MeanwhileintheMexicanpartoftheviceroyaltyofNewSpainthecryofindependenceraisedbyMorelosandhisbandsofIndianfollowershadbeenstifledbythecaptureandexecutionoftheleader。Butthecauseofindependencewasnotdeadevenifitsachievementwastobeentrustedtootherhands。EagertoemulatetheexampleoftheirbrethreninSouthAmerica，smallpartiesofSpaniardsandCreolesfoughttooverturnthedespoticruleofFerdinandVII，onlytoencounterdefeatfromtheroyalists。ThencametheRevolutionof1820inthemothercountry。Forthwithdemandswereheardforarecognitionoftheliberalregime。
　　Fearfulofbeingdisplacedfrompower，theviceroywiththesupportoftheclergyandaristocracyorderedAgustindeIturbide，aCreoleofficerwhohadbeenanactiveroyalist，toquellaninsurrectioninthesouthernpartofthecountry。
　　Thechoiceofthissoldierwasunfortunate。Personallyambitiousandcherishinginsecretthethoughtofindependence，Iturbide，faithlesstohistrust，enteredintonegotiationswiththeinsurgentswhichculminatedFebruary24，1821，inwhatwascalledthe"PlanofIguala。"Itcontainedthreemainprovisions，or"guarantees，"astheyweretermed：themaintenanceoftheCatholicreligiontotheexclusionofallothers;theestablishmentofaconstitutionalmonarchyseparatefromSpainandruledbyFerdinandhimself，or，ifhedeclinedthehonor，bysomeotherEuropeanprince;andtheunionofMexicansandSpaniardswithoutdistinctionofcasteorprivilege。Atemporarygovernmentalso，intheformofajuntapresidedoverbytheviceroy，wastobecreated;andprovisionwasmadefortheorganizationofan"ArmyoftheThreeGuarantees。"
　　Despiteoppositionfromtheroyalists，theplanwonincreasingfavor。Powerlesstothwartitandinclinedbesidestoapolicyofconciliation，thenewviceroy，JuanO’Donoju，agreedtoratifyitoncondition——inobediencetoasuggestionfromIturbide——thatthepartiesconcernedshouldbeatliberty，iftheydesired，tochooseanyoneasemperor，whetherhewereofareigningfamilyornot。Thereupon，onthe28thofSeptember，theprovisionalgovernmentinstalledatthecityofMexicoannouncedtheconsummationofan"enterpriserenderedeternallymemorable，whichageniusbeyondalladmirationandeulogy，loveandgloryofhiscountry，beganatIguala，prosecutedandcarriedintoeffect，overcomingobstaclesalmostinsuparable"——anddeclaredtheindependenceofa"MexicanEmpire。"TheactwasfollowedbytheappointmentofaregencytogovernuntiltheaccessionofFerdinandVII，orsomeotherpersonage，totheimperialthrone。
　　OfthisbodyIturbideassumedthepresidency，whichcarriedwithitthepowersofcommanderinchiefandasalaryof120，000
　　pesos，paidfromthedayonwhichthePlanofIgualawassigned。
　　O’Donojucontentedhimselfwithmembershipontheboardandasalaryofone—twelfththatamount，untilhisspeedydemiseremovedfromthescenethelastoftheSpanishviceroysinNorthAmerica。
　　Onestepmorewasneeded。LearningthattheCortesinSpainhadrejectedtheentirescheme，Iturbideallowedhissoldierstoacclaimhimemperor，andanunwillingCongresssawitselfobligedtoratifythechoice。OnJuly21，1822，thedestiniesofthecountrywerecommittedtothechargeofAgustintheFirst。
　　AsintheareaofMexicoproper，sointheCentralAmericanpartoftheviceroyaltyofNewSpain，theSpanishRevolutionof1820
　　hadunexpectedresults。HereinthefivelittleprovincescomposingthecaptaincygeneralofGuatemalatherewasmuchunrest，butnothingofaseriousnatureoccurreduntilafternewshadbeenbroughtofthePlanofIgualaanditsimmediateoutcome。
　　ThereuponapopularassemblymetatthecapitaltownofGuatemala，andonSeptember15，1821，declaredthecountryanindependentstate。Thisradicalactaccomplished，thepatriotleaderswereunabletoproceedfurther。Demandsfortheestablishmentofafederation，forarecognitionoflocalautonomy，forannexationtoMexico，wereallheard，andnone，exceptthelast，wasanswered。Whilethe"Imperialists"and"Republicans"werearguingitout，amessagefromEmperorAgustinannouncedthathewouldnotallowthenewstatetoremainindependent。Onsubmissionofthemattertoavoteofthecabildos，mostofthemapprovedreunionwiththenorthernneighbor。SalvadoraloneamongtheprovincesheldoutuntiltroopsfromMexicoovercameitsresistance。
　　OnthecontinentsofAmerica，Spainhadnowlostnearlyallitsitspossessions。In1822theUnitedStateshadalreadyacquiredEastFloridaonitsownaccount，ledoffinrecognizingtheindependenceoftheseveralrepublics。OnlyinPeruandCharcastheroyalistsstillbattledonbehalfofthemothercountry。IntheWestIndies，SantoDomingofollowedtheleadofitssistercoloniesonthemainlandbyassertingin1821itsindependence;
　　butitsbriefindependentlifewassnuffedoutbythenegroesofHaiti，oncemorearepublic，whospreadtheircontrolovertheentireisland。Cubaalsofelttheimpulseofthetimes。But，apartfromtheagitationofsecretsocietieslikethe"RaysandSunsofBolivar，"whichwassoonchecked，thecolonyremainedtranquil。
　　InPortugueseAmericatheknowledgeofwhathadoccurredthroughouttheSpanishdominionscouldnotfailtoawakenadesireforindependence。ThePrinceRegentwaswellawareofthediscontentoftheBrazilians，buthethoughttoallayitbysubstantialconcessions。In1815heproceededtoelevatethecolonytosubstantialequalitywiththemothercountrybyjoiningthemunderthetitleof"UnitedKingdomofPortugal，Brazil，andtheAlgarves。"ThenextyearthePrinceRegenthimselfbecameKingunderthenameofJohnIV。Theflameofdiscontent，nevertheless，continuedtosmolder。Republicanoutbreaks，thoughquelledwithoutmuchdifficulty，recurred。EventhereformswhichhadbeeninstitutedbyJohnhimselfwhileRegent，andwhichhadassuredfreercommunicationwiththeworldatlarge，onlyemphasizedmoreandmoretheabsurdityofpermittingafeeblelittlelandlikePortugaltoretainitsholduponaregionsoextensiveandvaluableasBrazil。
　　Theeventsof1820inPortugalhastenedthemovementtowardindependence。FiredbythesuccessoftheirSpanishcomrades，thePortugueseliberalsforthwithroseinrevolt，demandedtheestablishmentofalimitedmonarchy，andinsistedthattheKingreturntohispeople。Insimilarfashion，also，theydrewupaconstitutionwhichprovidedfortherepresentationofBrazilbydeputiesinafutureCortes。Beyondthistheywouldconcedenospecialprivilegestothecolony。Indeedtheirideaseemstohavebeenthat，withtheKingoncemoreinLisbon，theirownlibertieswouldbesecureandthoseofBrazilwouldbereducedtowhatwerebefittingameredependency。Yieldingtotheinevitable，theKingdecidedtoreturntoPortugal，leavingtheyoungCrownPrincetoactasRegentinthecolony。Acriticalmomentforthelittlecountryanditsbigdominionoverseahadindubitablyarrived。
