WhatpromptedLopeztoembarkonhiscareerofinternationalmadnessandprosecuteitwiththerageofademonisnotentirelyclear。AvisionofhimselfastheNapoleonofsouthernSouthAmerica，whomightcauseBrazil，Argentina，andUruguaytocringebeforehisfootstool，whilehedisposedatwilloftheirterritoryandfortunes，doubtlessstirredhisimagination。So，too，thethoughtofhiscountry，wedgedinbetweentwohugeneighborsandthreatenedwithsuffocationbetweentheiroverlappingfolds，maywellhavesuggestedthewisdomofconqueringoverlandahighwaytothesea。Atallevents，heassembledanarmyofupwardsofninetythousandmen，thegreatestmilitaryarraythatHispanicAmericahadeverseen。Thoughadmirablydrilledanddisciplined，theywerepoorlyarmed，mostlywithflintlockmuskets，andtheywerealsodeficientinartilleryexceptthatofantiquatedpattern。Withthismightyforceathisback，yetknowingthattheneighboringcountriescouldeventuallycallintothefieldarmiesmuchlargerinsizeequippedwithrepeatingriflesandsuppliedwithmodernartillery，the"JupiterofParaguay"neverthelessmadereadytolaunchhisthunderbolt。
　　TheprimaryobjectatwhichheaimedwasUruguay。InthislittlestatetheColorados，upheldopenlyorsecretlybyBrazilandArgentina，wereconductinga"crusadeofliberty"againsttheBlancogovernmentatMontevideo，whichwasfavoredbyParaguay。
　　NeitherofthetwogreatpowerswishedtoseeanallianceformedbetweenUruguayandParaguay，lestwhenunitedinthismannerthesmallernationsmightbecometoostrongtotoleratefurtherinterventionintheiraffairs。Forherpart，BrazilhadmotivesforresentmentarisingoutofboundarydisputeswithParaguayandUruguay，aswellasoutoftheinevitableinjurytoitsnationalsinflictedbythecommotionsinthelattercountry;whereasArgentinacherishedgrievancesagainstLopezfortheaudacitywithwhichhistroopsroamedthroughherprovincesandtheimpudencewithwhichhisvessels，plyingonthelowerParana，ignoredthecustomsregulations。ThusithappenedthatobscurecivildiscordsinonelittlerepublicexplodedintoaterrificinternationalstrugglewhichshookSouthAmericatoitsfoundations。
　　In1864，scorningtheartsofdiplomacywhichhedidnotapparentlyunderstand，LopezsentdownanorderforthetwobigstatestoleavethematterofUruguayanpoliticstohisimpartialadjustment。AtbothRiodeJaneiroandBuenosAiresaroaroflaughterwentupfromthepressatthisnotionofanobscurechieftainofabandofIndiansinthetropicalbackwoodsdaringtopoisetheequilibriumofmuchmorethanhalfacontinentonhisinsolenthand。Butthemerrimentsoonsubsided，asBraziliansandArgentinoscametorealizewhattheirperilmightbefromahugearmyofskilledandvaliantsoldiers，averitablehordeoffightingfanatics，drawnupinacompactlittleland，centrallylocatedandaffordinginotherrespectseverykindofstrategicadvantage。
　　WhenBrazilinvadedUruguayandrestoredtheColoradostopower，LopezdemandedpermissionfromArgentinatocrossitsfrontier，forthepurposeofassailinghisenemyfromanotherquarter。Whenthepermissionwasdenied，LopezdeclaredwaronArgentinaalso。
　　Itwasineveryrespectadaringstep，butLopezknewthatArgentinawasnotsowellpreparedashisownstateforawarofendurance。Uruguaythenenteredintoanalliancein1865withitstwobig"protectors。"Inaccordancewithitsterms，thealliesagreednottoconcludepeaceuntilLopezhadbeenoverthrown，heavyindemnitieshadbeenexactedofParaguay，itsfortificationsdemolished，itsarmydisbanded，andthecountryforcedtoacceptanyboundariesthatthevictorsmightseefittoimpose。
　　Intothedetailsofthecampaignsinthefrightfulconflictthatensueditisnotnecessarytoenter。Although，in1866，theallieshadassembledanarmyofsomefiftythousandmen，Lopezcontinuedtakingtheoffensiveuntil，asthenumberanddeterminationofhisadversariesincreased，hewascompelledtoretreatintohisowncountry。HereheandhisIndianlegionsleviedterrifictolluponthelivesoftheirenemieswhopressedonward，upordowntheriversandthroughtropicalswampsandforests。InchbyinchhecontestedtheirentryuponParaguayansoil。Whentheable—bodiedmengaveout，oldmen，boys，women，andgirlsfoughtonwithstubbornfury，anddiedbeforetheywouldsurrender。Thewoundedescapediftheycould，or，cursingtheircaptors，toreofftheirbandagesandbledtodeath。Diseasewroughtawfulhavocinallthearmiesengaged;yetthestrugglecontinueduntilfleshandbloodcouldendurenomore。Flyingbeforehispursuersintothewildsofthenorthandfranticallydraggingalongwithhimmassesoffugitivemen，women，andchildren，whomheremorselesslyshot，orstarvedtodeath，orlefttoperishofexhaustion，Lopezturnedfinallyatbay，and，onMarch1，1870，wasfelledbythelanceofacavalryman。Hehadsworntodieforhiscountryandhedid，thoughhiscountrymightperishwithhim。
　　NolandinmoderntimeshaseverreachedapointsonearannihilationasParaguay。Addedtotheutterruinofitsindustriesandthedevastationofitsfields，dwellings，andtowns，hundredsofthousandsofmen，women，andchildrenhadperished。Indeed，thehorrorsthathadbefallenitmightwellhaveledthealliestoaskthemselveswhetheritwasworthwhiletodestroyacountryinordertochangeitsrulers。FiveyearsbeforeLopezcameintopowerthepopulationofParaguayhadbeenreckonedatsomethingbetween800，000and1，400，000——sounreliablewerecensusreturnsinthosedays。In1878itwasestimatedatabout230，000，ofwhomwomenoverfifteenyearsofageoutnumberedthemennearlyfourtoone。Loosepolygamywastheinevitableconsequence，andwomenbecamethebreadwinners。
　　Eventodayinthiscountrytheexcessoffemalesovermalesisverygreat。Allinall，itisnotstrangethatParaguayshouldbecalledthe"Niobeamongnations。"
　　UnlikemanynationsofSpanishAmericainwhichamoreorlessanticlericalregimewasintheascendant，Ecuadorfellunderasortoftheocracy。Hereappearedoneofthestrangestcharactersinastoryalreadyfullofextraordinarypersonages——GabrielGarciaMoreno，whobecamePresidentofthatrepublicin1861。InsomerespectsthecounterpartofFranciaofParaguay，inothersbothamedievalmysticandanenlightenedrulerofmoderntype，hewasamanofremarkableintellect，constructiveability，earnestpatriotism，anddisinterestedzealfororderlinessandprogress。Onhispresidentialsashwereinscribedthewords："MyPowerintheConstitution";butisrealpowerlayinhimselfandinthesystemwhichheimplanted。
