloneswhostandinthewayoftheGospel。Christorderedveryearnestly（Luke，19，27）：’Butthesemineenemies，thatwouldnotthatIshouldreignoverthem，bringhither，andslaythembeforeme。’DonotresorttoemptyassertionsthatthepowerofGodcoulddoitwithoutaidofoursword，sincethenitwouldhavetorustinitssheath。WemustdestroythosewhostandinthewayofGod’srevelation，wemustdoitmercilessly，asHezekiah，Cyrus，Josiah，DanielandEliasdestroyedthepriestsofBaal，elsetheChristianChurchwillnevercomebacktoitsorigins。WemustuproottheweedsinGod’svineyardatthetimewhenthecropsareripe。GodsaidintheFifthBookofMoses，7，’Thoushaltnotshowmercyuntotheidolators，butyeshallbreakdowntheiraltars，dashinpiecestheirgravenimagesandburnthemwithfirethatIshallnotbewrothatyou。’"Buttheseappealstotheprinceswereofnoavail，whereastherevolutionaryagitationamongthepeoplegrewdaybyday。Muenzer，whoseideasbecamemoredefinitelyshapedandmorecourageous，nowdefinitelyrelinquishedthemiddle—classreformation，andatthesametimeappearedasadirectpoliticalagitator。
Histheologic—philosophicdoctrineattackedallthemainpointsnotonlyofCatholicismbutofChristianityassuch。UnderthecloakofChristianforms，hepreachedakindofpantheism，whichcuriouslyresemblesthemodernspeculativemodeofcontemplation，andattimeseventaughtopenatheism。HerepudiatedtheassertionthattheBiblewastheonlyinfalliblerevelation。Theonlylivingrevelation，hesaid，wasreason，arevelationwhichexistedamongallpeoplesatalltimes。TocontrasttheBiblewithreason，hemaintained，wastokillthespiritbythelatter，fortheHolySpiritofwhichtheBiblespokewasnotathingoutsideofus;theHolySpiritwasourreason。Faith，hesaid，wasnothingelsebutreasonbecomealiveinman，therefore，hesaid，paganscouldalsohavefaith。Throughthisfaith，throughreasoncometolife，manbecamegodlikeandblessed，hesaid。Heavenwastobesoughtinthislife，notbeyond，anditwas，accordingtoMuenzer，thetaskofthebelieverstoestablishHeaven，thekingdomofGod，hereonearth。AsthereisnoHeaveninthebeyond，hesothereisnoHellinthebeyond，andnodamnation，andtherearenodevilsbuttheevildesiresandcravingsofman。Christ，hesaid，wasaman，asweare，aprophetandateacher，andhis"Lord’sSupper"isnothingbutaplainmealofcommemorationwhereinbreadandwinearebeingconsumedwithmysticadditions。
Muenzerpreachedthesedoctrinesmostlyinacovertfashion，underthecloakofChristianphraseologywhichthenewphilosophywascompelledtoutiliseforsometime。Thefundamentalhereticidea，however，iseasilydiscernibleinallhiswritings，anditisobviousthatthebiblicalcloakwasforhimofmuchlessimportancethanitwasformanyadiscipleofHegelinmoderntimes。Still，thereisadistanceofthreehundredyearsbetweenMuenzerandmodernphilosophy。
Muenzer’spoliticaldoctrinefollowedhisrevolutionaryreligiousconceptionsveryclosely，andashistheologyreachedfarbeyondthecurrentconceptionsofhistime，sohispoliticaldoctrinewentbeyondexistingsocialandpoliticalconditions。AsMuenzer’sphilosophyofreligiontoucheduponatheism，sohispoliticalprogrammetoucheduponcommunism，andthereismorethanonecommunistsectofmoderntimeswhich，ontheeveoftheFebruaryRevolution，didnotpossessatheoreticalequipmentasrichasthatofMuenzeroftheSixteenthCentury。Hisprogramme，lessacompilationofthedemandsofthethenexistingplebeiansthanagenius’santicipationoftheconditionsfortheemancipationoftheproletarianelementthathadjustbeguntodevelopamongtheplebeians，demandedtheimmediateestablishmentofthekingdomofGod，oftheprophesiedmillenniumonearth。ThiswastobeaccomplishedbythereturnofthechurchtoitsoriginsandtheabolitionofallinstitutionsthatwereinconflictwithwhatMuenzerconceivedasoriginalChristianity，which，infact，wastheideaofaverymodernchurch。
BythekingdomofGod，Muenzerunderstoodnothingelsethanastateofsocietywithoutclassdifferences，withoutprivateproperty，andwithoutSuperimposedstatepowersopposedtothemembersofsociety。Allexistingauthorities，asfarastheydidnotsubmitandjointherevolution，hetaught，mustbeoverthrown，allworkandallpropertymustbesharedincommon，andcompleteequalitymustbeintroduced。Inhisconception，aunionofthepeoplewastobeorganisedtorealisethisprogramme，notonlythroughoutGermany，butthroughoutentireChristendom。Princesandnoblesweretobeinvitedtojoin，andshouldtheyrefuse，theunionwastooverthroworkillthem，witharmsinhand，atthefirstopportunity。
Muenzerimmediatelysettoworktoorganisetheunion。Hispreachingsassumedastillmoremilitantcharacter。Heattacked，notonlytheclergy，butwithequalpassiontheprinces，thenobilityandthepatricians。Hepicturedinburningcolourstheexistingoppression，andcontrasteditwiththevisionofthemillenniumofsocialrepublicanequalitywhichhecreatedoutofhisimagination。Hepublishedonerevolutionarypamphletafteranother，sendingemissariesinalldirections，whilehepersonallyorganisedtheunioninAltstedtanditsvicinity。
ThefirstfruitofthispropagandawasthedestructionSt。Mary’sChapelinMellerbachnearAltstedt，accordingtothecommandoftheBible（Deut。7，5）："Yeshallbreakdowntheiraltars，anddashinpiecestheirpillars，andhewdowntheirAsherim，andburntheirgravenimageswithfire。"TheprincesofSaxonycameinpersontoAltstedtquelltheupheaval，andtheycalledMuenzertothecastle。Therehedeliveredasermon，whichtheyhadneverheardfromLuther，"thateasylivingfleshofWittenberg，"
Muenzercalledhim。Heinsistedthattheungodlyrulers，especiallythepriestsandmonkswhotreatedtheGospelheresy，mustbekilled;forconfirmationhereferredtotheNewTestament。Theungodlyhavenorighttolive，hesaid，savebythemercyofthechosenones。Iftheprinceswouldnotexterminatetheungodly，heasserted，Godwouldtaketheirswordfromthembecausetherighttowieldtheswordbelongstothecommunity。Thesourceoftheevilofusury，thieveryandrobbery，hesaid，weretheprincesandthemasterswhohadtakenallcreaturesintotheirprivatepossession——thefishesinthewater，thebirdsintheair，theplantsinthesoil。Andtheusurpers，hesaid，stillpreachedtothepoorthecommandment，"Thoushaltnotsteal，"whiletheygrabbedeverything，androbbedandcrushedthepeasantandtheartisan。"When，however，oneofthelattercommitstheslightesttransgression，"hesaid，"hehastohang，andDr。Liarsaystoallthis：Amen。"Themastersthemselvescreatedasituation，heargued，inwhichthepoormanwasforcedtobecometheirenemy。Iftheydidnotremovethecausesoftheupheaval，howcouldthingsimproveintimestocome？heasked。"Oh，mydeargentlemen，howtheLordwillsmitewithanironrodalltheseoldpots！WhenIsayso，Iamconsideredrebellious。