　　Johnunderstoodthetrendofthetimes，forontheeveofhisdeparturehesaidtohisson："Pedro，ifBrazilistoseparateitselffromPortugal，asseemslikely，youtakethecrownyourselfbeforeanyoneelsegetsit！"
　　Pedrowasliberalinsentiment，popularamongtheBrazilians，andwell—disposedtowardtheaspirationsofthecountryforalargermeasureoffreedom，andyetnotblindtotheinterestsofthedynastyofBraganza。HereadilylistenedtotheurgentpleasoftheleadersoftheseparatistpartyagainstobeyingtherepressivemandaesoftheCortes。LawswhichabolishedthecentralgovernmentofthecolonyandmadethevariousprovincesindividuallysubjecttoPortugalhedeclinedtonotice。WithequalpromptnessherefusedtoheedanorderbiddinghimreturntoPortugalimmediately。ToadelegationofprominentBrazilianshesaidemphatically："Forthegoodofallandthegeneralwelfareofthenation，Ishallstay。"Morethanthat，inMay，1822，heacceptedfromthemunicipalityofRiodeJaneirothetitleof"PerpetualandConstitutionalDefenderofBrazil，"andinaseriesofproclamationsurgedthepeopleofthecountrytobeginthegreatworkofemancipationbyforciblyresisting，ifneedful，anyattemptatcoercion。
　　Pedronowbelievedthemomenthadcometotakethefinalstep。
　　WhileonajourneythroughtheprovinceofSaoPaulo，hewasovertakenonthe7thofSeptember，nearalittlestreamcalledtheYpiranga，bymessengerswithdispatchesfromPortugal。
　　FindingthattheCorteshadannulledhisactsanddeclaredhisministersguiltyoftreason，PedroforthwithproclaimedBrazilanindependentstate。The"cryofYpiranga"wasechoedwithtremendousenthusiasmthroughoutthecountry。WhenPedroappearedinthetheateratRiodeJaneiro，afewdayslater，wearingonhisarmaribbononwhichwereinscribedthewords"IndependenceorDeath，"hewasgivenatumultuousovation。OnthefirstdayofDecembertheyouthfulmonarchassumedthetitleofEmperor，andBrazilthereupontookitsplaceamongthenationsofAmerica。
　　CHAPTERIV。PLOUGHINGTHESEA
　　WhentheLaPlataCongressatTucumantookthedecisiveactionthatseveredthebondwithSpain，itutteredaprophecyforallSpanishAmerica。Toquoteitslanguage："Vastandfertileregions，climatesbenignandvaried，abundantmeansofsubsistence，treasuresofgoldandsilver……andfineproductionsofeverysortwillattracttoourcontinentinnumerablethousandsofimmigrants，towhomweshallopenasafeplaceofrefugeandextendabeneficentprotection。"Morehopefulstillwerethewordsofaspokesmanforanotherindependentcountry："United，neithertheempireoftheAssyrians，theMedesorthePersians，theMacedonianortheRomanEmpire，caneverbecomparedwiththiscolossalrepublic。"
　　VerydifferentwasthevisionofBolivar。WhilearefugeeinJamaicahewrote："Wearealittlehumanspecies;wepossessaworldapart……newinalmostalltheartsandsciences，andyetold，afterafashion，intheusesofcivilsociety……
　　NeitherIndiansnorEuropeans，weareaspeciesthatliesmidway……Isitconceivablethatapeoplerecentlyfreedofitschainscanlaunchitselfintothesphereoflibertywithoutshatteringitswings，likeIcarus，andplungingintotheabyss？
　　Suchaprodigyisinconceivable，neverbeheld。"Towardthecloseofhiscareerhedeclared："Themajorityaremestizos，mulattoes，Indians，andnegroes。Anignorantpeopleisabluntinstrumentforitsowndestruction。Toitlibertymeanslicense，patriotismmeansdisloyalty，andjusticemeansvengeance。""Independence，"
　　heexclaimed，"istheonlygoodwehaveachieved，atthecostofeverythingelse。"
　　Whethertheaboundingconfidenceoftheprophecyortheanxiousdoubtofthevisionwouldcometrue，onlythefuturecouldtell。
　　In1822，atallevents，optimismwasthewatchwordandthetotalexclusionofSpainfromSouthAmericathegoalofBolivarandhislieutenants，astheystartedsouthwardtocompletetheworkofemancipationwhichhadbeenbegunbySanMartin。
　　ThepatriotsofPeru，indeed，hadfallenintostraitssodesperatethatanappealtotheLiberatorofferedtheonlyhopeofsalvation。Whiletheroyalistsundertheirableandvigilantleader，JoseCanterac，continuedtostrengthentheirgraspupontheinteriorofthecountryandtoupholdthepoweroftheviceroy，thePresidentchosenbytheCongresshadbeendrivenbytheenemyfromLima。AnumberofthelegislatorsinwraththereupondeclaredthePresidentdeposed。Nottobeoutdone，thatfunctionaryonhispartdeclaredtheCongressdissolved。Themalcontentsimmediatelyproceededtoelectanewchiefmagistrate，thusbringingtwoPresidentsintothefieldandinauguratingaspectacledestinedtobecomealltoocommoninthesubsequentannalsofSpanishAmerica。
　　WhenBolivararrivedatCallao，theseaportofLima，inSeptember，1823，heactedwithpromptvigor。HeexpelledonePresident，convertedtheotherintoapassiveinstrumentofhiswill，declinedtopromulgateaconstitutionthattheCongresshadprepared，and，afterobtainingfromthatbodyanappointmenttosupremecommand，dissolvedtheCongresswithoutfurtherado。
　　Unfortunatelynoneoftheseradicalmeasureshadanyperceptibleeffectuponthemilitarysituation。ThoughBolivargatheredtogetheranarmymadeupofColombians，Peruvians，andremnantsofSanMartin’sforce，manymonthselapsedbeforehecouldventureuponaseriouscampaign。TheneventsinSpainplayedintohishands。ThereactionthathadfollowedtherestorationofFerdinandVIItoabsolutepowercrossedtheoceanandsplittheroyalistsintoopposingfactions。Quicktoseizethechancethusafforded，BolivarmarchedovertheAndestotheplainofJunin。
　　There，onAugust6，1824，herepelledanonslaughtbyCanteracanddrovethatleaderbackinheadlongflight。Believing，however，thatthepositionheheldwastooperiloustoriskanoffensive，heentrustedthemilitarycommandtoSucreandreturnedtoheadquarters。
　　Theroyalistshadnowcometorealizethatonlyasupremeeffortcouldsavethem。TheymustoverwhelmSucrebeforereinforcementscouldreachhim，andtothisendanarmyofupwardsoftenthousandwasassembled。Onthe9thofDecemberitencounteredSucreandhissixthousandsoldiersinthevalleyofAyacucho，or"CornerofDeath，"wherethepatriotgeneralhadentrenchedhisarmywithadmirableskill。Theresultwasatotaldefeatfortheroyalists——theWaterlooofSpaininSouthAmerica。Thebattlethuswonbyraggedandhungrysoldiers——whosecountersignthenightbeforehadbeen"breadandcheese"——threwofftheyokeofthemothercountryforever。TheviceroyfellwoundedintotheirhandsandCanteracsurrendered。Onreceiptofthegloriousnews，thepeopleofLimagreetedBolivarwithwildenthusiasm。A