　　GarciaMorenohadavariedcareer。Hehadbeenastudentofchemistryandothernaturalsciences。HehadspenthisyouthinexileinEurope，wherehepreparedhimselfforhissubsequentcareerasajournalistandauniversityprofessor。Throughitallhehadbeenanactiveparticipantinpublicaffairs。Grimofcountenance，austereinbearing，violentoftemper，relentlessinseverity，hewasadevotedbelieverintheRomanCatholicfaithandinthisChurchasthesoleeffectivebasisuponwhichastatecouldbefoundedorsocialandpoliticalregenerationcouldbeassured。Inordertorendereffectivehisconceptofwhatanationoughttobe，GarciaMorenointroducedandupheldinallrigidityanadministrationthelikeofwhichhadbeenknownhardlyanywheresincetheMiddleAges。HerecalledtheJesuits，establishedschoolsofthe"BrothersoftheChristianDoctrine，"
　　andmadeeducationamatterwhollyunderecclesiasticalcontrol。
　　Heforbadehereticalworship，calledthecountrythe"RepublicoftheSacredHeart，"andenteredintoaconcordatwiththePopeunderwhichtheChurchinEcuadorbecamemoresubjecttothewillofthesupremepontiffthanwesternEuropehadbeeninthedaysofInnocentIII。
　　LiberalsinandoutsideofEcuadortriedfeeblytoshakeoffthismasterfultheocracy，forthefriendshipwhichGarciaMorenodisplayedtowardthediplomaticrepresentativesoftheCatholicpowersofEurope，notablythoseofSpainandFrance，excitedtheneighboringrepublics。Colombia，indeed，sentanarmytoliberatethe"brotherdemocratsofEcuadorfromtheruleofProfessorGarciaMoreno，"butthemassofthepeoplestoodloyallybytheirPresident。Forthisastoundingobediencetoanadministrationapparentlysounrelatedtomodernideas，theecclesiasticaldominationwasnotsolelyorevenchieflyresponsible。InmorewaysthanoneGarciaMoreno，theprofessorPresident，wasastatesmanofvisionanddeed。Heputdownbrigandageandlawlessness;reformedthefinances;erectedhospitals;promotededucation;andencouragedthestudyofnaturalscience。Evenhissalaryhegaveovertopublicimprovements。HissuccessorsinthepresidentialofficefounditimpossibletogovernthecountrywithoutGarciaMoreno。Electedforathirdtermtocarryonhiscuriouspolicyofconservatismandreactionblendedwithmodernadvancement，hefellbythehandofanassassinin1875。ButthesystemwhichhehaddonesomuchtoestablishinEcuadorsurvivedhimformanyyears。
　　AlthoughBrazildidnotescapetheevilsofinsurrectionwhichretardedthegrowthofnearlyallofitsneighbors，noneofitsnumerouscommotionsshookthestabilityofthenationtoaperilousdegree。By1850alldangerofrevolutionhadvanished。
　　ThecountrybegantoenteruponacareerofpeaceandprogressunderaregimewhichcombinedbroadlythefederalorganizationoftheUnitedStateswiththeformofaconstitutionalmonarchy。
　　BrazilenjoyedoneofthefewenlighteneddespotismsinSouthAmerica。Adoptingattheoutsettheparliamentarysystem，theEmperorPedroIIchosehisministersfromamongtheliberalsorconservatives，asonepartyortheothermightpossessamajorityinthelowerhouseoftheCongress。Thoughthelegislativepowerofthenationwasenjoyedalmostentirelybytheplantersandtheirassociateswhoformedthedominantsocialclass，individuallibertywasfullyguaranteed，andevenfreedomofconscienceandofthepresswasallowed。Negroslavery，thoughtolerated，wasnotexpresslyrecognized。
　　Thankstothepoliticaldiscretionandunusualpersonalqualitiesof"DomPedro，"hispopularitybecamemoreandmoremarkedastheyearswenton。Apatronofscienceandliterature，ascholarratherthanaruler，aplacidandsomewhateccentricphilosopher，carelessofthetrappingsofstate，hedevotedhimselfwithoutstinttothepublicwelfare。Shrewdlydiviningthatthemonarchicalsystemmightnotsurvivemuchlonger，hekepthisrealmpacifiedbyapolicyofconciliation。PedroIIevenwentsofarastocallhimselfthebestrepublicanintheEmpire。Hemighthavesaid，withjusticeperhaps，thathewasthebestrepublicaninthewholeofHispanicAmerica。Whathereallyaccomplishedwasthesuccessfulexerciseofapaternalautocracyofkindnessandliberalityoverhissubjects。
　　IfmoreorlesspermanentdictatorsandoccasionalliberatorsweretheorderofthedayinmostoftheSpanishAmericanrepublics，intermittentdictatorsandliberatorsdashedacrossthestageinMexicofrom1829wellbeyondthemiddleofthecentury。Theothercountriescouldshownumerousinstancesinwhichtheoccupantofthechiefmagistracyheldofficetothecloseofhisconstitutionalterm;butMexicocouldnotshowasingleone！WhatMexicofurnished，instead，wasakaleidoscopicspectacleofsuccessivepresidentsordictators，anunstablearrayofself—styled"generals"withoutapresidentialsuccession。Therewerenofewerthanfiftysuchtransientrulersinthirty—twoyears，withanywherefromonetosixayear，witheventhesameincumbenttwiceinoneyear，or，inthecaseoftherepetitiousSantaAnna，ninetimesintwentyyears——inspiteofthefactthattheconstitutionaltermofofficewasfouryears。
　　ThiswasarecordthatmadethemostturbulentSouthAmericanstatesseem，bycomparison，landsofmethodicalregularityinthechoiceoftheirnationalexecutive。Andasifthisinstabilityinthechiefmagistracywerenotenough，theformofgovernmentinMexicoshiftedviolentlyfromfederaltocentralized，andbackagaintofederal。MadstrugglesragedbetweenpartisanchieftainsandtheirbandsofEscocesesandYorkinos，cryingoutuponthe"President"inpowerbecauseofhisundueinfluenceuponthechoiceofasuccessor，backingtheirrespectivecandidatesiftheylost，andwaitingforachancetooustthemiftheywon。
　　ThistumultuousepochhadscarcelybegunwhenSpainin1829madeafinalattempttorecoverherlostdominioninMexico。Localquarrelswerestraightwaydroppedfortwomonthsuntiltheinvadershadsurrendered。Thereuponthegreatlandholders，whodislikedtheprevailingYorkinoregimeforitsdemocraticpoliciesandforfavoringtheabolitionofslavery，ralliedtotheaidofa"general"whoissuedamanifestodemandinganobservanceoftheconstitutionandthelaws！AfterSantaAnna，whowasplayingtheroleofaMexicanWarwick，haddisposedofthisaspirant，heswitchedblithelyovertotheEscoceses，reducedthefederalsystemalmosttoanullity，andin1836
　　marchedawaytoconquertherevoltingTexans。But，instead，theyconqueredhimandgainedtheirindependence，sothathisrewardwasexile。
　　NowtheEscoceseswerefreetopromulgateanewconstitution，toabolishthefederalarrangementaltogether，andtoreplaceitbyastronglycentralizedgovernmentunderwhichtheindividualStatesbecamemereadministrativedistricts。Hardlyhadthisradicalchangebeeneffectedwhenin1838warbrokeoutwithFranceonaccountoftheinjurieswhichitsnationals，amongwhomwerecertainpastrycooks，hadsufferedduringtheinterminablecommotions。Mexicowasforcedtopayaheavyindemnity;andSantaAnna，whohadreturnedtofighttheinvader，wasunfortunateenoughtolosealeginthestruggle。Thisphysicaldeprivation，however，didnotinterferewiththatdoughtyhero’szestfortiltingwithotherunquietspiritswhoyearnedtoassurenationalregenerationbycontinuingtoelevateanddepose"presidents。"
　　AnotherswingofthepoliticalpendulumhadrestoredthefederalsystemwhenagaineverythingwasoverturnedbythedisastrouswarwiththeUnitedStates。OncemoreSantaAnnareturned，thistime，however，tojoustinvainwiththe"Yankeedespoilers"whoweredestinedtodismemberMexicoandtoannextwo—thirdsofitsterritory。AgainSantaAnnawasbanished——todreamofamorefavorableopportunitywhenhemightbecomethesaviorofacountrywhichhadfallenintobankruptcyandimpotence。
　　Hisopportunitycamein1853，whenconservativesandclericalsindulgedthefatuoushopethathewouldbothsustaintheirprivilegesandliftMexicooutofitssoredistress。Eithertheirmemorieswereshortorelsedistancehadcastahaloabouthisfigure。Atallevents，hereturnedfromexileandassumed，fortheninthandlasttime，apresidencywhichheintendedtobesomethingmorethanameredictatorship。ScorningtheformalityofaCongress，hehadhimselfentitled"MostSereneHighness，"asindicativeofhisambitiontobecomeamonarchinnameaswellasinfact。
　　Royalorimperialdesignshadlongsincebroughtonemilitaryupstarttogrief。TheywerenowtocutSantaAnna’sresidenceinMexicosimilarlyshort。Eruptionsofdiscontentbrokeoutalloverthecountry。Unabletomakethemsubside，SantaAnnafellbackuponanexpedientwhichrecallspracticeselsewhereinSpanishAmerica。Heopenedregistriesinwhichallcitizensmightrecord"freely"theirapprovalordisapprovalofhiscontinuanceinpower。Thoughheobtainedthehugemajorityofaffirmativevotestobeexpectedinsuchcases，hefoundthatthesepen—and—inksignatureswerenomoreserviceablethanhissoldiers。Accordinglythedictatorofmanyaday，fallenfromhisformerestateofhighness，decidedtoabandonhisserenityalso，andin1854fledthecountry——foritsgoodandhisown。
　　CHAPTERVI。PERILFROMABROAD
　　ApartfromthespoliationofMexicobytheUnitedStates，theindependenceoftheHispanicnationshadnotbeenmenacedformorethanthirtyyears。Nowcomesaperiodinwhichtheplightoftheirbignorthernneighbor，rentintwainbycivilwarandpowerlesstoenforcethespiritoftheMonroeDoctrine，causedtwoofthecountriestobecomesubjectawhiletoEuropeancontrol。OneofthesewastheDominicanRepublic。
　　In1844theSpanish—speakingpopulationoftheeasternpartoftheislandofSantoDomingo，writhingunderthedespoticyokeofHaiti，hadseizedafavorableoccasiontoregaintheirfreedom。
　　Butthemagicword"independence"couldnotgivestabilitytothenewstateanymorethanithaddoneinthecaseofitswesternfoes。TheHaitianshadlapsedlongsinceintoaconditionresemblingthatoftheirAfricanforefathers。TheyreveledinthebarbaritiesofVoodoo，asortofsnakeworship，andtheygroveledbefore"presidents"and"emperors"whoroseandfellonthetideofdecayingcivilization。TheDominicansunhappilywerenotmuchmoreprogressive。Revolutionsalternatedwithinvasionsandcounterinvasionsandeffectuallypreventedenduringprogress。
　　OnseveraloccasionstheDominicanshadsoughtreannexationtoSpainorhadcravedtheprotectionofFranceasadefenseagainstcontinualmenacefromtheirnegroenemiesandasarelieffromdomesticturmoil。ButeverymoveinthisdirectionfailedbecauseofanaturalreluctanceonthepartofSpainandFrance，whichwasheightenedbyarefusaloftheUnitedStatestopermitwhatitregardedasaviolationoftheMonroeDoctrine。In1861，however，theoutbreakofcivilwarintheUnitedStatesappearedtopresentafavorableopportunitytoobtainprotectionfromabroad。IftheDominicanRepubliccouldnotremainindependentanyway，reunionwiththeoldmothercountryseemedaltogetherpreferabletoreconquestbyHaiti。ThePresident，therefore，enteredintonegotiationswiththeSpanishGovernorandCaptainGeneralofCuba，andthenissuedaproclamationsignedbyhimselfandfourofhisministersannouncingthatbythe"freeandspontaneouswill"ofitscitizens，whohadconferreduponhimthepowertodoso，thenationrecognizedQueenIsabellaIIasitslawfulsovereign！PracticallynoprotestwasmadebytheDominicansagainstthislossoftheirindependence。
　　DifficultieswhichshouldhavebeenforeseenbySpainwerequicktorevealthemselves。ItfelltotheexPresident，nowacolonialgovernorandcaptaingeneral，toappointahostofofficialsand，notunnaturally，henamedhisownhenchmen。Bysodoinghenotonlyarousedtheanimosityofthedisappointedbutstimlatedthatoftheotherwisedisaffectedaswell，untilboththeaggrievedfactionsbegantoplotrebellion。Spain，too，sentoveracrowdofofficialswhocouldnotadjustthemselvestolocalconditions。
　　ThefailureofthemothercountrytoallowtheDominicansrepresentationintheSpanishCortesanditsreadinesstolevytaxesstirredupresentmentthatsoonendedinrevolution。Unabletocheckthisnewtrouble，andawedbythethreateningattitudeoftheUnitedStates，Spaindecidedtowithdrawin1865。TheDominicansthuswereleftwiththeirindependenceandachance——whichtheypromptlyseized——torenewtheircommotions。Soseriousdidthesedisturbancesbecomethatin1869thePresidentofthereconstitutedrepublicsoughtannexationtotheUnitedStatesbutwithoutsuccess。Americanefforts，ontheotherhand，wereequallyfutiletorestorepeaceandorderinthetroubledcountryuntilmanyyearslater。
　　TheinterventionofSpaininSantoDomingoanditssubsequentwithdrawalcouldnotfailtohavedisastrousconsequencesinitscolonyofCuba，the"PearloftheAntilles"asitwasproudlycalled。Hereabundantcropsofsugarandtobaccohadbroughtwealthandluxury，butnotmanyimmigrantsbecauseofthehavocmadebyepidemicsofyellowfever。Nearlyathirdoftheinsularpopulationwasstillcomposedofnegroslaves，whocouldhardlyrelishthethoughtthat，whilethemothercountryhadtoleratedthesuppressionofthehatefulinstitutioninSantoDomingo，shestillmaintaineditinCuba。Abureaucracy，also，pronetocorruptionowingtothetemptationsoflooseaccountingatthecustomhouse，governedinroutinary，ifnotinarbitrary，fashion。UnderthesecircumstancesdislikeforthesuspiciousandrepressiveadministrationofSpaingrewapace，andsecretsocietiesrenewedtheiragitationforitsoverthrow。ThesymptomsofunrestwereaggravatedbytheforcedretirementofSpainfromSantoDomingo。IftheDominicanshadsucceededsowell，itoughtnottobedifficultforaprolongedrebelliontowearSpainoutandcompelittoabandonCubaalso。AtthiscriticalmomentnewswasbroughtofaSpanishrevolutionacrosstheseas。
　　JustastheplightofSpainin1808，andagainin1820，hadaffordedafavorableopportunityforitscoloniesonthecontinentsofAmericatowintheirindependence，sonowin1868
