Written：Summer1850，LondonPublished：NeueRheinischeZeitung，1850
　　The1848uprisingsinGermanyputEngelsinmindofthelastgreatpeasantrebellionsofof1500s。Ashewouldlaterwrite："TheparallelbetweentheGermanRevolutionof1525andthatof1848—49wastooobvioustobealtogetherignoredatthattime。"
　　Engelsdemonstratesthefailureofboththeserevolutionswaslargelyattributabletothebourgeois/burgherdom（andthusunderscoringthemdoernneedforanalliancebetweentheworkingproletariatandtheworkingpeasantry）。
　　ThePeasantWarinGermanywasthefirsthistorybooktoassertthattherealmotivatingforcebehindtheReformationand16th—centurypeasantwarwassocio—economic（classconflict）ratherthan"merely"religious。
　　ThePeasantWarinGermanyFrederickEngels’
　　THEPEASANTWARINGERMANYENGELS’PREFACE
　　TOTHESECONDEDITIONThisworkwaswritteninLondoninthesummerof1850，underthevividimpressionofthecounter—revolutionthathadjustbeencompleted。Itappearedin1850inthefifthandsixthissuesoftheNeueRheinischeZeitung，apoliticaleconomicrevieweditedbyKarlMarxinHamburg。MypoliticalfriendsinGermanydesiretoseeitinbookform，andIherebyfulfilthatdesire，since，unfortunately，itstillhastheinterestoftimeliness。
　　Theworkdoesnotpretendtopresentindependentlycollectedmaterial。
　　Quitethecontrary，allthematerialrelatingtothepeasantrevoltsandtoThomasMuenzerhasbeentakenfromZimmermannwhosebook，althoughshowinggapshereandthere，isstillthebestpresentationofthefacts。Moreover，oldZimmermannenjoyedhissubject。Thesamerevolutionaryinstinctwhichmakeshimheretheadvocateoftheoppressedclasses，madehimlateroneofthebestintheextremeleftwingofFrankfurt。
　　If，nevertheless，theZimmermannrepresentationlacksinternalcoherence;ifitdoesnotsucceedinshowingthereligiousandpoliticalcontroversiesofthatepochasareflectionoftheclassstrugglesthatweretakingplacesimultaneously;ifitseesintheclassstrugglesonlyoppressorsandoppressed，goodandevil，andthefinalvictoryofevil;
　　ifitsinsightintosocialconditionswhichdeterminedboththeoutbreakandtheoutcomeofthestruggleisextremelypoor，itwasthefaultofthetimeinwhichthatbookcameintoexistence。Nevertheless，foritstime，andamongtheGermanidealisticworksonhistory，itstandsoutaswritteninaveryrealisticvein。
　　Thisbook，whilegivingthehistoriccourseofthestruggleonlyinitsoutlines，undertakestoexplaintheoriginofthepeasantwars，theattitudeofthevariouspartieswhichappearinthewar，thepoliticalandreligioustheoriesthroughwhichthosepartiesstrovetomakecleartothemselvestheirposition;andfinally，theresultofthestruggleasdeterminedbythehistorical—socialconditionsoflife，toshowthepoliticalconstitutionofGermanyofthattime，therevoltagainstit;andtoprovethatthepoliticalandreligioustheorieswerenotthecauses，buttheresultofthatstageinthedevelopmentofagriculture，industry，landandwaterways，commerceandfinance，whichthenexistedinGermany。This，theonlymaterialisticconceptionofhistory，originates，notfrommyselfbutfromMarx，andcanbefoundinhisworksontheFrenchRevolutionof1848—9，publishedinthesamereview，andinhisEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte。
　　TheparallelbetweentheGermanRevolutionsof1525andof1848—9
　　wastooobvioustobeleftentirelywithoutattention。However，togetherwithanidentityofeventsinbothcases，asforinstance，thesuppressionofonelocalrevoltaftertheotherbythearmyoftheprinces，togetherwithasometimescomicsimilitudeinthebehaviourofthecitymiddle—class，thedifferenceisquiteclear。
　　"WhoprofitedbytheRevolutionof1525？Theprinces。WhoprofitedbytheRevolutionof1848？Thebigprinces，AustriaandPrussia。Behindtheprincesof1525therestoodthelowermiddle—classofthecities，heldchainedbymeansoftaxation。Behindthebigprincesof1850，therestoodthemodernbigbourgeoisie，quicklysubjugatingthembymeansoftheStatedebt。Behindthebigbourgeoisiestandtheproletarians。"
　　IamsorrytostatethatinthisparagraphtoomuchhonourwasgiventotheGermanbourgeoisie。True，ithadtheopportunityof"quicklysubjugating"
　　themonarchybymeansoftheStatedebt。Neverdiditavailitselfofthisopportunity。
　　Austriafellasaboonintothelapofthebourgeoisieafterthewarof1866，butthebourgeoisiedoesnotunderstandhowtogovern。Itispowerlessandinefficientineverything。Onlyonethingisitcapableofdoing：tostormagainsttheworkersassoonastheybegintostir。ItremainsatthehelmonlybecausetheHungariansneedit。
　　AndinPrussia？True，theStatedebthasincreasedbyleapsandbounds。Thedeficithasbecomeapermanentfeature。TheStateexpenditureskeepgrowing，yearinandyearout。ThebourgeoisiehaveamajorityintheChamber。Notaxescanbeincreasedandnodebtsincurredwithouttheirconsent。ButwhereistheirpowerintheState？Itwasonlyacoupleofmonthsago，whenadeficitwaslooming，thatagaintheyfoundthemselvesinthemostfavourableposition。Theycouldhavegainedconsiderableconcessionsbypersevering。Whatwastheirreaction？TheyconsidereditasufficientconcessionwhentheGovernmentallowedthemtolayatitsfeetninemillions，notforoneyearalone，buttobecollectedindefinitelyeveryyear。
　　Idonotwanttoblamethe"nationalliberals"oftheChambermorethanistheirdue。Iknowtheyhavebeenforsakenbythosewhostandbehindthem，bythemassofthebourgeoisie。Thismassdoesnotwishtogovern。1848isstillinitsbones。
　　WhytheGermanbourgeoisiehasdevelopedthisremarkabletrait，willbediscussedlater。