　　Congressprolongedhisdictatorshipamidadulationsthatborderedonthegrotesque。
　　EastwardofPeruinthevastmountainousregionofCharcas，ontheveryheightsofSouthAmerica，theroyalistsstillfoundarefuge。InJanuary，1825，apatriotgeneralatthetownofLaPazundertookonhisownresponsibilitytodeclaretheentireprovinceindependent，alikeofSpain，Peru，andtheUnitedProvincesofLaPlata。Thisactionwastooprecipitous，nottosaypresumptuous，tosuitBolivarandSucre。Thebettertocontrolthesituation，theformerwentuptoLaPazandthelattertoChuquisaca，thecapital，whereaCongresswastoassembleforthepurposeofimpartingamoreorderlyturntoaffairs。Underthedirectionofthe"MarshalofAyacucho，"asSucrewasnowcalled，theCongressissuedonthe6thofAugustaformaldeclarationofindependence。InhonoroftheLiberatoritchristenedthenewrepublic"Bolivar"——laterLatinizedinto"Bolivia"——andconferreduponhimthepresidencysolongashemightchoosetoremain。InNovember，1896，anewCongresswhichhadbeensummonedtodraftaconstitutionaccepted，withslightmodifications，aninstrumentthattheLiberatorhimselfhadprepared。Thatbodyalsorenamedthecapital"Sucre"andchosetheheroofAyacuchoasPresidentoftherepublic。
　　Now，theLiberatorthought，wastheopportunemomenttoimposeuponhisterritorialnamesakeaconstitutionembodyinghisideasofastablegovernmentwhichwouldgiveSpanishAmericanseventuallythepoliticalexperiencetheyneeded。ProvidingforanautocracyrepresentedbyalifePresident，itranthegamutofaristocracyanddemocracy，allthewayfrom"censors"forlife，whoweretowatchoverthedueenforcementofthelaws，downtosenatorsand"tribunes"chosenbyelectors，whointurnweretobenamedbyaselectcitizenry。Wheneveractuallypresentintheterritoryoftherepublic，theLiberatorwastoenjoysupremecommand，incasehewishedtoexerciseit。
　　In1826SimonBolivarstoodatthezenithofhisgloryandpower。
　　NoadherentsoftheSpanishregimewereleftinSouthAmericatomenacethefreedomofitsindependentstates。InJanuaryaresistancekeptupfornineyearsbyahandfulofroyalistslodgedontheremoteislandofChiloe，offthesoutherncoastofChile，hadbeenbroken，andthegarrisonatthefortressofCallaohadlaiddownitsarmsafteravaliantstruggle。AmongSpanishAmericansnoonewascomparabletothemarvelousmanwhohadfoundedthreegreatrepublicsstretchingfromtheCaribbeanSeatotheTropicofCapricorn。Hailedasthe"Liberator"andthe"TerrorofDespots，"hewasalsoacclaimedbythepeopleasthe"Redeemer，theFirst—BornSonoftheNewWorld！"Nationaldestinieswerecommittedtohischarge，andequestrianstatueswereerectedinhishonor。InthepopularimaginationhewasrankedwithNapoleonasapeerlessconqueror，andwithWashingtonasthefatherofhiscountry。ThatmegalomaniashouldhaveseizedthemindoftheLiberatorundercircumstancesliketheseisnotstrange。
　　Everazealousadvocateoflargestates，Bolivarwasanequallyardentpartisanofconfederation。Aspresidentofthreerepublics——ofColombiaactually，andofitssatellites，PeruandBolivia，throughhislieutenants——hecouldaffordnowtocarryouttheplanthathehadlongsincecherishedofassemblingatthetownofPanama，onColombiansoil，an"augustcongress"
　　representativeoftheindependentcountriesofAmerica。Here，ontheisthmuscreatedbynaturetojointhecontinents，thenationscreatedbymenshouldforegatherandproclaimfraternalaccord。
　　PresentingtotheautocraticgovernmentsofEuropeasolidfrontofresistancetotheirpretensionsaswellasavisiblesymbolofunityinsentiment，suchaCongressbymeetingperiodicallywouldalsopromotefriendshipamongtherepublicsofthewesternhemisphereandsupplyaconvenientmeansofsettlingtheirdisputes。
　　AtthistimetheUnitedStateswasregardedbyitssisterrepublicswithalltheaffectionwhichgratitudeforservicesrenderedtothecauseofemancipationcouldevoke。Wasitnotitselfarepublic，itspeopleademocracy，itsdevelopmentastounding，anditsfutureradiantwithhope？ThepronouncementofPresidentMonroe，in1823，protestingagainstinterferenceonthepartofEuropeanpowerswiththelibertiesofindependentAmerica，affordedtheclearestpossibleproofthatthegreatnorthernrepublicwasanaturalprotector，guide，andfriendwhoseadviceandcooperationoughttobeinvoked。TheUnitedStateswasaccordinglyaskedtotakepartintheassembly——nottoconcertmilitarymeasures，butsimplytojoinitsfellowstothesouthwardinasolemnproclamationoftheMonroeDoctrinebyAmericaatlargeandtodiscussmeansofsuppressingtheslavetrade。
　　TheCongressthatmetatPanama，inJune，1826，affordedscantencouragementtoBolivar’sroseatehopeofinterAmericansolidarity。Whetherbecauseofthedifficultiesoftravel，orbecauseofinternaldissensions，orbecauseofthesuspicionthatthemegalomaniaoftheLiberatorhadawakenedinSpanishAmerica，onlythefourcontinentalcountriesnearesttheisthmus——Mexico，CentralAmerica，Colombia，andPeru——wererepresented。Thedelegates，nevertheless，signedacompactof"perpetualunion，league，andconfederation，"providedformutualassistancetoberenderedbytheseveralnationsintimeofwar，andarrangedtohavetheAreopagusoftheAmericastransferredtoMexico。NoneoftheactsofthisCongresswasratifiedbytherepublicsconcerned，excepttheagreementforunion，whichwasadoptedbyColombia。
　　DishearteningtoBolivarasthisspectaclewas，itprovedmerelythefirstofaseriesofcalamitieswhichweretoovershadowthelateryearsoftheLiberator。Hisgrandiosepoliticalstructurebegantocrumble，foritwasbuiltontheshiftingsandsofaficklepopularity。Themoreheurgedageneralacceptanceoftheprinciplesofhisautocraticconstitution，thesurerwerehisfollowersthathecovetedroyalhonors。InDecemberheimposedhisinstrumentuponPeru。ThenhelearnedthatameetinginVenezuela，presidedoverbyPaez，haddeclareditselfinfavorofseparationfromColombia。HardlyhadheleftPerutocheckthismovementwhenanuprisingatLimadeposedhisrepresentativeandledtothesummonsofaCongresswhich，inJune，1827，restoredtheformerconstitutionandchoseanewPresident。InQuito，also，thegovernmentoftheunstabledictatorwasoverthrown。