　　thetidingsthatQueenIsabellahadbeendethronedbyaliberaluprisingarousedtheCubanstoactionundertheirdevotedleader，CarlosManueldeCespedes。Theinsurrectionhadnotgainedmuchheadway，however，whentheprovisionalgovernmentofthemothercountryinstructedanewGovernorandCaptainGeneral——whosename，Dulce（Sweet），hadanauspicioussound——toopennegotiationswiththeinsurgentsandtoholdoutthehopeofreforms。Buttheroyalists，nowasformerly，wouldlistentonocompromise。Organizingthemselvesintobodiesofvolunteers，theydroveDulceout。HewassucceededbyoneCaballerodeRodas（KnightofRhodes）wholiveduptohisnamebytryingtorideroughshodovertherebelliousCubans。ThusbegantheTenYears’
　　War——awarofskirmishesandbriefencounters，rarelyinvolvingadecisiveaction，whichdrenchedthesoilofCubawithbloodandlaidwasteitsfieldsinafuryofdestruction。
　　AmongtheradicalsandliberalswhotriedtoretainafleetingcontroloverMexicoafterthefinaldepartureofSantaAnnawasthefirstgenuinestatesmanithadeverknowninitshistoryasarepublic——BenitoPabloJuarez，anIndian。AttwelveyearsofagehecouldnotreadorwriteorevenspeakSpanish。Hisemployer，however，notedhisintelligenceandhadhimeducated。Becomingalawyer，Juarezenteredthepoliticalarenaandrosetoprominencebydintofnaturaltalentforleadership，anindomitableperseverance，andasturdypatriotism。Aradicalbyconviction，hefeltthatthesalvationofMexicocouldneverbeattaineduntilclericalismandmilitarismhadbeenbanishedfromitssoilforever。
　　UnderhisinfluenceaprovisionalgovernmenthadalreadybegunapolicyoflesseningtheprivilegesoftheChurch，whentheconservativeelements，withacrythatreligionwasbeingattacked，roseupinarmsagain。Thismovementrepressed，aCongressproceededin1857toissuealiberalconstitutionwhichwasdestinedtolastforsixtyyears。Itestablishedthefederalsysteminadefinitefashion，abolishedspecialprivileges，bothecclesiasticalandmilitary，andorganizedthecountryonsoundbasesworthyofamodernnation。Mexicoseemedabouttoenteruponarationaldevelopment。ButthenewlyelectedPresident，yieldingtotheimportunitiesoftheclergy，abolishedtheconstitution，dissolvedthelegislature，andsetupadictatorship，inspiteoftheenergeticprotestsofJuarez，whohadbeenchosenChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourt，andwho，inaccordancewiththetermsofthetemporarilydiscardedinstrument，wasauthorizedtoassumethepresidencyshouldthatofficefallvacant。Theruleoftheusurperwasshort—lived，however。Variousimprovised"generals"ofconservativestripeputthemselvesattheheadofamovementto"savecountry，religion，andtherightsofthearmy，"drovethewould—bedictatorout，andrestoredtheoldregime。
　　JuareznowproclaimedhimselfactingPresident，ashewaslegallyentitledtodo，andsetuphisgovernmentatVeraCruzwhileone"provisionalpresident"followedanother。ThroughoutthistryingtimeJuarezdefendedhispositionvigorouslyandrejectedeveryofferofcompromise。In1859hepromulgatedhisfamousReformLawswhichnationalizedecclesiasticalproperty，secularizedcemeteries，suppressedreligiouscommunities，grantedfreedomofworship，andmademarriageacivilcontract。ForMexico，however，asforotherSpanishAmericancountries，measuresofthesortwerefartoomuchinadvanceoftheirtimetoinsureareadyacceptance。AlthoughJuarezobtainedagreatmoralvictorywhenhisgovernmentwasrecognizedbytheUnitedStates，hehadtostruggletwoyearsmorebeforehecouldgainpossessionofthecapital。Triumphantin1861，hecarriedhisanticlericalprogramtothepointofactuallyexpellingthePapalNuncioandotherecclesiasticswhorefusedtoobeyhisdecrees。Bysodoingheleveledthewayfortheclericals，conservatives，andthemilitariststoinviteforeigninterventiononbehalfoftheirdesperatecause。But，eveniftheyhadnotbeenguiltyofbehaviorsounpatriotic，theangerofthePopeoverthetreatmentofhisChurch，thewrathofSpainovertheconductofJuarez，whohadexpelledtheSpanishministerforsidingwiththeecclesiastics，thedesireofGreatBritaintocollectdebtsduetohersubjects，andabovealltheimperialisticambitionsofNapoleonIII，whodreamtofconvertingtheintellectualinfluenceofFranceinHispanicAmericaintoapoliticalascendancy，wouldprobablyhaveledtoEuropeanoccupationinanyevent，solongatleastastheUnitedStateswasslitasunderandincapableofaction。
　　Someyearsbefore，theMexicanGovernmentundertheclericalandmilitaristregimehadmadeacontractwithaSwissbankerwhoforapaymentof$500，000hadreceivedbondsworthmorethanfifteentimesthevalueoftheloan。When，therefore，theMexicanCongressundertooktodeferpaymentsonaforeigndebtthatincludedtheproceedsofthisoutrageouscontract，theGovernmentsofFrance，GreatBritain，andSpaindecidedtointervene。AccordingtotheiragreementthethreepowersweresimplytoholdtheseaportsofMexicoandcollectthecustomsdutiesuntiltheirpecuniarydemandshadbeensatisfied。
　　Learning，however，thatNapoleonIIIhadulteriordesigns，GreatBritainandSpainwithdrewtheirforcesandlefthimtoproceedwithhisschemeofconquest。AftercapturingPueblainMay，1863，aFrencharmynumberingsomethirtythousandmenenteredthecapitalandinstalledanassemblageofnotablesbelongingtotheclericalandconservativegroups。Thisbodythereuponproclaimedtheestablishmentofaconstitutionalmonarchyunderanemperor。
　　ThetitlewastobeofferedtoMaximilian，ArchdukeofAustria。
　　Incaseheshouldnotaccept，thematterwastobereferredtothe"benevolenceofhismajesty，theEmperoroftheFrench，"whomightthenselectsomeotherCatholicprince。
　　Onhisarrival，ayearlater，theamiableandwell—meaningMaximiliansoondiscoveredthat，insteadofbeingan"Emperor，"
　　hewasactuallylittlemorethanaprecariouschiefofafactionsustainedbythebayonetsofaforeignarmy。InthenorthernpartofMexico，Juarez，PorfirioDiaz，——latertobecomethemostrenownedofpresidentialautocrats，——andotherpatriotleaders，thoughhuntedfromplacetoplace，heldfirmlytotheirresolvenevertobowtotheyokeofthepretender。NorcouldMaximilianbesureoftheloyaltyofevenhissupposedadherents。LittlebylittletheunpleasantconvictionintrudeditselfuponhimthathemusteitherabdicateorcrushallresistanceinthehopethateventuallytimeandgoodwillmightwinovertheMexicans。Butdowhattheywould，hisforeignlegionscouldnotcatchthewaryandstubbornJuarezandhisguerrillalieutenants，whopersistentlyworedowntheforcesoftheirenemies。Thenthefinancialsituationbecamegrave。StillmoremenacingwastheattitudeoftheUnitedStatesnowthatitscivilwarwasatanend。OnMay31，1866，MaximilianreceivedwordthatNapoleonIIIhaddecidedtowithdrawtheFrenchtroops。Hethendeterminedtoabdicate，buthewasrestrainedbytheunhappyEmpressCarlotta，whohastenedtoEuropetopleadhiscausewithNapoleon。Meantime，astheFrenchtroopswerewithdrawn，Juarezoccupiedtheterritory。