　　Ingeneral，however，theabovequotationhasprovedperfectlytrue。Beginningfrom1850，thesmallStateswereinconstantretreat，servingonlyasleversforPrussianandAustrianintrigues。AustriaandPrussiawereengagedinever—strongerstrugglesforsupremacy。Finally，thefearfulclashof1866tookplace。Austria，retainingallitsprovinces，subjugated，directlyandindirectly，theentirenorthofPrussia，whileleavingthefateofthethreesouthernStatesintheair。
　　InallthesegrandactivitiesoftheStates，onlythefollowingareofparticularimportancefortheGermanworkingclass：
　　First，thatuniversalsuffragehasgiventheworkersthepowertobedirectlyrepresentedinthelegislativeassemblies。
　　Second，thatPrussiahassetagoodexamplebyswallowingthreecrownsbythegraceofGod。ThatafterthisoperationherowncrownismaintainedbythegraceofGodaspureassheclaimsittobe，noteventhenationalliberalsbelieveanymore。
　　Third，thatthereisonlyoneseriousenemyoftheRevolutioninGermanyatthepresenttime——thePrussiangovemment。
　　Fourth，thattheAustro—Germanswillnowbecompelledtoaskthemselveswhattheywishtobe，GermansorAustrians;whomtheywishtoadhereto，toGermanyorherextraordinarytransleithanianappendages。Ithasbeenobviousforalongtimethattheywillhavetogiveuponeortheother。
　　Still，thishasbeencontinuallyglossedoverbythepetty—bourgeoisdemocracy。
　　Astootherimportantcontroversiesconcerning1866whichwerethreshedoutbetweenthe"national—liberals"andthepeople’spartyadnauseam，comingyearswillshowthatthetwostandpointsfoughtsobitterlysimplybecausetheyweretheoppositepolesofthesamestupidity。
　　InthesocialconditionsofGermany，theyear1866haschangedalmostnothing。Afewbourgeoisreforms：uniformmeasuresandweights，freedomofmovement，freedomoftrade，etc。——allwithinlimitsbefittingbureaucracy，donotevencomeuptothatofwhichotherwesternEuropeancountrieshavebeeninpossessionforalongwhile，andleavesthemainevil，thesystemofbureaucraticconcessions，unshaken。Astotheproletariat，thefreedomofmovement，andofcitizenship，theabolitionofpassportsandothersuchlegislationismadeillusorybythecurrentpolicepractice。
　　WhatismuchmoreimportantthanthegrandmanoeuvresoftheStatein1866isthegrowthofGermanindustryandcommerce，oftherailways，thetelegraph，andoceansteamshipnavigationsince1848。ThisprogressmaybelaggingbehindthatofEnglandorevenFrance，butitisunheardofforGermany，andhasdonemoreintwentyyearsthanwouldhavebeenpreviouslypossibleinacentury。Germanyhasbeendrawn，earnestlyandirrevocably，intoworldcommerce。Capitalinvestedinindustryhasmultipliedrapidly。Thepositionofthebourgeoisiehasimprovedaccordingly。Thesurestsignofindustrialprosperity——speculation——hasblossomedrichly，princesanddukesbeingchainedtoitstriumphalchariot。GermancapitalisnowconstructingRussianandRumanianrailways，whereas，onlyfifteenyearsago，theGermanrailwayswenta—beggingtoEnglishentrepreneurs。
　　How，then，isitpossiblethatthebourgeoisiehasnotconqueredpoliticalpower，thatitbehavesinsocowardlyamannertowardthegovernment？
　　ItisthemisfortuneoftheGermanbourgeoisietohavecometoolate——quiteinaccordancewiththebelovedGermantradition。TheperiodofitsascendancycoincideswiththetimewhenthebourgeoisieoftheotherwesternEuropeancountriesispoliticallyonthedownwardpath。InEngland，thebourgeoisiecouldplaceitsrealrepresentative，Bright，intothegovernmentonlybyextendingthefranchisewhichinthelongrunisboundtoputanendtoitsverydomination。InFrance，thebourgeoisie，whichfortwoyearsonly，1849—50，hadheldpowerasaclassundertherepublicanrégime，wasabletocontinueitssocialexistenceonlybytransferringitspowertoLouisBonaparteandthearmy。UnderpresentconditionsofenormouslyincreasedinterdependenceofthethreemostprogressiveEuropeancountries，itisnomorepossiblefortheGermanbourgeoisieextensivelytoutilizeitspoliticalpowerwhilethesameclasshasoutliveditselfinEnglandandFrance。Itisapeculiarityofthebourgeoisie，distinguishingitfromallotherclasses，thatapointisbeingreachedinitsdevelopmentafterwhicheveryincreaseinitspower，thatis，everyenlargementofitscapital，onlytendstomakeitmoreandmoreincapableofretainingpoliticaldominance。"Behindthebigbourgeoisiestandtheproletarians。"Inthedegreeasthebourgeoisiedevelopsitsindustry，itscommerce，anditsmeansofcommunication，italsoproducestheproletariat。Atacertainpoint，whichmustnotnecessarilyappearsimultaneouslyandonthesamestageofdevelopmenteverywhere，itbeginstonotethatthis，itssecondself，hasoutgrownit。Fromthenon，itlosesthepowerforexclusivepoliticaldominance。
　　Itlooksforallieswithwhomtoshareitsauthority，ortowhomtocedeallpower，ascircumstancesmaydemand。
　　InGermany，thisturningpointcameforthebourgeoisieasearlyas1848。Thebourgeoisiebecamefrightened，notsomuchbytheGerman，asbytheFrenchproletariat。ThebattleofJune，1848，inParis，showedthebourgeoisiewhatcouldbeexpected。TheGermanproletariatwasrestlessenoughtoprovetothebourgeoisiethattheseedofrevolutionhadbeensownalsoinGermansoil。Fromthatday，theedgeofbourgeoispoliticalactionwasbroken。Thebourgeoisielookedaroundforallies。Itsolditselftothemregardlessofprice，andthereitremains。
　　Thesealliesareallofareactionaryturn。Itistheking’spower，withhisarmyandhisbureaucracy;itisthebigfeudalnobility;itisthesmallerjunker;itiseventheclergy。Thebourgeoisiehasmadesomanycompactsandunionswithallofthemtosaveitsdearskin，thatnowithasnothingmoretobarter。Andthemoretheproletariatdeveloped，themoreitbegantofeelasaclassandtoactasone，thefeeblerbecamethebourgeoisie。WhentheastonishinglybadstrategyofthePrussianstriumphedovertheastonishinglyworsestrategyoftheAustriansatSadowa，itwasdifficulttosaywhogaveadeepersighofrelief，thePrussianbourgeois，whowasapartnertothedefeatatSadowa，orhisAustriancolleague。