　　Alarmedbysymptomsofdisaffectionwhichalsoappearedinthewesternpartoftherepublic，BolivarhurriedtoBogota。Thereinthehopeofremovingthegrowingantagonism，heofferedhis"irrevocable"resignation，ashehaddoneonmorethanoneoccasionbefore。Thoughthemalcontentsdeclinedtoaccepthiswithdrawalfromoffice，theyinsisteduponhiscallingaconstitutionalconvention。MeetingatOcana，inApril，1828，thatbodyproceededtoabolishthelifetenureofthepresidency，tolimitthepowersoftheexecutive，andtoincreasethoseofthelegislature。Bolivarmanagedtoquelltheoppositionindictatorialfashion;buthisprestigehadbythistimefallensolowthatanattemptwasmadetoassassinatehim。Theseveritywithwhichhepunishedtheconspiratorsservedonlytodiminishstillmorethepopularconfidencewhichhehadonceenjoyed。EveninBoliviahisstarofdestinyhadset。AnoutbreakofColombiantroopsatthecapitalforcedthefaithfulSucretoresignandleavethecountry。Theconstitutionwasthenmodifiedtomeetthedemandforalessautocraticgovernment，andanewchiefmagistratewasinstalled。
　　DesperatelytheLiberatorstrovetowardofftheimpendingcollapse。TkoughherecoveredpossessionofthedivisionofQuito，ayearofwarfarefailedtowinbackPeru，andhewascompelledtorenounceallpretenseofgoverningit。Feebleinbodyanddistractedinmind，hecondemnedbitterlythemachinationsofhisenemies。"ThereisnogoodfaithinColombia，"heexclaimed，"neitheramongmennoramongnations。
　　Treatiesarepaper;constitutions，books;elections，combats;
　　liberty，anarchy，andlifeitselfatorment。"
　　Butthehardestblowwasyettofall。LateinDecember，1829，anassemblyatCaracasdeclaredVenezuelaaseparatestate。Thegreatrepublicwasrentintwain，andevenwhatwasleftsoonsplitapart。InMay，1830，camethefinalcrash。TheCongressatBogotadraftedaconstitution，providingforaseparaterepublictobeartheoldSpanishnameof"NewGranada，"accepteddefinitelytheresignationofBolivar，andgrantedhimapension。
　　Venezuela，hisnativeland，setupacongressofitsownanddemandedthathebeexiled。ThedivisionofQuitodeclareditselfindependent，underthenameofthe"RepublicoftheEquator"
　　（Ecuador）。EverywheretheartificialhandiworkoftheLiberatorlayinruins。"Americaisungovernable。Thosewhohaveservedintherevolutionhaveploughedthesea，"washisdespairingcry。
　　Strickentodeath，thefallenheroretiredtoanestatenearSantaMarta。Here，likehisfamousrival，SanMartin，inFrance，hefoundhospitalityatthehandsofaSpaniard。OnDecember17，1830，theLiberatorgaveuphistroubledsoul。
　　WhileBolivar’sgreatrepublicwasfallingapart，theUnitedProvincesofLaPlatahadlostpracticallyallsemblanceofcohesion。Sobroadweretheirnotionsoflibertythattheseveralprovincesmaintainedasubstantialindependenceofoneanother，whilewithineachprovincethecaudillos，orpartisanchieftains，foughtamongthemselves。
　　BuenosAiresalonemanagedtopreserveameasureofstability。
　　ThiscomparativepeacewasduetothefinancialandcommercialmeasuresdevisedbyBernardinoRivadavia，oneofthemostcapablestatesmenofthetime，andtotheenergeticmannerinwhichdisorderwassuppressedbyJuanManueldeRosas，commanderofthegaucho，orcowboy，militia。Thanksalsototheformerleader，theprovinceswereinducedin1826tojoininframingaconstitutionofaunitarycharacter，whichvestedintheadministrationatBuenosAiresthepowerofappointingthelocalgovernorsandofcontrollingforeignaffairs。Thenameofthecountrywasatthesametimechangedtothatofthe"ArgentineConfederation"（c）—aLatinrenderingof"LaPlata。"
　　NosoonerhadRivadaviaassumedthepresidencyundertheneworderofthingsthandissensionathomeandwarfareabroadthreatenedtodestroyallthathehadaccomplished。Ignoringthetermsoftheconstitution，theprovinceshadalreadybeguntorejectthesupremacyofBuenosAires，whentheoutbreakofastrugglewithBrazilforcedthecontendingpartiesforawhiletouniteinthefaceofthecommonenemy。Asbefore，theobjectofinternationaldisputewastheregionoftheBandaOriental。TheruleofBrazilhadnotbeenoppressive，butthepeopleofitsCisplatineProvince，attachedbylanguageandsympathytotheirwesternneighbors，longedneverthelesstobefreeofforeigncontrol。InApril，1825，abandofthirty—threerefugeesarrivedfromBuenosAiresandstartedarevolutionwhichspreadthroughoutthecountry。Organizingaprovisionalgovernment，theinsurgentsproclaimedindependenceofBrazilandincorporationwiththeUnitedProvincesofLaPlata。AssoonastheauthoritiesatBuenosAireshadapprovedthisaction，warwasinevitable。
　　ThoughtheBraziliansweredecisivelybeatenattheBattleofItuzaingo，onFebruary20，1827，thestrugglelasteduntilAugust28，1828，whenmediationbyGreatBritainledtotheconclusionofatreatyatRiodeJaneiro，bywhichbothBrazilandtheArgentineConfederationrecognizedtheabsoluteindependenceofthedisputedprovinceastherepublicofUruguay。
　　InsteadofquietingthediscordthatprevailedamongtheArgentinos，thesevictoriesonlyfomentedtrouble。ThefederalistshadoustedRivadaviaanddiscardedtheconstitution，butthefederalideaforwhichtheystoodhadseveralmeanings。
　　ToaninhabitantofBuenosAiresfederalismmeantdominationbythecapital，notonlyovertheprovinceofthesamenamebutovertheotherprovinces;whereas，tothepeopleoftheprovinces，andeventomanyoffederalistfaithintheprovinceofBuenosAiresitself，thetermstoodfortheideaofalooseconfederationinwhicheachprovincialgovernororchieftainshouldbepracticallysupremeinhisowndistrict，solongashecouldmaintainhimself。TheUnitarieswereopponentsofboth，exceptinsofarastheirinsistenceuponacentralizedformofgovernmentforthenationwouldnecessarilyleadtothelocationofthatgovernmentatBuenosAires。ThispeculiardualcontestbetweenthetownandtheprovinceofBuenosAires，andoftheotherprovincesagainsteitherorboth，persistedforthenextsixtyyears。In1829，however，aprolongedlullsetin，whenRosas，thegaucholeader，havingwonincompanywithothercaudillosadecisivetriumphovertheUnitaries，enteredthecapitalandtooksupremecommand。
　　InChilethecourseofeventshadassumedquiteadifferentaspect。Here，in1818，aspeciesofconstitutionhadbeenadoptedbypopularvoteinamannerthatappearedtoshowremarkableunanimity，forthebooksinwhichthe"ayes"and"noes"weretoberecordedcontainednoentriesinthenegative！WhattherecordsreallyproveisthatO’Higgins，theSupremeDirector，enjoyedtheconfidenceoftherulingclass。Inexerciseoftheautocraticpowerentrustedtohim，henowproceededtointroduceavarietyofadministrativereformsofsignaladvantagetothemoralandmaterialwelfareofthecountry。Butasthedangerofconquestfromanyquarterlessened，thedemandforamoredemocraticorganizationgrewlouder，untilin1822itbecamesopersistentthatO’Higginscalledaconventiontodraftanewfundamentallaw。Butitsprovisionssuitedneitherhimselfnorhisopponents。Thereupon，realizingthathisviewsofthepoliticalcapacityofthepeopleresembledthoseofBolivarandwerenolongerapplicable，andthathisreformshadarousedtoomuchhostility，theSupremeDirectorresignedhispostandretiredtoPeru。Thusanotherheroofemancipationhadmettheingratitudeforwhichrepublicsarenotorious。