　　Feeblythe"Emperor"strovetoenlistthefavorofhisadversariesbyanumberofliberaldecrees;buttheirsoleresultwashisabandonmentbymanyalukewarmconservative。InexorablythepatriotarmiesclosedaroundhimuntilinMay，1867，hewascapturedatQueretaro，wherehehadsoughtrefuge。Deniedtheprivilegeofleavingthecountryonapromisenevertoreturn，heaskedEscobedo，hiscaptor，totreathimasaprisonerofwar。
　　"That’smybusiness，"wasthegrimreply。OnthepretextthatMaximilianhadrefusedtorecognizethecompetenceofthemilitarycourtchosentotryhim，Juarezgavetheordertoshoothim。Onthe19thofJunetheAustrianarchdukepaidforafleetingglorywithhislife。ThusfailedthesecondattemptaterectinganempireinMexico。Forthirty—fouryearsdiplomaticrelationsbetweenthatcountryandAustria—Hungaryweresevered。
　　Theclericalmilitarycombinationhadbeenoverthrown，andtheMexicanpeoplehadrearmedtheirindependence。AsJuarezdeclared："Peacemeansrespectfortherightsofothers。"
　　EvenifforeigndreamsofempireinMexicohadvanishedsoabruptly，itcouldhardlybeexpectedthatalandtornformanyyearsbyconvulsionscouldbecomesuddenlytranquil。WithDiazandotheraspirantstopresidentialpower，orwithchieftainswhoaimedatsettinguplittlerepublicsoftheirownintheseveralstates，Juarezhadtocontendforsometimebeforehecouldestablishafairamountoforder。Underhissuccessor，whoalsowasacivilian，aneraofeffectivereformbegan。In1873
　　amendmentstotheconstitutiondeclaredChurchandStateabsolutelyseparateandprovidedfortheabolitionofpeonage——aprovisionwhichwasmorehonoredin，thebreachthanintheobservance。
　　CHAPTERVII。GREATERSTATESANDLESSER
　　Duringthehalfcenturythathadelapsedsince1826，thenationsofHispanicAmericahadpassedthroughdarkages。Theirevolutionhadalwaysbeenaccompaniedbygrowingpainsandhadattimesbeenarrestedaltogetherorundulyhastenedbyharshinjectionsofradicalism。Itwasnotanorderlydevelopmentthroughgradualmodificationsinthesocialandeconomicstructure，butratherafitfulprogressnowassistedandnowretardedbythearbitrarydeedsofmenofaction，goodandbad，whohadseizedpower。
　　Dictators，however，steadilydecreasedinnumberandgaveplaceoftentopresidentialautocratswhowerecontinuedinofficebyconstantreelectionandwhowereimbuedwithmodernideas。In1876theseHispanicnationsstoodonthethresholdofanewera。
　　Someweredestinedtoadvancerapidlybeyondit;others，tomoveslowlyonward;andafewtomakelittleornoprogress。
　　Themostremarkablefeatureinthenewerawastheriseoffourstates——Mexico，Brazil，Argentina，andChile——toapositionofeminenceamongtheirfellows。Extentofterritory，developmentofnaturalresources，thecharacteroftheinhabitantsandtheincreaseoftheirnumbers，andtheamountofpopularintelligenceandprosperity，allcontributedtothisend。Eachofthefournationsbelongedtoafairlywell—definedhistoricalandgeographicalgroupinsouthernNorthAmerica，andineasternandwesternSouthAmerica，respectively。InthefirstgroupwereMexico，therepublicsofCentralAmerica，andtheislandcountriesoftheCaribbean;inthesecond，Brazil，Argentina，Uruguay，andParaguay;andinthethird，Chile，Peru，andBolivia。InafourthgroupwereEcuador，Colombia，andVenezuela。
　　WhenthePresidentofMexicoproceeded，in1876，toviolatetheconstitutionbysecuringhisreelection，thepeoplewerepreparedbytheirearlierexperiencesandbytheruleofJuareztodefendtheirconstitutionalrights。AwidespreadrebellionheadedbyDiazbrokeout。Intheso—called"PlanofTuxtepec"therevolutionistsdeclaredthemselvesinfavoroftheprincipleofabsolutelynoreelection。MeantimetheChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourthandeddownadecisionthattheactionoftheCongressinsustainingthePresidentwasillegal，sinceinrealitynoelectionshadbeenheldbecauseoftheabstentionofvotersandtheseizureofthepollsbyrevolutionistsorgovernmentforces。"Abovetheconstitution，nothing;abovetheconstitution，noone，"hedeclared。Butasthisassumptionofapowerofjudgmentonmattersofpurelypoliticalconcernwasequallyaviolationoftheconstitutionandconcealed，besides，anattempttomaketheChiefJusticePresident，Diazandhisfollowersdrovebothofthepretendersout。Thenin1876hemanagedtobringabouthisownelectioninstead。
　　PorfirioDiazwasasoldierwhohadseenactiveserviceinnearlyeveryimportantcampaignsincethewarwiththeUnitedStates。
　　Oftenhimselfinrevoltagainstpresidents，legalandillegal，Diazwasvastlymorethananordinarypartisanchieftain。
　　Schooledbyalongexperience，hehadcometoappreciatethefactthatwhatMexicorequiredforitsnationaldevelopmentwasfreedomfrominternaldisordersandafairchanceforrecuperation。Justice，order，andprosperity，hefelt，couldbeassuredonlybyimposinguponthecountrytheheavyweightofanironhand。ForeigncapitalmustbeinvestedinMexicoandthenprotected;immigrationmustbeencouraged，andothermaterial，moral，andintellectualaidofallsortsmustbedrawnfromabroadfortheupbuildingofthenation。
　　ToeffectsuchatransformationinalandsotormentedandimpoverishedasMexico——acountrywhich，withinthespanoffifty—fiveyearshadlivedundertwo"emperors，"andsomethirty—sixpresidents，nine"provisionalpresidents，"tendictators，twelve"regents，"andfive"supremecouncilors"——requiredindeedamasterfulintelligenceandamasterfulauthority。PorfirioDiazpossessedandexercisedboth。
　　Hewas，infact，justthemanforthetimes。Anableadministrator，sternandseverebutjust，ratherreservedinmannerandguardedinutterance，shrewdintheselectionofassociates，andsingularlysuccessfulinhisdealingswithforeigners，heenteredupona"presidentialreign"ofthirty—fiveyearsbrokenbybutoneintermissionoffour——whichbroughtMexicooutuponthehighwaytonewnationallife。
　　UnderthestableandefficientrulershipofDiaz，"plans，"
　　"pronunciamentos，""revolutions，"andsimilardevicesofprofessionaltroublemakers，hadshortshrift。Wheneveranuprisingstarted，itwaspromptlyquelled，eitherbyawell—disciplinedarmyorbytherurales，amountedpolicemadeuptosomeextentofformerbanditstowhomthePresidentgavethechoiceofpoliceserviceorofsharppunishmentfortheircrimes。
　　Order，infact，wasnotalwaysmaintained，norwasjusticealwaysmetedout，byrecoursetojudgesandcourts。Instead，anovelkindoflynchlawwasinvoked。Thenameitborewastheleyfuga，or"flightlaw，"inaccordancewithwhichmalefactorsorpoliticalsuspectstakenbygovernmentagentsfromonelocalitytoanother，ontheexcuseofsecuringreadierjustice，weregivenbytheircaptorsapretendedchancetoescapeandwerethenshotwhiletheyran！TheonlydifferencebetweenthismethodandothersofthesortemployedbySpanishAmericanautocratstoenforceobediencelayinitspurpose。OfDiazonemightsaywhatBaconsaidofKingHenryVII："Hedrewbloodasphysiciansdo，tosaveliferatherthantospillit。"Ifneedbe，hereandthere，disorderandrevoltwerestampedoutbyterrorism;buttheMexicanpeopledidnotyieldtoauthorityfromterrorbutratherfromathoroughloyaltytothenewregime。