　　Ouruppermiddle—classof1870actedinthesamefashionasdidthemoderatemiddle—classof1525。Astothesmallbourgeoisie，themasterartisansandmerchants，theyremainunchanged。Theyhopetoclimbuptothebigbourgeoisie，andtheyarefearfullesttheybepusheddownintotheranksoftheproletariat。Betweenfearandhope，theywillintimesofstruggleseektosavetheirpreciousskinandtojointhevictorswhenthestruggleisover。Suchistheirnature。
　　Thesocialandpoliticalactivitiesoftheproletariathavekeptpacewiththerapidgrowthofindustrysince1848。TheroleoftheGermanworkers，asexpressedintheirtradeunions，theirassociations，politicalorganisationsandpublicmeetings，atelections，andintheso—calledReichstag，isaloneasufficientindicationofthetransformationwhichcameoverGermanyinthelasttwentyyears。ItistothecreditoftheGermanworkersthattheyalonehavemanagedtosendworkersandworkers’representativesintotheParliament——afeatwhichneithertheFrenchnortheEnglishhadhithertoaccomplished。
　　Still，eventheproletariatshowssomeresemblanceto1525。Theclassofthepopulationwhichentirelyandpermanentlydependsonwagesisnow，asthen，aminorityoftheGermanpeople。Thisclassisalsocompelledtoseekallies。Thelattercanbefoundonlyamongthepettybourgeoisie，thelowgradeproletariatofthecities，thesmallpeasants，andthewage—workersoftheland。
　　Thepettybourgeoisiehasbeenmentionedabove。Thisclassisentirelyunreliableexceptwhenavictoryhasbeenwon。Thenitsnoiseinthebeersaloonsiswithoutlimit。Nevertheless，therearegoodelementsamongit，who，oftheirownaccord，followtheworkers。
　　Thelumpenproletariat，thisscumofthedecayingelementsofallclasses，whichestablishesheadquartersinallthebigcities，istheworstofallpossibleallies。Itisanabsolutelyvenal，anabsolutelybrazencrew。IftheFrenchworkers，inthecourseoftheRevolution，inscribedonthehouses：Mortauxvoleurs！（Deathtothethieves！）andevenshotdownmany，theydidit，notoutofenthusiasmforproperty，butbecausetheyrightlyconsidereditnecessarytoholdthatbandatarm’slength。
　　Everyleaderoftheworkerswhoutilisesthesegutter—proletariansasguardsorsupports，proveshimselfbythisactionaloneatraitortothemovement。
　　Thesmallpeasants（biggerpeasantsbelongtothebourgeoisie）
　　arenothomogeneous。Theyareeitherinserfdomboundtotheirlordsandmasters，andinasmuchasthebourgeoisiehasfailedtodoitsdutyinfreeingthosepeoplefromserfdom，itwillnotbedifficulttoconvincethemthatsalvation，forthem，canbeexpectedonlyfromtheworkingclass;ortheyaretenants，whosesituationisalmostequaltothatoftheIrish。Rentsaresohighthatevenintimesofnormalcropsthepeasantandhisfamilycanhardlyekeoutabareexistence;whenthecropsarebad，hevirtuallystarves。Whenheisunabletopayhisrent，heisentirelyatthemercyofthelandlord。Thebourgeoisiethinksofreliefonlyundercompulsion。
　　Where，then，shouldthetenantslookforreliefoutsideoftheworkers？
　　Thereisanothergroupofpeasants，thosewhoownasmallpieceofland。Inmostcasestheyaresoburdenedwithmortgagesthattheirdependenceupontheusurerisequaltothedependenceofthetenantuponthelandlord。
　　Whattheyearnispracticallyameagrewage，which，sincegoodandbadcropsalternate，ishighlyuncertain。Thesepeoplecannothavetheleasthopeofgettinganythingoutofthebourgeoisie，becauseitisthebourgeoisie，thecapitalistusurers，thatsqueezethelife—bloodoutofthem。Still，thepeasantsclingtotheirproperty，thoughinrealityitdoesnotbelongtothem，buttotheusurers。ItwillbenecessarytomakeitcleartothesepeoplethatonlywhenagovernmentofthepeoplewillhavetransformedallmortagesintoadebttotheState，andtherebyloweredtherent，willtheybeabletofreethemselvesfromtheusurer。This，however，canbeaccomplishedonlybytheworkingclass。
　　Wherevermiddleandlargelandownershipprevails，thewage—workersofthelandformthemostnumerousclass。ThisisthecasethroughouttheentirenorthandeastofGermany，anditisherethattheindustrialworkersofthecityfindtheirmostnumerousandnaturalallies。Inthesamewayasthecapitalistisopposedtotheindustrialworker，thelargelandownerorlargetenantisopposedtothewage—workersoftheland。Themeasuresthathelptheonemustalsohelptheother。Theindustrialworkerscanfreethemselvesonlybyturningthecapitalofthebourgeoisie，thatis，therawmaterials，machinesandtools，thefoodstuffsnecessaryforproduction，intosocialproperty，theirownproperty，tobeusedbythemincommon。
　　Similarly，thewage—workersofthelandcanbefreedfromtheirhideousmiseryonlywhenthemainobjectoftheirwork，thelanditself，willbewithdrawnfromtheprivatepropertyofthelargepeasantsandstilllargerfeudalmasters，andtransformedintosocialpropertytobecultivatedbyanassociationoflandworkersoncommonbasis。AndherewecometothefamousdecisionoftheInternationalSocialistCongressinBasle：Thatitisintheinterestofsocietytotransformpropertyonlandintocommonnationalproperty。Thisdecisionwasmadeprimarilyforthosecountrieswherethereislargelandownership，withlargeagriculturalenterprises，withonemasterandmanywage—workersineveryestate。ItistheseconditionsthatstillprevailinGermany，andnexttoEngland，thedecisionwasmosttimelyforGermany。Theagriculturalproletariat，thewage—workersoftheland，istheclassfromwhichthebulkofthearmiesoftheprincesisbeingrecruited。Itistheclasswhich，thankstouniversalsuffrage，sendsintoParliamentthegreatmassoffeudalmastersandJunkers。However，itisalsotheclassnearesttotheindustrialworkersofthecity。Itsharestheirconditionsofliving，anditisstilldeepersteepedinmiserythanthecityworkers。Thisclass，powerlessbecausesplitandscattered，butpossessinghiddenpowerwhichissowellknowntothegovernmentandnobilitythattheypurposelyallowtheschoolstodeteriorateinorderthattheruralpopulationshouldremainunenlightened，mustbecalledtolifeanddrawnintothemovement。ThisisthemosturgenttaskoftheGermanlabourmovement。Fromthedaywhenthemassoftheworkersofthelandhavelearnedtounderstandtheirowninterests，areactionary，feudal，bureaucraticorbourgeoisgovernmentinGermanybecomesanimpossibility。