　　PoliticalconvulsionsinthecountryfollowedtheabdicationofO’Higgins。NotonlyhadthespiritofthestrifebetweenUnitariesandFederalistsbeencommunicatedtoChilefromtheneighboringrepublictotheeastward，buttwootherpartiesorfactions，dividedonstilldifferentlines，hadarisen。TheseweretheConservativeandtheLiberal，orBigwigs（pelucones）andGreenhorns（pipiolos），astheadherentsoftheonederisivelydubbedthepartisansoftheother。Althoughintheupsanddownsofthestruggletwoconstitutionswereadopted，neithersufficedtoquiettheagitation。Notuntil1830，whentheLiberalssustainedanutterdefeatonthefieldofbattle，didthecountryenteruponaperiodofquietprogressalongconservativelines。
　　>Fromthattimeonwarditpresentedasurprisingcontrasttoitsfellowrepublics，whichwerebesetwithafflictions。
　　Fartothenorthward，theEmpireofMexicosetupbyIturbidein1822wasdoomedtoaspeedyfall。"Emperorbydivineprovidence，"
　　thatambitiousadventurerinscribedonhiscoins，buthiscountrymenknewthatthebayonetsofhissoldiersweretheactualmainstayofhispretentioustitle。Neitherhisearliercareernorthesizeofhisfollowingwassufficientlyimpressivetoassurehimpopularsupportifthemilitarypropgaveway。Hislavishexpenditures，furthermore，andhisarbitraryreplacementoftheCongressbyadocilebodywhichwouldauthorizeforcedloansathiscommand，steadilyunderminedhisposition。ApartfromthefaultsofIturbidehimself，thepopularsentimentofacountryborderingimmediatelyupontheUnitedStatescouldnotfailtobecoloredbytheideasandinstitutionsofitsgreatneighbor。So，too，theexampleofwhathadbeenaccomplished，informatleast，bytheirkinsmenelsewhereinAmericawasboundtowieldapotentinfluenceonthemindsoftheMexicans。Asaresult，theirdesireforarepublicgrewstrongerfromdaytoday。
　　Iturbide，infact，hadnotenjoyedhisexaltedrankfivemonthswhenAntonioLopezdeSantaAnna，ayoungofficerdestinedlatertobecomeaconspicuousfigureinMexicanhistory，startedarevolttoreplacethe"Empire"byarepublic。Thoughhefailedinhisobject，twoofIturbide’sgeneralsjoinedtheinsurgentsindemandingarestorationoftheCongress——anactwhich，asthehapless"Emperor"perceived，wouldamounttohisdethronement。
　　Realizinghisimpotence，IturbidesummonedtheCongressandannouncedhisabdication。Butinsteadofrecognizingthisprocedure，thatbodydeclaredhisaccessionitselfnullandvoid;
　　itagreed，however，togranthimapensionifhewouldleavethecountryandresideinItaly。WiththisdispositionofhispersonIturbidecomplied;buthesoonweariedofexileandpersuadedhimselfthathewouldnotlacksupportersifhetriedtoregainhisformercontrolinMexico。ThisventurehedecidedtomakeincompleteignoranceofadecreeorderinghissummaryexecutionifhedaredtosetfootagainonMexicansoil。HehadhardlylandedinJuly，1824，whenhewasseizedandshot。
　　SinceaconstituentassemblyhaddeclareditselfinfavorofestablishingafederalformofrepublicpatternedafterthatoftheUnitedStates，thepromulgationofaconstitutionfollowedonOctober4，1824，andGuadalupeVictoria，oneoftheleadersintherevoltagainstIturbide，waschosenPresidentoftheUnitedMexicanStates。Thoughconsiderableunrestprevailedtowardthecloseofhisterm，thenewPresidentmanagedtoretainhisofficefortheallottedfouryears。Inmostrespects，however，theneworderofthingsopenedauspiciously。InNovember，1825，thesurrenderofthefortressofSanJuandeUlua，intheharborofVeraCruz，banishedthelastremnantofSpanishpower，andtwoyearslaterthesuppressionofplotsfortherestorationofFerdinandVII，coupledwiththeexpulsionofalargenumberofSpaniards，helpedtorestorecalm。TherewerethoseevenwhodaredtohopethatthefederalsystemwouldoperateassmoothlyinMexicoasithaddoneintheUnitedStates。
　　Butthepoliticalorganizationofacountrysodifferentfromitsnorthernneighborinpopulation，traditions，andpractices，couldnotrestmerelyonabasisofimitation，evenmoreorlessmodified。Theartificialityofthefabricbecameapparentenoughassoonasambitiousindividualsandgroupsofmalcontentsconcertedmeasurestomolditintoalikenessofreality。Twomainpoliticalfactionssoonappeared。FortheformtheyassumedBritishandAmericaninfluenceswereresponsible。AdoptingakindofMasonicorganization，theConservativesandCentralistscalledthemselvesEscoceses（Scottish—RiteMen），whereastheRadicalsandFederaliststookthenameofYorkinos（York—RiteMen）。
　　Whatevertheirrespectiveslogansandprofessionsofpoliticalfaith，theywerelittlemorethanpersonalfollowersofrivalgeneralsorpoliticianswhoyearnedtooccupythepresidentialchair。
　　UponthedownfallofIturbide，themalcontentsinCentralAmericabestirredthemselvestothrowofftheMexicanyoke。OnJuly1，1823，aCongressdeclaredtheregionanindependentrepublicunderthenameofthe"UnitedProvincesofCentralAmerica。"InNovemberofthenextyear，followingtheprecedentestablishedinMexico，andobedientalsotolocaldemand，thenewrepublicissuedaconstitution，inaccordancewithwhichthefivelittledivisionsofGuatemala，Honduras，Salvador，Nicaragua，andCostaRicaweretobecomestatesofafederalunion，eachhavingtheprivilegeofchoosingitsownlocalauthorities。ImmediatelyFederalistsandCentralists，RadicalsandConservatives，allwished，itwouldseem，toimposetheirparticularviewpointupontheirfellows。ThesituationwasnotunlikethatintheArgentineConfederation。TheeffortsofGuatemala——theprovinceinwhichpowerhadbeenconcentratedunderthecolonialregime——toassertsupremacyoveritsfellowstates，andtheirrefusaltorespecteitherthefederalbondoroneanother’srightsmadecivilwarinevitable。ThestrugglewhichbrokeoutamongGuatemala，Salvador，andHonduras，lasteduntil1829，whenFranciscoMorazan，attheheadofthe"AlliedArmy，UpholderoftheLaw，"
　　enteredthecapitaloftherepublicandassumeddictatorialpower。
　　OfalltheHispanicnations，however，Brazilwaseasilythemoststable。Heretheleaders，whileclingingtoindependence，strovetoavoiddangerousinnovationsingovernment。Ratherthancreateapoliticalsystemforwhichthecountrywasnotprepared，theyestablishedaconstitutionalmonarchy。ButBrazilitselfwastoovastanditsinteriortoodifficultofaccesstoallowittobecomeallatonceaunit，eitherinorganizationorinspirit。