　　AmongthenumerousmeasuresofmaterialimprovementwhichDiazundertookduringhisfirstterm，theconstructionofrailwayswasthemostimportant。Thesizeofthecountry，itswantofnavigablerivers，anditsrelativelysmallandwidelyscatteredpopulation，madeimperativetheestablishmentofthesemeansofcommunication。DespitethemisgivingsofmanyintelligentMexicansthatthepresenceofforeigncapitalwouldimpairlocalindependenceinsomeway，DiazlaidthefoundationsoffuturenationalprosperitybygrantingconcessionstotheMexicanCentralandNationalMexicancompanies，whichsoonbeganconstruction。Underhissuccessoranationalbankwascreated;
　　andwhenDiazwasagainelectedhereadjustedtheexistingforeigndebtandboldlycontractednewdebtsabroad。
　　Atthecloseofhisfirstterm，in1880，asurplusinthetreasurywasnotsogreatanoveltyasthecircumstancealtogetheruniqueinthepoliticalannalsofMexico—thatDiazturnedoverthepresidencyinpeacefulfashiontohisproperlyelectedsuccessor！Hedidsoreluctantly，tobesure，buthecouldnotaffordjustyettoignorehisownavowedprinciple，whichhadbeenmadeapartoftheconstitutionshortlyafterhisaccession。Althoughtheconfidencehereposedinthatsuccessorwasnotentirelyjustified，theimmensepersonalpopularityofDiazsavedtheprestigeofthenewchiefmagistrate。UnderhisadministrationtheconstitutionwasamendedinsuchawayastodeprivetheChiefJusticeoftheprivilegeofreplacingthePresidentincaseofavacancy，thuseliminatingthatofficialfrompolitics。Afterhisresumptionofoffice，Diazhadthefundamentallawmodifiedanew，soastopermitthereelectionofaPresidentforonetermonly！Forthischange，inconsistentthoughitmayseem，Diazwasnotaloneresponsible。Circumstanceshadchanged，andtheconstitutionhadtochangewiththem。
　　Hadthe"UnitedProvincesofCentralAmerica，"astheycameforthfromundertheruleofSpain，seenfittoabstainfromfollowingintheunsteadyfootstepsofMexicouptothetimeoftheaccessionofDiaztopower，hadtheydonenothingmorethandeveloptheirnaturalwealthandutilizetheiradmirablegeographicalsituation，theymighthavebecomeprosperousandkepttheircorporatename。Asitwas，theirhistoryforupwardsoffortyyearshadlittletorecordotherthanamomentarycohesionandasubsequentlapseintofivequarrelsomelittlerepublics——the"BalkanStates"ofAmerica。AmongthemCostaRicahadsufferedleastfromarbitrarymanagementorinternalcommotionandshowedthegreatestsignsofadvancement。
　　InGuatemala，however，therehadarisenanotherDiaz，thoughamanquiteinferiorinmanyrespectstohisnortherncounterpart。
　　WhenJustoRufinoBarriosbecamePresidentofthatrepublicin1873hewasbelievedtohaveconservativeleanings。Erelong，however，heastoundedhiscompatriotsbyshowingthemthathewasathoroughgoingradicalwithmethodsofactiontocorrespondtohisconvictions。NotonlydidhekeeptheJesuitsoutofthecountrybutheabolishedmonasticordersaltogetherandconvertedtheirbuildingstopublicuse。Hemademarriageacivilcontractandhesecularizedtheburyinggrounds。Educationheencouragedbyengagingtheservicesofforeigninstructors，andhebroughtaboutabetterobservanceofthelawbythepromulgationofnewcodes。Healsointroducedrailwaysandtelegraphlines。Sincethemanufactureofanilinedyesabroadhaddiminishedthedemandforcochineal，Barriosdecidedtoreplacethisexportbycultivatingcoffee。Tothisend，hedistributedseedsamongtheplantersandfurnishedfinancialaidbesides，withapromisetoinspectthefieldsindueseasonandseewhathadbeenaccomplished。Findingthatinmanycasestheseedshadbeenthrownawayandthemoneywastedindrinkandgambling，heorderedtheguiltyplanterstobegivenfiftylashes，withtheassurancethatonasecondoffensehewouldshootthemonsight。CoffeeplantinginGuatemalawaspursuedthereafterwithmuchalacrity！
　　PostsinthegovernmentserviceBarriosdistributedquiteimpartiallyamongConservativesandDemocrats，deservingorotherwise，forhehadthembothwellundercontrol。Athisbehestapermanentconstitutionwaspromulgatedin1880。Whileheaffectedtodislikecontinualreelection，hesawtoitneverthelessthathehimselfshouldbethesolecandidatewhowaslikelytowin。
　　BarriosdoubtlesscouldhaveremainedPresidentofGuatemalaforthetermofhisnaturallifeifhehadnotraiseduptheghostoffederation。AlltherepublicsofCentralAmericaacceptedhisinvitationin1876tosenddelegatestohiscapitaltodiscusstheproject。ButnothingwasaccomplishedbecauseBarriosandthePresidentofSalvadorweresoonatloggerheads。Nineyearslater，feelinghimselfstronger，Barriosagainproposedfederation。ButtheotherrepublicshadbythistimelearnedtoomuchofthemethodsoftheautocratofGuatemala，evenwhiletheyadmiredhisprogressivepolicy，torelishthethoughtofafederationdominatedbyGuatemalaanditsmasterfulPresident。Thoughhe"persuaded"Hondurastoaccepttheplan，thethreeotherrepublicspreferredtouniteinself—defense，andintheensuingstrugglethequixoticBarrioswaskilled。Afewyearslatertheprojectwasrevivedandtheconstitutionofa"RepublicofCentralAmerica"wasagreedupon，whenwarbetweenGuatemalaandSalvadoragainfrustrateditsexecution。
　　InBraziltwogreatmovementswerebythistimeunderway：thetotalabolitionofslaveryandtheestablishmentofarepublic。
　　Despitethetenaciousoppositionofmanyoftheplanters，fromabouttheyear1883themovementforemancipationmadegreatheadway。Therewasagrowingdeterminationonthepartofthemajorityoftheinhabitantstoremovetheblotthatmadethecountryanobjectofreproachamongthecivilizedstatesoftheworld。Provincesandtowns，oneafteranother，freedtheslaveswithintheirborders。TheimperialGovernment，onitspart，hastenedtheprocessbyliberatingitsownslavesandbyimposinguponthosestillinbondagetaxeshigherthantheirmarketvalue;
　　itfixedapriceforotherslaves;itdecreedthattheolderslavesshouldbesetfree;anditincreasedthefundsalreadyappropriatedtocompensateownersofslaveswhoshouldbeemancipated。In1887thenumberofslaveshadfallentoabout720，000，worthlegallyabout$650each。Ayearlatercamethefinalblow，whenthePrincessRegentassentedtoameasurewhichabolishedslaveryoutrightandrepealedallformeractsrelatingtoslavery。Soradicalaproceedingwroughthavocinthecoffee—growingsouthernprovincesinparticular，fromwhichthenegroesnowfreedmigratedbytensofthousandstothenorthernprovinces。Theirplaces，however，weretakenbyItaliansandotherEuropeanswhocametoworktheplantationsonacooperativebasis。Allthroughtheeighties，infact，immigrantsfromItalypouredintothetemperateregionsofsouthernBrazil，tothenumberofnearlytwohundredthousand，supplementingthemanythousandsofGermanswhohadsettled，chieflyintheprovinceofRioGrandedoSul，thirtyyearsbefore。