　　[ToEngels’introaddendum]
　　ThePeasantWarinGermanyFrederickEngels’
　　THEPEASANTWARINGERMANYENGELS’PREFACE
　　ADDENDUMTHEprecedinglineswerewrittenoverfouryearsago，buttheyarevalidalsoatpresent。WhatwastrueafterSadowaandthepartitionofGermanyisbeingconfirmedalsoafterSedanandtheerectionoftheHolyGermanEmpireofPrussiannationality。Littleindeedarethe"worldshaking"activitiesoftheStatesintherealmofso—calledbigpoliticsinapositiontochangethetrendofhistoricdevelopment。
　　WhatthesegrandactivitiesoftheStatesareinapositiontoaccomplishistohastenthetempoofhistoricmovement。Inthisrespect，theoriginatorsoftheabove—mentioned"world—shaking"eventshavemadeinvoluntarysuccesseswhichtothemselvesappearhighlyundesirable，butwhich，however，theymusttakeintothebargain，forbetterorworse。
　　Alreadythewarof1866hadshakentheoldPrussiatoitsfoundations。
　　After1848itwasdifficulttobringtherebelliousindustrialelementofthewesternprovinces，bourgeoisaswellasproletarian，undertheolddiscipline。Still，somehow，thiswasaccomplished，andtheinterestsoftheJunkersoftheeasternprovinces，togetherwiththoseofthearmy，againbecamedominantintheState。In1866almostallthenorthwestofGermanybecamePrussian。BesidestheincurablemoralinjurytothePrussiancrown，bythefactthatithadswallowedupthreeothercrownsbythegraceofGod，thecentreofgravityofthemonarchyhadmovedconsiderablywestward。
　　ThefourmillionRhinelandersandWestphalianswerereinforced，first，byfourmillionGermansannexedthroughtheNorthGermanAlliancedirectly，andthenbysixmillionannexedindirectly。In1870，however，eightmillionsouthwestGermanswereadded，sothat，inthe"newmonarchy，"thefourteenandahalfmillionoldPrussians（allthesixEastElbianprovinces，amongthem，twomillionPoles）wereopposedbytwenty—fivemillionwhohadlongoutgrowntheoldPrussianjunkerfeudalism。SoithappenedthattheveryvictoriesofthePrussianarmydisplacedtheentirefoundationofthePrussianStateedifice;thejunkerdominancebecameevermoreintolerable，evenforthegovernmentitself。Atthesametime，however，thestrugglebetweenthebourgeoisieandtheworkersmadeinevitablebytheimpetuousgrowthofindustry，relegatedtothebackgroundthestrugglebetweenJunkersandbourgeoisie，sothattheinnersocialfoundationsoftheoldStatesufferedacompletetransformation。Eversince1840，theconditionmakingpossibletheexistenceoftheslowlyrottingmonarchywasthestrugglebetweennobilityandbourgeoisie，whereinthemonarchyretainedequilibrium。Fromthemoment，however，whenitwasnomoreaquestionofprotectingthenobilityagainsttheonslaughtofthebourgeoisie，butofprotectingallpropertiedclassesagainsttheonslaughtoftheworking—class，theabsolutemonarchyhadtoturntothatformofstatewhichwasexpresslydevisedforthisspecificpurpose——theBonapartistmonarchy。ThischangeofPrussiatowardsBonapartismIhavediscussedinanotherplace（Woknungsfrage）。WhatIdidnotstressthere，andwhatisveryimportantinthisconnection，isthatthischangewasthegreatestprogressmadebyPrussiaafter1848，whichonlyshowshowbackwardPrussiawasinpointofmoderndevelopment。ItisafactthatthePrussianStatestillwasasemi—feudalState，whereasBonapartismis，atallevents，amodemformofstatewhichpresupposestheabolitionoffeudalism。ThusPrussiamustdecidetodoawaywithitsnumerousremnantsoffeudalism，tosacrificeitsjunkerdomassuch。This，naturally，isbeingdoneinthemildestpossibleform，andunderthetuneofthefavouritemelody，"Alwaysslowlyforward。"Anexampleofsuch"reform"workisthenotoriousOrganisationofdistricts，which，removingthefeudalprivilegesoftheindividualjunkerinrelationtohisestate，restoresthemasspecialprivilegesofthebiglandownersinrelationtotheentiredistrict。Thesubstanceremains，itbeingonlytranslatedfromthefeudalintothebourgeoisdialect。TheoldPrussianjunkerisforciblybeingtransformedintosomethingakintotheEnglishsquire。Heneednothaveofferedsomuchresistance，becausetheoneisjustasfoolishastheother。
　　ThusitwasthepeculiarfeatofPrussianotonlytoculminate，bytheendofthiscentury，herbourgeoisrevolutionbegunin1808—13andcontinuedin1848，buttoculminateitinthepresentformofBonapartism。
　　Ifeverythinggoeswell，andtheworldremainsniceandquiet，andweallbecomeoldenough，wecanstillperhapslivetosee——about1900——thegoverrunentofPrussiaactuallyrelinquishingallfeudalinstitutions，andPrussiafinallyreachingapointwhereFrancestoodin1792。
　　Speakingpositively，theabolitionoffeudalismmeanstheintroductionofbourgeoisconditions。Inthemeasureastheprivilegesofthenobilityfall，legislationbecomesmoreandmorebourgeois。Here，again，wemeetwiththechiefpointatissue，theattitudeoftheGermanbourgeoisietowardsthegovernment。Wehaveseenthatthegovemmentiscompelledtointroducetheseslowandpettyreforms，butinitsrelationtothebourgeoisie，thegovemmentportraysthesesmallconcessionsassacrificesinfavourofthebourgeoisie，asconcessionsyieldedbythecrownwithdifficultyandpain，andforwhichthebourgeoisiemust，inreturn，yieldsomethingtohegovernment。