　　Theideaofnationalsolidarityhadasyetmadescantprogress。
　　Theoldrivalrywhichexistedbetweentheprovincesofthenorth，dominatedbyBahiaorPernambuco，andthoseofthesouth，controlledbyRiodeJaneiroorSaoPaulo，stillmadeitselffelt。WhattheEmpireamountedto，therefore，wasanagglomerationofprovinces，heldtogetherbythepersonalprestigeofayoungmonarch。
　　SincethemothercountrystillheldpartsofnorthernBrazil，theEmperorentrustedtheenergeticCochrane，whohadperformedsuchvaliantserviceforChileandPeru，withthetaskofexpellingtheforeignsoldiery。Whenthishadbeenaccomplishedandarepublicanoutbreakinthesameregionhadbeensuppressed，themoredifficulttaskofsatisfyingallpartiesbyaconstitutionhadtobeundertaken。Therewerepartisansofmonarchyandadvocatesofrepublicanism，menofconservativeandofliberalsympathies;disagreements，also，betweentheBraziliansandthenativePortugueseresidentswerefrequent。SofaraspossiblePedrodesiredtomeetpopulardesires，andyetwithoutimposingtoomanylimitationsonthemonarchyitself。Butintheassemblycalledtodrafttheconstitutiontheliberalmembersmadeadeterminedefforttointroducerepublicanforms。Pedrothereupondissolvedthatbodyandin1826promulgatedaconstitutionofhisown。
　　ThepopularityoftheEmperorthereaftersoonbegantowane，partlybecauseofthescandalouscharacterofhisprivatelife，andpartlybecausehedeclinedtoobserveconstitutionalrestrictionsandchosehisministersatwill。HisinsistentwarinPortugaltoupholdtheclaimsofhisdaughtertothethronebetrayed，orseemedtobetray，dynasticambitions。HisinabilitytoholdUruguayasaBrazilianprovince，andhiscontinuedretentionofforeignsoldierswhohadbeenemployedinthestrugglewiththeArgentineConfederation，fortheapparentpurposeofquellingpossibleinsurrectionsinthefuture，bredmuchdiscontent。Soalsodidtherestraintshelaiduponthepress，whichhadbeeninfectedbytheliberalmovementsinneighboringrepublics。Whenhefailedtosubduetheseoutbreaks，hisrulebecameallthemorediscredited。Thereupon，menacedbyadangerousuprisingatRiodeJaneiroin1831，heabdicatedthethroneinfavorofhisson，Pedro，thenfiveyearsofage，andsetsailforPortugal。
　　UndertheinfluenceofGreatBritainthesmallEuropeanmothercountryhadin1825recognizedtheindependenceofitsbigtransatlanticdominion;butitwasnotuntil1836thattheCortesofSpainauthorizedtheCrowntoenteruponnegotiationslookingtothesameactioninregardtotheelevenrepublicswhichhadsprungoutofitscolonialdomain。Eventhenmanyyearselapsedbeforethemothercountryacknowledgedtheindependenceofthemall。
　　CHAPTERV。THEAGEOFTHEDICTATORS
　　IndependencewithoutlibertyandstatehoodwithoutrespectforlawarephraseswhichsumupthesituationinSpanishAmericaafterthefailureofBolivar’s"greatdesign。"Theoutcomewasacollectionofcruderepublics，rackedbyinternaldissensionandtornbymutualjealousy——patriasbobas，or"foolishfatherlands，"
　　asoneoftheirownwritershastermedthem。
　　NowthatthebondofunityoncesuppliedbySpainhadbeenbroken，theentireregionwhichhadbeenitscontinentaldomaininAmericadissolvedawhileintoitselements。TheSpanishlanguage，thetraditionsandcustomsofthedominantclass，anda"republican"formofgovernment，werepracticallythesoletieswhichremained。Laws，tobesure，hadbeenenacted，providingfortheimmediateorgradualabolitionofnegroslaveryandforanimprovementinthestatusoftheIndianandhalf—caste;butthebulkoftheinhabitants，asincolonialtimes，remainedoutsideofthebodypoliticandsocial。Thoughtheso—called"constitutions"mightconferuponthecoloredinhabitantsalltheprivilegesandimmunitiesofcitizensiftheycouldreadandwrite，andevenachancetoholdofficeiftheycouldshowpossessionofasufficientincomeorofaprofessionaltitleofsomesort，theirusualinabilitytodoeithermadetheirprivilegesillusory。Theironlyshareinpublicconcernslayinperformingmilitaryserviceatthebehestoftheirsuperiors。
　　Evenwherethelanguageoftheconstitutionsdidnotexcludethecoloredinhabitantsdirectlyorindirectly，practicalauthoritywasexercisedbydictatorswhoplayedtheautocrat，orby"liberators"whoaimedattheenjoymentofthatfunctionthemselves。
　　Notallthedictators，however，wereselfishtyrants，noralltheliberatorsmerepretenders。Disturbedconditionsbredbytwentyyearsofwarfare，antiquemethodsofindustry，abackwardcommerce，inadequatemeansofcommunication，andapopulationignorant，superstitious，andscant，madeastrongrulermoreorlessindispensable。Whateverhisofficialdesignation，thedictatorwasthelogicalsuccessoroftheSpanishviceroyorcaptaingeneral，butwithoutthesenseofresponsibilityorthelegalrestraintofeither。ThesecircumstancesaccountforthatcuriouspoliticalphaseinthedevelopmentoftheSpanishAmericannations——thepresidentialdespotism。
　　Ontheotherhand，themenwhodenouncedoppression，unscrupulousness，andvenality，andwhoinrhetoricalpronunciamentosurgedthe"people"tooverthrowthedictators，wereoftenactuatedbymotivesofpatriotism，eventhoughtheybasedtheirdeclarationsonassumptionsandassertions，ratherthanonprinciplesandfacts。Notinfrequentlyaliberatorofthissortbecame"provisionalpresident"untilhehimself，orsomepersonofhischoice，couldbeelected"constitutionalpresident"——twootherinstitutionsmoreorlesspeculiartoSpanishAmerica。
　　Inanatmosphereofpoliticaltheorizingmingledwithambitionforpersonaladvancement，bothleadersandfollowerswereprofesseddevoteesofconstitutions。Nopeople，itwasthought，couldmaintainarealrepublicandbeatruedemocracyiftheydidnotpossessawrittenconstitution。Thelongerthiswas，themorepreciseitsdefinitionofpowersandliberties，themoreauthentictherepublicandthemoregenuinethedemocracywasthoughttobe。Insomecountriesthenotionwascarriedstillfartherbyaninsistenceuponfrequentchangesinthefundamentallaworintheactualformofgovernment，notsomuchtomeetimperativeneedsastosatisfyazestforexperimentationortosuitthewhimsofmercurialtemperaments。Thecongresses，constituentassemblies，andthelike，whichdrewtheseinstruments，weresupposedtobefaithfulreproductionsofsimilarbodiesabroadandtorepresentthepopularwill。Infact，however，theyweresubstantiallycolonialcabildos，enlargedintothesemblanceofalegislature，intentuponlocalorpersonalconcerns，andlackinganynationalconsciousness。Inanycasethememberswereapttobecreaturesofarepublicandespotorelsedelegatesofpoliticiansorpettyfactions。