　　Apartfromtheindustrialproblemthuscreatedbytheabolitionofslavery，thereseemedtobenoseriouspoliticaloreconomicquestionsbeforethecountry。Eversince1881，whenalawprovidingfordirectelectionswaspassed，theLiberalshadbeeninfullcontrol。TheoldDomPedro，whohadendearedhimselftohispeople，wasasmuchlikedandrespectedasever。Butashehadgrownfeebleandalmostblind，theheiresstothethrone，whohadmarkedabsolutistandclericaltendencies，wasdisposedtotakeadvantageofhisinfirmities。
　　Formanyyears，ontheotherhand，doctrinesopposedtotheprincipleofmonarchyhadbeenspreadinzealousfashionbymembersofthemilitaryclass，notableamongwhomwasDeodorodaFonseca。Andnowsomeoftheplanterslongedtowreakvengeanceonarulerwhohaddaredtothwarttheirwillbyemancipatingtheslaves。Besidesthispersistentdiscontent，radicalrepublicannewspaperscontinuallystirredupfreshagitation。WhateverthepersonalservicerenderedbytheEmperortothewelfareofthecountry，tothemherepresentedapoliticalsystemwhichdeprivedtheprovincesofmuchoftheirlocalautonomyandtheBrazilianpeopleatlargeofself—government。
　　Butthechiefreasonforthemomentouschangewhichwasabouttotakeplacewasthefactthattheconstitutionalmonarchyhadreallycompleteditsworkasatransitionalgovernment。UnderthatregimeBrazilhadreachedaconditionofstabilityandhadattainedalevelofprogresswhichmightwellenableittogovernitself。DuringallthistimetheinfluenceoftheSpanishAmericannationshadbeengrowingapace。Eveniftheyhadfallenintomanyapoliticalcalamity，theywerenevertheless"republics，"andtotheSouthAmericanthiswordhadamagicsound。Aboveall，therewasthepotentsuggestionofthesuccessoftheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，whoseextensionofitsfederalsystemoveravastterritorysuggestedwhatBrazilwithitsprovincesmightaccomplishinthesoutherncontinent。HencethevastmajorityofintelligentBraziliansfeltthattheyhadbecomeself—reliantenoughtoestablisharepublicwithoutfearoflapsingintotheunfortunateexperiencesoftheotherHispaniccountries。
　　In1889，whenprovisionwasmadeforaspeedyabdicationoftheEmperorinfavorofhisdaughter，therepublicannewspapersdeclaredthataschemewasbeingconcoctedtoexilethechiefmilitaryagitatorsandtointerferewithanyeffortonthepartofthearmytopreventtheaccessionofthenewruler。Thereupon，onthe15thofNovember，theradicalsatRiodeJaneiro，aidedbythegarrison，brokeoutinopenrevolt。Proclaimingtheestablishmentofafederalrepublicunderthenameofthe"UnitedStatesofBrazil，"theydeposedtheimperialministry，setupaprovisionalgovernmentwithDeodorodaFonsecaatitshead，arrangedfortheelectionofaconstitutionalconvention，andbadeDomPedroandhisfamilyleavethecountrywithintwenty—fourhours。
　　Onthe17thofNovember，beforedaybreak，thesummonswasobeyed。
　　NotasoulappearedtobidtheoldEmperorfarewellasheandhisfamilyboardedthesteamerthatwastobearthemtoexileinEurope。Thoughseeminglyanactofheartlessnessandingratitude，theprecautionwasawiseoneinthatitaverted，possibleconflictandbloodshed。Forthesecondtimeinitshistory，afundamentalchangehadbeenwroughtinthepoliticalsystemofthenationwithoutaresorttowar！TheUnitedStatesofBrazilaccordinglytookitsplacepeacefullyamongitsfellowrepublicsoftheNewWorld。
　　MeanwhileArgentina，thegreatneighborofBraziltothesouthwest，hadbeengainingterritoryandnewresources。Sincethedefiniteadoptionofafederalconstitutionin1853，thisstatehadattainedtoaconsiderabledegreeofnationalconsciousnessundertheleadershipofablepresidentssuchasBartolomeMitre，thesoldierandhistorian，andDomingoFaustinoSarmiento，thepublicistandpromoterofpopulareducation。Oneevidenceofthisnewnationalismwasawidespreadbeliefinthenecessityofterritorialexpansion。KnowingthatChileentertaineddesignsuponPatagonia，theArgentineGovernmentforestalledanyactionbyconductingawarofpracticalexterminationagainsttheIndiantribesofthatregionandbyaddingittothenationaldomain。Theso—called"conquestofthedesert"inthefarsouthofthecontinentopenedtocivilizationavasthabitableareaofuntoldeconomicpossibilities。
　　Intheelectoralcampaignof1880thepresidentialcandidateswereJulioArgentinoRocaandtheGovernoroftheprovinceofBuenosAires。Theformer，anableofficerskilledinbotharmsandpolitics，hadonhissidetheadvantageofareputationwoninthestrugglewiththePatagonianIndians，theapprovalofthenationalGovernment，andthesupportofmostoftheprovinces。
　　Feelingcertainofdefeatatthepolls，thepartisansofthelattercandidateresortedtothetimewornexpedientofarevolt。
　　Thoughtheuprisinglastedbuttwentydays，thediplomaticcorpsatthecapitalproffereditsmediationbetweenthecontestants，inordertoavoidanyfurtherbloodshed。TheresultwasthatthefractiousGovernorwithdrewhiscandidacyandaradicalchangewaseffectedintherelationsofBuenosAires，cityandprovince，tothecountryatlarge。Thecity，togetherwithitsenvirons，wasconvertedintoafederaldistrictandbecamesolelyanddistinctivelythenationalcapital。Itspublicbuildings，railways，andtelegraphservice，aswellastheprovincialdebt，weretakenoverbythegeneralGovernment。TheseatofprovincialauthoritywastransferredtothevillageofEnsenada，whichthereuponwasrechristenedLaPlata。
　　AveritabletideofwealthandgeneralprosperitywasnowrollingoverArgentina。By1885itspopulationhadrisentoupwardsof3，000，000。Immigrationincreasedtoapointfarbeyondthewildestexpectations。In1889aloneabout300，000newcomersarrivedandlenttheiraidinthepromotionofindustryandcommerce。Fieldshithertouncultivatedorgivenovertograzingnowborevastcropsofwheat，maize，linseed，andsugar。Largequantitiesofcapital，chieflyfromGreatBritain，alsopouredintothecountry。Asaresult，thepriceoflandrosehigh，andfeverishspeculationbecametheorderoftheday。Banksandotherinstitutionsofcreditweresetup，colonizingschemesweredevised，andrailwayswerelaidout。Tomeetthedemandsofalltheseenterprises，theGovernmentborrowedimmensesumsfromforeigncapitalistsandissuedvastquantitiesofpapermoney，withlittleregardforitsultimateredemption。Argentinaspenthugesumsinprodigalfashiononallsortsofpublicimprovementsinanefforttoattractstillmorecapitalandimmigration，andthusentereduponadangerouseraofinflation。