　　Thebourgeoisie，ontheotherhand，thoughquiteawareofthisstateofaffairs，allowsitselftobefooled。ThisisthesourceofthetacitagreementwhichisthebasisofallReichstagandChamberdebates。Ontheonehand，thegovernmentreformsthelawsatasnailpacetempointheinterestsofthebourgeoisie;itremovestheimpedimentstoindustryemanatingfromthemultiplicityofsmallstates;itcreatesunityofcoinage，ofmeasuresandweights;itgivesfreedomoftrade，etc。;itgrantsthefreedomofmovement;itputstheworkingpowerofGermanyattheunlimiteddisposalofcapital;itcreatesfavourableconditionsfortradeandspeculation。
　　Ontheotherhand，thebourgeoisieleavesinthehandsofthegovernmentallactualpoliticalpower;itvotestaxes，loansandrecruits;ithelpstoframeaunewreformlawsinawaythattheoldpolicepoweroverundesirableindividualsshallremaininfullforce。Thebourgeoisiebuysitsgradualsocialemancipationforthepriceofimmediaterenunciationofitsownpoliticalpower。Naturally，themotivewhichmakessuchagreementacceptabletothebourgeoisieisnotthefearofthegovernmentbutthefearoftheproletariat。
　　Miserableasthebourgeoisieappearsinthepoliticalrealm，itcannotbedeniedthatasfarasindustryandcommerceareconcerned，thebourgeoisiefulfilsitshistoricduty。Thegrowthofindustryandcommercementionedalreadyintheintroductiontothesecondeditionhasbeengoingonwithevengreatervigour。WhathastakenplaceintheRhenish—Westphalianindustrialregionsince1869，isunprecedentedforGermany，anditremindsoneoftherapidgrowthintheEnglishmanufacturingdistrictsatthebeginningofthiscentury。ThesamethingwillhappeninSaxonyandUpperSilesia，inBerlin，Hanover，andthesouthernStates。Atlastwehaveworldtrade，areallybigindustry，andareallymodernbourgeoisie。Butwehavealsohadarealcrisis，andwehaveatrulymightyproletariat。ForthefuturehistorianofGermany，thebattleroarof1859—64onthefieldofSpicheren，MarslaTour，Sedan，andtherest，willbeofmuchlessimportancethantheunpretentious，quiet，andconstantlyforward—movingdevelopmentoftheGermanproletariat。Immediatelyafter1870，theGermanworkersstoodbeforeagravetrial——theBonapartistwarprovocationanditsnaturalsequence，thegeneralnationalenthusiasminGermany。TheGermanworkersdidnotallowthemselvestobeillusionedforamoment。Notatraceofnationalchauvinismmadeitselfmanifestamongthem。Intheniidstofamaniaforvictory，theyremainedcool，demanding"equitablepeacewiththeFrenchRepublicandnoannexations，"andnoteventhestateofsiegewasinapositiontosilencethem。Nogloryofbattle，nophraseologyofGerman"imperialmagnificence"attractedthem。TheirsoleaimremainedtheliberationoftheentireEuropeanproletariat。Wemaysaywithfullassurancethatinnocountryhavetheworkersstoodsuchadifficulttestwithsuchsplendidresults。
　　Thestateofsiegeofwartimewasfollowedbytrialsfortreason，lèsemajesté，andcontemptofofficersandbyeverincreasingpoliceatrocitiespractisedinpeacetime。TheVolksstaathadthreeorfoureditorsinprisonsimultaneously;theotherpapers，inthesameratio。Everyknownpartyspeakerhadtofacecourtatleastonceayear，andwasusuallyconvicted。Deportations，confiscations，suppressionsofmeetingsrapidlyfollowedoneanother，butalltonoavail。Theplaceofeveryprisonerordeporteewasimmediatelyfilledbyanother。Foronesuppressedgathering，twoothersweresubstituted，wearingoutarbitrarypolicepowerinonelocalityaftertheotherbyenduranceandstrictconformitytothelaw。Persecutiondefeateditsownpurpose。Farfrombreakingtheworkers’partyorevenbendingit，itattractedevernewrecruits，andstrengthenedtheorganisation。Intheirstruggleagainsttheauthoritiesandtheindividualbourgeois，theworkersmanifestedanintellectualandmoralsuperiority。Particularlyintheirconflictswiththeemployersoflabourdidtheyshowthatthey，theworkers，werenowtheeducatedclass，whilethecapitalistsweredupes。Intheirfights，asenseofhumourprevailed，showinghowsuretheywereoftheircause，andhowsuperiortheyfelt。
　　Astrugglethusconductedonhistoricallypreparedsoilmustyieldgreatresults。ThesuccessoftheJanuary（1874）electionsstoodout，uniqueinthehistoryofthemodernlabourmovement，andtheastonishmentarousedbythemthroughoutEuropewasperfectlydeserved。
　　TheGermanworkershavetwoimportantadvantagescomparedwith，therestofEurope。First，theybelongtothemosttheoreticalpeopleofEurope;second，theyhaveretainedthatsenseoftheorywhichtheso—called"educated"peopleofGermanyhavetotallylost。WithoutGermanphilosophy，particularlythatofHegel，GermanscientificSocialism（theonlyscientificSocialismextant）wouldneverhavecomeintoexistence。Withoutasensefortheory，scientificSocialismwouldhaveneverbecomebloodandtissueoftheworkers。Whatanenormousadvantagethisis，maybeseenontheonehandfromtheindifferenceoftheEnglishlabourmovementtowardsalltheory，whichisoneofthereasonswhyitmovessoslowlyinspiteofthesplendidOrganisationoftheindividualunions;ontheotherhand，fromthemischiefandconfusioncreatedbyProudhonisminitsoriginalformamongtheFrenchmenandBelgians，andinitscaricatureform，aspresentedbyBakunin，amongtheSpaniardsandItalians。