　　Assumingthattheleadershadafairlyclearconceptionofwhattheywanted，evenifthemassoftheiradherentsdidnot，itispossibletoalinethefactionsorpartiessomewhatasfollows：ontheonehand，theunitary，themilitary，theclerical，theconservative，andthemoderate;ontheother，thefederalist，thecivilian，thelay，theliberal，andtheradical。InterspersedamongthemweretheadvocatesofapresidentialorcongressionalsystemlikethatoftheUnitedStates，theupholdersofaparliamentaryregimelikethatofEuropeannations，andthesupportersofmethodsofgovernmentofamoreexperimentalkind。
　　Broadlyspeaking，thelineofcleavagewasmadebyopinions，concerningtheformofgovernmentandbyconvictionsregardingtherelationsofChurchandState。Theseopinionsweremainlyaproductofrevolutionaryexperience;theseconvictions，ontheotherhand，wereabequestfromcolonialtimes。
　　TheUnitarieswishedtohaveasystemofgovernmentmodeleduponthatofFrance。Theywantedthevariousprovincesmadeintoadministrativedistrictsoverwhichthenationalauthorityshouldexercisefullsway。Theirdirectopponents，theFederalists，resembledtosomeextenttheAntifederalistsratherthanthepartybearingtheformertitleintheearlierhistoryoftheUnitedStates;butevenhereanexactanalogyfails。Theydidnotseektohavetheprovincesenjoylocalself—governmentortohaveperpetuatedthetraditionsofasortofmunicipalhomerulehandeddownfromthecolonialcabildos，somuchastosecuretherecognitionofanumberofisolatedvillagesorsmalltownsassovereignstates——whichmeantturningthemoverasfiefstotheirlocalchieftains。Federalism，therefore，wastheSpanishAmericanexpressionforafeudalismupheldbymilitarylordletsandtheirretainers。
　　Amongthemeasuresofreformintroducedbyonerepublicoranotherduringtherevolutionaryperiod，abolitionoftheInquisitionhadbeenoneoftheforemost;otherwisecomparativelylittlewasdonetocurbtheinfluenceoftheChurch。IndeedtheearlierconstitutionsregularlycontainedarticlesdeclaringRomanCatholicismthesolelegalfaithaswellasthereligionofthestate，andsafeguardinginotherrespectsitsprestigeinthecommunity。Herewasaninstitution，wealthy，proud，andinfluential，whichdeclinedtoyielditsancientprerogativesandprivilegesandtothatendrelieduponthesupportofclericalsandconservativeswhodislikedinnovationsofademocraticsortandviewedaskancetheentryofimmigrantsprofessinganalienfaith。OpposedtotheChurchstoodgovernmentsvergingonbankruptcy，desirousofexercisingsupremecontrol，anddominatedbyindividualseagertoputtheoriesofdemocracyintopracticeandtothrowopenthedoorsoftherepublicfreelytonewcomersfromotherlands。IntheopinionoftheseradicalstheChurchoughttobedeprivedbothofitspropertyandofitsmonopolyofeducation。Theoneshouldbeturnedovertothenation，towhichitproperlybelonged，andshouldbeconvertedintopublicutilities;theothershouldbemadeabsolutelysecular，inordertodestroyclericalinfluenceovertheyouthfulmind。Inthisprogramradicalsandliberalsconcurredwithvaryingdegreesofintensity，whilethemoderatesstrovetoholdthebalancebetweenthemandtheiropponents。
　　Outofthiscomplexsituationcivilcommotionswereboundtoarise。Occasionallythesewererealwars，butasaruleonlyskirmishesorsporadicinsurrectionsoccurred。Theywerecalled"revolutions，"notbecausesomegreatprinciplewasactuallyatstakebutbecausethetermhadbeenpopulareversincethestrugglewithSpain。Asadesignationformovementsaimedatsecuringrotationinoffice，andhencecontrolofthetreasury，itwasappropriateenough！Atallevents，whetherseriousorfarcical，thecommotionsofteninvolvedanexpenditureinlifeandmoneyfarbeyondthevalueoftheinterestsaffected。
　　Further，boththeprevalentdisorderandthecentralizationofauthorityimpelledtheeducatedandwellto—doclassestotakeuptheirresidenceattheseatofgovernment。Notafewoftheuprisingswere，infact，protestsonthepartoftheneglectedfolkintheinteriorofthecountryagainstconcentrationofpopulation，wealth，intellect，andpowerintheSpanishAmericancapitals。
　　AmongthetownsofthissortwasBuenosAires。Here，in1829，RosasinauguratedacareerofrulershipovertheArgentineConfederation，culminatinginadespotismthatmadehimthemostextraordinaryfigureofhistime。Originallyastockfarmerandskilledinalltheexercisesofthecowboy，hedevelopedanunusualtalentforadministration。Hiskeenintelligence，supplestatecraft，inflexibilityofpurpose，andvigorofaction，unitedtoashrewdunderstandingofhumanfolliesandpassions，gavetohispersonalityadominancethatawedandtohiswordofcommandapowerthathumbled。Overhisfellowchieftainswhoheldtheprovincesinterrorizedsubjection，hewonanascendancythatinsuredcompliancewithhiswill。Theinstinctsofthemultitudeheflatteredbyhisgeneroussimplicity，whileheenlistedthesupportoftheresponsibleclassbymaintainingorderinthecountryside。Thedesire，also，ofBuenosAirestobeparamountovertheotherprovinceshadnosmallshareinstrengtheninghispower。
　　Relativelyhonestinmoneymatters，andasticklerforprecisionanduniformity，Rosassoughttogovernanationintherough—and—readyfashionofthestockfarm。Acreatureofhisenvironment，nobetterandnoworsethanhisassociates，butonlymorecapablethanthey，andabsolutelyconvincedthatpitilessautocracywasthesolemeansofcreatinganationoutofchaoticfragments，this"RobespierreofSouthAmerica"carriedonhisdespoticsway，regardlessofthefuryofopponentsandthemenaceofforeignintervention。
　　Duringthefirstthreeyearsofhiscontrol，however，exceptfortherigoroussuppressionofunitarymovementsandthemuzzlingofthepress，fewsignsappearedofthe"blacknightofArgentinehistory"whichwassoontoclosedownontheland。Realizingthattheauspiciousmomenthadnotyetarrivedforhimtoexercisethelimitlesspowerthathethoughtneedful，hedeclinedanofferofreelectionfromtheprovinciallegislature，inthehopethat，throughapolicyofconciliation，hissuccessormightfallapreytothedesignsoftheUnitaries。Whenthishappened，hesecretlystirreduptheprovincesintoarenewaloftheearlierdisturbances，untiltheevidencebecameoverwhelmingthatRosasalonecouldbringpeaceandprogressoutofturmoilandbackwardness。Reluctantlythelegislatureyieldedhimthepoweritknewhewanted。Thishewouldnotacceptuntila"popular"
　　voteofsome9000to4confirmedthechoice。In1835，accordingly，hebecamedictatorforthefirstoffoursuccessivetermsoffiveyears。