　　OfthenearneighborsofArgentina，Uruguaycontinuedalongthetortuouspathofalternatedisturbanceandprogress，losingmanyofitsinhabitantstothegreaterstatesbeyond，wheretheysoughtrelativepeaceandsecurity;whileParaguay，ontheotherhand，enjoyedfreedomfromcivilstrife，thoughweigheddownwithawardebtanduntoldmillionsinindemnitiesexactedbyArgentinaandBrazil，whichitcouldneverhopetopay。Inconsequence，thisindebtednesswasausefulclubtobrandishoverpowerlessParaguaywheneverthatlittlecountrymightventuretoquestiontherightofeitherofitsbigneighborstobreakthepromisetheyhadmadeofkeepingitsterritoryintact。Argentina，however，consentedin1878torefercertainclaimstothedecisionofthePresidentoftheUnitedStates。WhenParaguaywonthearbitration，itshoweditsgratitudebynamingoneofitslocalitiesVillaHayes。Astimewenton，however，itspopulationincreasedandhidmanyofthescarsofwar。
　　OnthewesternsideofSouthAmericatherebrokeoutthestruggleknownasthe"WarofthePacific"betweenChile，ontheoneside，andPeruandBoliviaasalliesontheother。InPeruunstableandcorruptgovernmentshadcontractedforeignloansunderconditionsthatmadetheirrepaymentalmostimpossibleandhadspenttheproceedsinsorecklessandextravagantafashionastobringthecountrytothevergeofbankruptcy。Bolivia，similarlygoverned，wasstillthesceneoftheorgiesandcarnivalswhichhadforsometimecharacterizeditsunfortunatehistory。Oneofitsbuffoon"presidents，"moreover，hadenteredintoboundaryagreementswithbothChileandBrazil，underwhichthenationlostseveralimportantareasandsomeofitsterritoryonthePacific。TheboundariesofBolivia，indeed，wererunalmosteverywhereonpurelyarbitrarylinesdrawnwithscantregardforthephysicalfeaturesofthecountryandwithmanyafrontierquestionleftwhollyunsettled。ForsomeyearsChileancompaniesandspeculators，aidedbyforeigncapitalmainlyBritishinorigin，hadbeenworkingdepositsofnitrateofsodaintheprovinceofAntofagasta，or"thedesertofAtacama，"aregionalongthecoasttothenorthwardbelongingtoBolivia，andalsointheprovincesofTacna，Arica，andTarapaca，stillfarthertothenorthward，belongingtoPeru。Becauseboundarylineswerenotaltogetherclearandbecausethethreecountrieswerealleagertoexploitthesedeposits，controversiesoverthisdebatablegroundweresuretorise。Fortheprivilegeofdevelopingportionsofthisregion，individualsandcompanieshadobtainedconcessionsfromthevariousgovernmentsconcerned;elsewhere，industrialfreelancesdugawaywithoutreferencetosuchformalities。
　　ItisquitelikelythatChile，whosemottowas"ByRightorbyMight，"waspreparedtosustaintheclaimsofitscitizensbyeitheralternative。Atallevents，scentingaprospectiveconflict，Chilehaddevotedmuchattentiontothedevelopmentofitsnavalandmilitaryestablishment——astateofaffairswhichdidnotescapetheobservationofitssuspiciousneighbors。
　　ThepolicyofPeruwasdeterminedpartlybypersonalmotivesandpartlybyreasonsofstate。In1873thePresident，lackingsufficientfinancialandpoliticalsupporttokeephimselfinoffice，resolvedupontheriskyexpedientofarousingpopularpassionagainstChile，inthehopethathemighttherebyreplenishthenationaltreasury。AccordinglyheproceededtopickaquarrelbyorderingthedepositsinTarapacatobeexpropriatedwithscantrespectfortheconcessionsmadetotheChileanminers。Realizing，however，thepossibleconsequencesofsuchanaction，heenteredintoanalliancewithBolivia。ThiscountrythereuponproceededtolevyanincreaseddutyontheexportationofnitratesfromtheAtacamaregion。Chile，alreadyawareofthehostilecombinationwhichhadbeenformed，protestedsovigorouslythatayearlaterBoliviaagreedtowithdrawthenewregulationsandtosubmitthedisputetoarbitration。
　　Suchweretherelationsofthesethreestatesin1878，whenBolivia，takingadvantageofdifferencesofopinionbetweenChileandArgentinaregardingthePatagonianregion，reimposeditsexportduty，canceledtheChileanconcessions，andconfiscatedthenitratedeposits。ChilethendeclaredwarinFebruary，1879，andwithintwomonthsoccupiedtheentirecoastofBoliviauptothefrontiersofPeru。OnhispartthePresidentofBoliviawastoomuchengrossedinthefestivitiesconnectedwithamasqueradetobotheraboutnotifyingthepeoplethattheirlandhadbeeninvadeduntilseveraldaysaftertheeventhadoccurred！
　　MisfortunesfarworsethananythingwhichhadfallentothelotofitsallynowawaitedPeru，whichfirstattemptedanofficiousmediationandthendeclaredwaronthe4thofApril。SincePeruandBoliviatogetherhadapopulationdoublethatofChile，andsincePerupossessedamuchlargerarmyandnavythanChile，thealliescountedconfidentlyonvictory。ButPeru’sarmyofeightthousand——havingwithinfourhundredasmanyofficersasmen，directedbynofewerthantwenty—sixgenerals，andpresidedoverbyacivilgovernmentaltogetherinept——wasnomatchforanarmylessthanathirdofitssizetobesure，butwelldrilledandcommanded，andwithastable，progressive，andefficientgovernmentatitsback。ThePeruvianforces，lackinganysubstantialsupportfromBolivia，crumpledundertheterrificattacksoftheiradversaries。EffortsonthepartoftheUnitedStatestomediateinthestrugglewereblockedbythedoggedrefusalofChiletoabateitsdemandsforannexation。Earlyin1881itsarmyenteredLimaintriumph，andthewarwasover。
　　ForawhilethevictorstreatedthePeruviansandtheircapitalcityshamefully。TheChileansoldiersstrippedthenationallibraryofitscontents，toreupthelamp—postsinthestreets，carriedawaythebenchesintheparks，andevenshippedoffthelocalmenagerietoSantiago！WhattheydidnotremoveordestroywasdisposedofbytherabbleofLimaitself。ButintwoyearssoutterlychaoticdidtheconditionsinthehaplesscountrybecomethatChileatlengthhadtosetupagovernmentinordertoconcludeapeace。ItwasnotuntilOctober20，1883，thatthetreatywassignedatLimaandratifiedlateratAncon。PeruwasforcedtocedeTarapacaoutrightandtoagreethatTacnaandAricashouldbeheldbyChilefortenyears。Attheexpirationofthisperiodtheinhabitantsofthetwoprovincesweretobeallowedtochoosebyvotethecountrytowhichtheywouldprefertobelong，andthenationthatwontheelectionwastopaytheloser10，000，000pesos。InApril，1884，Bolivia，also，enteredintoanarrangementwithChile，accordingtowhichaportionofitsseacoastshouldbecededabsolutelyandtheremaindershouldbeoccupiedbyChileuntilamoredefiniteunderstandingonthemattercouldbereached。