　　Thesecondadvantageisthat，chronologicallyspeaking，theGermanswerethelasttoappearinthelabourmove。ment。InthesamemannerasGermantheoreticalSocialismwillneverforgetthatitrestsontheshouldersofSaintSimon，FourierandOwen，thethreewho，inspiteoftheirfantasticnotionsandUtopianism，belongedtothemostsignificantheadsofalltimeandwhosegeniusanticipatednumerousthingsthecorrectnessofwhichcannowbeprovedinascientificway，sothepracticalGermanlabourmovementmustneverforgetthatithasdevelopedontheshouldersoftheEnglishandFrenchmovements，thatitbadutilisedtheirexperience，acquiredataheavyprice，andthatforthisreasonitwasinapositiontoavoidtheirmistakeswhichintheirtimewereunavoidable。WithouttheEnglishtradeunionsandtheFrenchpoliticalworkers’strugglesprecedingtheGermanlabourmovement，withoutthemightyimpulsegivenbytheParisCommune，wherewouldwenowbe？
　　ItmustbesaidtothecreditoftheGermanworkersthattheyhaveutilisedtheadvantagesoftheirsituationwithrareunderstanding。
　　Forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofthelabourmovementthestruggleisbeingsoconductedthatitsthreesides，thetheoretical，thepoliticalandthepracticaleconomical（oppositiontothecapitalists），formonebarmoniousandwell—plannedentity。Inthisconcentricattack，asitwere，liesthestrengthandinvincibilityoftheGermanmovement。
　　Itisduetothisadvantageoussituationontheonehand，totheinsularpeculiaritiesoftheBritish，andtothecruelsuppressionoftheFrenchmovementsontheother，thatforthepresentmomenttheGermanworkersformthevanguardoftheproletarianstruggle。Howlongeventswillallowthemtooccupythispostofhonourcannotbeforeseen。Butaslongastheyareplacedinit，letushopethattheywilldischargetheirdutiesinthepropermanner。Itisthespecificdutyoftheleaderstogainaneverclearerunderstandingofthetheoreticalproblems，tofreethemselvesmoreandmorefromtheinfluenceoftraditionalphrasesinheritedfromtheoldconceptionoftheworld，andconstantlytokeepinmindthatSocialism，havingbecomeascience，demandsthesametreatmentaseveryotherscience——itmustbestudied。Thetaskoftheleaderswillbetobringunderstanding，thusacquiredandclarified，totheworkingmasses，tospreaditwithincreasedenthusiasm，toclosetheranksofthepartyorganisationsandofthelabourunionswithevergreaterenergy。ThevotescastinfavouroftheSocialistslastJanuarymayrepresentconsiderablestrength，buttheystillarefarfrombeingthemajorityoftheGermanworkingclass;andencouragingasmaybethesuccessesofthepropagandaamongtheruralpopulation，moreremainstobedoneinthisfield。Thesloganisnottoflinchinthestruggle。
　　Thetaskistowrestfromtheenemy’shandsoneseataftertheother，oneelectoraldistrictaftertheother。Inthefirstplace，however，itisnecessarytoretainarealinternationalspiritwhichpermitsofnochauvinism，whichjoyfullygreetseachnewstepoftheproletarianmovement，nomatterinwhichnationitismade。IftheGermanworkersproceedinthisway，theymaynotmarchexactlyattheheadofthemovement——itisnotintheinterestofthemovementthattheworkersofonecountryshouldmarchattheheadofall—buttheywilloccupyanhonourableplaceonthebattleline，andtheywillstandarmedforbattlewhenotherunexpectedgravetrialsormomentouseventswilldemandheightenedcourage，heighteneddetermination，andthewilltoact。
　　FREDERICKENGELS。
　　London，July1，1874。
　　[Topart1]
　　ThePeasantWarinGermany：Chapter1FrederickEngels’
　　THEPEASANTWARINGERMANYCHAPTER1
　　TheEconomicSituationandSocialClassesinGermanyTheGermanpeoplearebynomeanslackinginrevolutionarytradition。ThereweretimeswhenGermanyproducedcharactersthatcouldmatchthebestmenintherevolutionsofothercountries;whentheGermanpeoplemanifestedanenduranceandenergywhich，inacentralisednation，wouldhavebroughtthemostmagnificentresults;whentheGermanpeasantsandplebeianswerepregnantwithideasandplanswhichoftenmadetheirdescendantsshudder。
　　Incontrasttopresent—dayenfeeblementwhichappearseverywhereaftertwoyearsofstruggle（since1848）itistimelytopresentoncemoretotheGermanpeoplethoseawkwardbutpowerfulandtenaciousfiguresofthegreatpeasantwar。Threecenturieshaveflownbysincethen，andmanyathinghaschanged;stillthepeasantwarisnotasfarremovedfromourpresent—daystrugglesasitwouldseem，andtheopponentswehavetoencounterremainessentiallythesame。Thoseclassesandfractionsofclasseswhicheverywherebetrayed1848and1849，canbefoundintheroleoftraitorsasearlyas1525，thoughonlowerlevelofdevelopment。Andiftherobustvandalismthepeasantwarsappearedinthemovementofthelastyearsonlysporadically，intheOdenwald，intheBlackForest，inSilesia，itbynomeansshowsasuperiorityofthemoderninsurrection。
　　*LetusfirstreviewbrieflythesituationinGermanyatthebeginningoftheSixteenthCentury。
　　GermanindustrybadgonethroughaconsiderableprocessofgrowthintheFourteenthandFifteenthCenturies。Thelocalindustryofthefeudalcountrysidewassupersededbytheguildorganisationofproductioninthecities，whichproducedforwidercirclesandevenforremotemarkets。Weavingofcrudewoollenstuffsandlinenshadbecomeawell—established，ramifiedbranchofindustry，andevenfinerwoollenandlinenfabrics，aswellassilks，werealreadybeingproducedinAugsburg。Outsideoftheartofweaving，therehadarisenthosebranchesofindustry，which，approachingthefinerarts，werenurturedbythedemandsforluxuriesonthepartoftheecclesiasticandlaylordsofthelatemediaevalepoch：gold—andsilver—smithing，sculptureandwood—carving，etchingandwood—engraving，armourmaking，medal—engraving，wood—turning，etc。，etc。Aseriesofmoreorlessimportantdiscoveriesculminatingintheinventionofgunpowderandprintinghadconsiderablyaidedthedevelopmentofthecrafts。Commercekeptpacewithindustry。