　　Thenensued，notablyinBuenosAiresitself，astateofaffairsatoncegrotesqueandfrightful。Notcontentwithhuntingdownandinflictingeverypossible，outrageuponthosesuspectedofsympathywiththeUnitaries，Rosasforbadethemtodisplaythelightblueandwhitecolorsoftheirpartydeviceanddirectedthatred，thesignofFederalism，shouldbedisplayedonalloccasions。Pinkhewouldnottolerateasbeingtooattenuatedashadeandaltogethertoosuggestiveofpoliticaltrimming！Abandofhisfollowers，madeupofruffians，andcalledtheMazorca，or"EarofCorn，"becauseoftheresemblanceoftheirclosefellowshiptoitsadheringgrains，brokeintoprivatehouses，destroyedeverythinglightbluewithinreach，andmaltreatedtheunfortunateoccupantsatwill。Nomanwassafealsowhodidnotgivehisfacealeonineaspectbywearingamustacheandsidewhiskers——emblems，theoneof"federalism，"andtheotherof"independence。"Topossessavisagebareofthesehirsuteadornmentsoracountenancetooefflorescentinthatrespectwas，underaregimeoftonsorialpolitics，toinvitepersonaldisaster！NothingapparentlywastoocringingorserviletoshowhowsubmissivethepeopleweretothemasteryofRosas。Privatevengeanceanddefamationoftheinnocentdidtheirsinisterworkunchecked。EvenwhenhisarbitrarytreatmentofforeignershadcompelledFranceforawhiletoinstituteablockadeofBuenosAires，thewilydictatorutilizedtheincidenttoturnpatrioticresentmenttohisownadvantage。
　　MeanwhilemattersinUruguayhadcometosuchapassthatRosassawanopportunitytoextendhiscontrolinthatdirectionalso。
　　PlacedbetweenBrazilandtheArgentineConfederationandsooftenaboneofcontention，thelittlecountrywashardlyfreefromtheruleoftheformerstatewhenitcamenearfallingunderthedominationofthelatter。OnlyafewyearsofrelativetranquillityhadelapsedwhentwopartiessprangupinUruguay：
　　the"Reds"（Colorados）andthe"Whites"（Blancos）。Ofthese，theonewassupposedtorepresenttheliberalandtheothertheconservativeelement。Infact，theywerethefollowingsofpartisanchieftains，whosestrugglesforthepresidencyduringmanyyearstocomeretardedtheadvancementofacountrytowhichnaturehadbeengenerous。
　　WhenFructuosoRivera，thePresidentupto1835，thoughtofchoosingsomeonetobeelectedinconstitutionalfashionashissuccessor，heunwiselysingledoutManuelOribe，oneofthefamous"Thirty—three"whohadraisedthecryofindependenceadecadebefore。Butinsteadofahenchmanhefoundarival。Bothofthemstraightwayadoptedthecolorsandbidforthesupportofoneofthelocalfactions;andbothappealedtothefactionsoftheArgentineConfederationforaid，RiveratotheUnitariesandOribetotheFederalists。In1843，Oribe，attheheadofanarmyofBlancosandFederalistsandwiththemoralsupportofRosas，laidsiegetoMontevideo。DefendedbyColorados，Unitaries，andnumerousforeigners，includingGiuseppeGaribaldi，thetownheldoutvaliantlyforeightyears——afeatthatearnedforitthetitleofthe"NewTroy。"Anxioustostoptheslaughteranddestructionthatwereinjuringtheirnationals，France，GreatBritain，andBrazilofferedtheirmediation;butRosaswouldhavenoneofit。Whattheantagonistsdidhecaredlittle，solongastheyenfeebledthecountryandincreasedhischancesofdominatingit。Atlength，in1845，thetwoEuropeanpowersestablishedablockadeofArgentineports，whichwasnotlifteduntilthedictatorgrudginglyagreedtowithdrawhistroopsfromtheneighboringrepublic。
　　Morethananyothersinglefactor，thisinterventionofFranceandGreatBritainadministeredablowtoRosasfromwhichhecouldnotrecover。TheoperationsoftheirfleetsandtheresistanceofMontevideohadloweredtheprestigeofthedictatorandhadraisedthehopesoftheUnitariesthatalastdesperateeffortmightshakeoffhishatedcontrol。InMay，1851，JustoJosedeUrquiza，oneofhismosttrustedlieutenants，declaredtheindependenceofhisownprovinceandcalledupontheotherstoriseagainstthetyrant。EnlistingthesupportofBrazil，Uruguay，andParaguay，heassembleda"greatarmyofliberation，"
　　composedofabouttwenty—fivethousandmen，atwhoseheadhemarchedtomeettheredoubtableRosas。OnFebruary3，1852，ataspotnearBuenosAires，themanofmightwho，likehiscontemporaryFranciainParaguay，hadheldtheArgentineConfederationinthralldomforsomanyyears，wentdowntofinaldefeat。EmbarkingonaBritishwarshiphesailedforEngland，theretobecomeaquietcountrygentlemaninalandwheregauchosanddictatorswereunhonored。
　　InthemeantimeParaguay，sparedfromsuchconvulsionasrackeditsneighborontheeast，draggedonitssecludedexistenceofbackwardnessandstagnation。Indiansandhalf—castesvegetatedinignoranceanddocility，andthehandfulofwhitesquakedinterror，whiletheinexorableFranciatightenedthereinsofcommercialandindustrialrestrictionanderectedfortsalongthefrontierstokeepouttheperniciousforeigner。Athisdeath，in1840，menandwomenweptathisfuneralinfearperchance，asonehistorianremarks，lesthecomebacktolife;andthepriestwhoofficiatedattheservicelikenedthedeparteddictatortoCaesarandAugustus！
　　Paraguaywasdestined，however，tofallunderadespotfarworsethanFranciawhenin1862FranciscoSolanoLopezbecamePresident。Thenewrulerwasamanofconsiderableintelligenceandeducation。WhileatravelerinEuropehehadseenmuchofitsmilitaryorganizations，andhehadalsogainednoslightacquaintancewiththevicesofitscapitalcities。Thisacquiredknowledgehejoinedtoevilpropensitiesuntilhebecameaveritablemonsterofwickedness。Vain，arrogant，reckless，absolutelydevoidofscruple，swaggeringinvictory，doggedindefeat，ferociouslycruelatalltimes，hemurderedhisbrothersandhisbestfriends;heexecuted，imprisoned，orbanishedanyonewhomhethoughttooinfluential;hetorturedhismotherandsisters;and，liketheFrenchTerrorists，heimpaledhisofficersupontheunpleasantdilemmaofwinningvictoriesorlosingtheirlives。EvenmembersoftheAmericanlegationsufferedtormentathishands，andtheministerhimselfbarelyescapeddeath。
　　Overhispeople，Lopezwieldedamarvelouspower，compoundedofpersuasiveeloquenceandbruteforce。IftheParaguayanshadobeyedtheirearliermastersblindly，theyweredumbbeforethisnewdespotanddeaftootherthanhiswordofcommand。Tothemhewasthe"GreatFather，"whotalkedtothemintheirowntongueofGuarani，whowasthepersonificationofthenation，thegreatestrulerintheworld，theinvinciblechampionwhoinspiredthemwithaloathingandcontemptfortheirenemies。Suchwerethetraitsofamanandsuchthetraitsofapeoplewhowagedforsixyearsawarfareamongthemostextraordinaryinhumanannals。