　　TheHanseaticLeague，throughitscentury—longmonopolyofseanavigation，hadbroughtabouttheemergenceoftheentirenorthofGermanyoutofmedievalbarbarism;andevenwhen，aftertheendoftheSixteenthCentury，theHanseaticLeaguehadbeguntosuccumbtothecompetitionoftheEnglishandtheDutch，thegreathighwayofcommercefromIndiatothenorthstilllaythroughGermany，VascodaGama’sdiscoveriesnotwithstanding。AugsburgstillremainedthegreatpointofconcentrationforItaliansilks，Indianspices，andallLevantineproducts。ThecitiesofupperGermany，namely，AugsburgandNuernberg，werethecentresofopulenceandluxuryremarkableforthattime。Theproductionofrawmaterialshadequallyprogressed。TheGermanminersoftheFifteenthCenturybadbeenthemostskilfulintheworld，andagriculturewasalsoshakenoutofitsmediaevalcruditythroughtheblossomingforthofthecities。Notonlyhadlargestretchesoflandbeenputundercultivation，butdyeplantsandotherimportedcultureshadbeenintroduced，whichinturnhadafavourableinfluenceonagricultureasawhole。
　　Still，theprogressofnationalproductioninGermanyhadnotkeptpacewiththeprogressofothercountries。AgriculturelaggedfarbehindthatofEnglandandHolland。IndustrylaggedfarbehindtheItalian，FlemishandEnglish，andastoseanavigation，theEnglish，andespeciallytheDutch，werealreadydrivingtheGermansoutofthefield。Thepopulationwasstirverysparse。CivilisationinGermanyexistedonlyinspots，aroundthecentresofindustryandcommerce;buteventheinterestsoftheseindividualcentresdivergedwidely，withhardlyanypointofcontact。ThetraderelationsandmarketsoftheSouthdifferedfromthoseoftheNorth;theEastandtheWesthadalmostnointercourse。Nocityhadgrowntobecometheindustrialandcommercialpointofgravityforthewholecountry，suchasLondonwasforEngland。Internalcommunicationwasalmostexclusivelyconfinedtocoastwiseandrivernavigationandtoafewlargecommercialhighways，likethosefromAugsburgandNuernbergthroughColognetotheNetherlands，andthroughErfurttotheNorth。Awayfromtheriversandhighwaysofcommercetherewasanumberofsmallercitieswhich，excludedfromthegreattradecentres，continuedasluggishexistenceunderconditionsoflatemedievaltimes，consumingfewnon—localarticles，andyieldingfewproductsforexport。Oftheruralpopulation，onlythenobilitycameintocontactwithwidecirclesandnewwants;themassofthepeasantsneveroversteppedtheboundariesoflocalrelationsandlocaloutlook。
　　WhileinEngland，aswellasinFrance，theriseofcommerceandindustryhadbroughtaboutalinkingofinterestsovertheentirecountry，thepoliticalcentralisationofGermanyhadsucceededonlyinthegroupingofinterestsaccordingtoprovincesandaroundpurelylocalcentres。ThismeantpoliticaldecentralisationwhichlatergainedmomentumthroughtheexclusionofGermanyfromworldcommerce。Inthedegreeasthepurelyfeudalempirewasfallingapart，bondsofunitywerebecomingweakened，greatfeudalvassalswereturningintoalmostindependentprinces，andcitiesoftheempireontheonehand，theknightsoftheempireontheother，wereformingallianceseitheragainsteachother，oragainsttheprincesortheemperor。Theimperialpower，nowuncertainastoitsownposition，vacillatedbetweenthevariouselementsopposingtheempire，andwasconstantlylosingauthority;theattemptatcentralisation，inthemannerofLouisXIbroughtaboutnothingbuttheholdingtogetheroftheAustrianhereditarylands，thisinspiteofallintriguesandviolentactions。Thefinalwinners，whocouldnothelpwinninginthisconfusion，inthishelter—skelterofnumerousconflicts，weretherepresentativesofcentralisationamidstdisunion，therepresentativesoflocalandprovincialcentralisation，theprinces，besidewhomtheemperorgraduallybecamenomorethanaprinceamongprinces。
　　Undertheseconditionsthesituationoftheclassesemergingfrommediaevaltimeshadconsiderablychanged。Newclassesbadbeenformedbesidestheoldones。
　　Outoftheoldnobilitycametheprinces。Alreadytheywerealmostindependentoftheemperor，andpossessedthemajorpartofsovereignrights。
　　Theydeclaredwarandmadepeaceoftheirownaccord，theymaintainedstandingarmies，calledlocalcouncils，andleviedtaxes。Theyhadalreadydrawnalargepartofthelowernobilityandcitiesundertheirlordlypower;
　　theydideverythingintheirpowertoincorporateintheirlandsalltherestofthecitiesandbaronieswhichstillremainedundertheempire。
　　Towardssuchcitiesandbaroniestheyappearedintheroleofcentralisers，whileasfarastheimperialpowerwasconcerned，theywerethedecentralisingfactor。Internally，theirreignwasalreadyautocratic，theycalledtheestatesonlywhentheycouldnotdowithoutthem。Theyimposedtaxes，andcollectedmoneywhenevertheysawfit。Therightoftheestatestoratifytaxeswasseldomrecognised，andstillmoreseldompractised。Andevenwhentheywerecalled，theprincesordinarilyhadamajority，thankstotheknightsandtheprelateswhichwerethetwoestatesfreedfromtaxes，participating，nevertheless，intheirconsumption。Theneedoftheprincesformoneygrewwiththetasteforluxuries，withtheincreaseofthecourtsandthestandingarmies，withthemountingcostsofadministration。Thetaxeswerebecomingmoreandmoreoppressive。Thecitiesbeinginmostcasesprotectedagainstthembyprivileges，theentireweightofthetaxburdenfelluponthepeasants，thoseundertheprincesthemselves，aswellastheserfsandbondsmenoftheknightsboundbyvassalagetotheprinces;
　　whereverdirecttaxationwasinsufficient，indirecttaxeswereintroduced;
　　themostskilfulmachinationsoftheartoffinancewereutilisedtofillthegapingholesofthefiscalsystem。Whennothingelseavailed，whentherewasnothingtopawnandnofreeimperialcitywaswillingtograntcreditanylonger，oneresortedtocoinmanipulationsofthebasestkind，onecoineddepreciatedmoney，onesetahigherorlowerrateoflegaltendermostconvenientfortheprince。Tradingincityandotherprivileges，subsequentlytobetakenawaybyforce，inorderthattheymightagainbesold，seizingeveryattemptat，oppositionasanexcuseforincendiarismandrobberyofeverykind，etc。，etc。，werelucrativeandquiteordinarysourcesofincomefortheprincesofthosetimes。Theadministrationofjusticewasalsoaconstantandnotunimportantarticleoftradefortheprinces。Inbrief，thesubjectswho，besidestheprinces，hadtosatisfytheprivateappetitesoftheirmagistratesandbailiffsaswell，wereenjoyingthefulltasteofthe"fatherly"system。Ofthemedievalfeudalhierarchy，theknighthoodofmoderatepossessionshadalmostentirelydisappeared;
　　ithadeitherclimbeduptothepositionofindependenceofsmallprinces，orithadsunkintotheranksofthelowernobility。Thelowernobility，theknighthood，wasfastmovingtowardsextinction。Alargeportionofithadalreadybecomepauperised，andlivedonitsservicestotheprinces，eitherinmilitaryorincivilcapacity;anotherportionwasboundbyvassalagetothesovereigntyoftheprince;averysmallportionwasdirectlyundertheempire。Thedevelopmentofmilitaryscience，therisingimportanceofinfantry，thespreadoffirearms，haddwarfedtheirmilitaryimportanceasheavycavalry，atthesametimedestroyingtheinvincibilityoftheircastles。Theknightshadbecomesuperfluousthroughtheprogressofindustry，justAstheartisanshadbecomeobviatedbythesameprogress。Thedireneedoftheknighthoodformoneyaddedconsiderablytotheirruin。Theluxuriouslifeinthecastles，thecompetitioninmagnificenceattournamentsandfeasts，thepriceofarmamentsandofhorsesallincreasedwiththeprogressofcivilisation，whereasthesourcesofincomeoftheknightsandbarons，increasedbutlittle，ifatall。Feudswithaccompanyingplundersandincendiarism，lyinginambush，andsimilarnobleoccupations，becameinthecourseoftimetoodangerous。Thecashpaymentsoftheknights’
　　subjectsbroughtinhardlymorethanbefore。Inordertosatisfymountingrequirements，thenoblemastersresortedtothesamemeansaswerepractisedbytheprinces;thepeasantrywasbeingrobbedbythemasterswithgreaterdexterityeveryyear。Theserfswerebeingwrungdry。Thebondsmenwereburdenedwithevernewpaymentsofvariousdescriptionsuponeverypossibleoccasion。Serflabour，dues，groundrents，landsaletaxes，deathtaxes，protectionmoneysandsoon，wereincreasedatwillinspiteofoldagreements。
　　justicewasdeniedorsoldformoney，andwherevertheknightcouldnotobtainthepeasant’smoneyotherwise，hethrewhimintothetowerwithoutmuchado，andcompelledhimtopayransom。
　　Withtheotherclasses，thelowernobilitycourtednofriendlyrelationseither。Vassalknightsstrovetobecomevassalsoftheempire;
　　vassalsoftheempirestrovetobecomeindependent。Thisledtoincessantconflictswiththeprinces。Theknighthoodlookedupontheclergywiththeirresplendentgrandeurasuponapowerfulbutsuperfluousclass。Itenviedthemtheirlargeestatesandtheirrichesheldsecurebycelibacyandthechurchconstitution。Withthecities，theknighthoodwascontinuallyonthewarpath;itowedthemmoney，itfedonplunderingtheirterritory，onrobbingtheirmerchants，ontheransompaidforprisonerscapturedinconflicts。Thestruggleoftheknighthoodagainstalltheseestatesbecamemorevehementastheestatesthemselvesbegantorealisethatthemoneyquestionwasalifeproblemforthem。
　　Theclergy，representativesoftheideologyofmediaevalfeudalism，felttheinfluenceofthehistorictransformationnolessacutely。Theinventionoftheartofprinting，andtherequirementsofextendedcommerce，robbedtheclergynotonlyofitsmonopolyofreadingandwriting，butalsoofthatofhighereducation。Divisionoflabourwasbeingintroducedalsointotherealmofintellectualwork。Thenewlyarisingclassofjuristsdrovetheclergyoutofaseriesofveryinfluentialpositions。Theclergywasalsobeginningtobecomelargelysuperfluous，anditacknowledgedthisfactbygrowinglazierandmoreignorant。Themoresuperfluousitbecame，themoreitgrewinnumbers，thankstotheenormousricheswhichitstillkeptonaugmentingbyfairmeansorfoul。
　　Theclergywasdividedintotwodistinctgroups。Thefeudalhierarchyoftheclergyformedthearistocraticgroup——bishopsandarchbishops，abbots，priorsandotherprelates。Thesehighchurchdignitarieswereeitherimperialprincesthemselves，ortheyreignedasvassalsofotherprincesoverlargeareaswithnumerousserfsandbondsmen。Theynotonlyexploitedtheirsubjectsasrecklesslyastheknighthoodandtheprinces，buttheypractisedthisinanevenmoreshamefulmanner。Theyusednotonlybrutalforce，butalltheintriguesofreligionaswell;notonlythehorrorsoftherack，butalsothehorrorofexcommunication，orrefusalofabsolution;
　　theyusedalltheintricaciesoftheconfessionalinordertoextractfromtheirsubjectsthelastpenny，ortoincreasetheestatesofthechurch。
　　Forgingofdocumentswasawidespreadandbelovedmeansofextortioninthehandsofthoseworthymen，who，receivingfromtheirsubjectsfeudalpayments，taxesandtithes，werestillinconstantneedofmoney。Themanufactureofmiracle—producingsaints’effigiesandrelics，theorganisationofpraying—centresendowedwiththepowerofsalvation，thetradeinindulgenceswasresortedtoinordertosqueezemorepaymentsoutofthepeople。Allthiswaspractisedlongandwithnotlittlesuccess。