Thatistheopinionwhich，forthetimebeing，representstheneglectedinterests，thesideofhumanwell—beingwhichisindangerofobtaininglessthanitsshare。Iamawarethatthereisnot，inthiscountry，anyintoleranceofdifferencesofopiniononmostofthesetopics。Theyareadducedtoshow，byadmittedandmultipliedexamples，theuniversalityofthefact，thatonlythroughdiversityofopinionisthere，intheexistingstateofhumanintellect，achanceoffairplaytoallsidesofthetruth。Whentherearepersonstobefoundwhoformanexceptiontotheapparentunanimityoftheworldonanysubject，eveniftheworldisintheright，itisalwaysprobablethatdissentientshavesomethingworthhearingtosayforthemselves，andthattruthwouldlosesomethingbytheirsilence。
　　Itmaybeobjected，"Butsomereceivedprinciples，especiallyonthehighestandmostvitalsubjects，aremorethanhalf—truths。TheChristianmorality，forinstance，isthewholetruthonthatsubject，andifanyoneteachesamoralitywhichvariesfromit，heiswhollyinerror。"Asthisisofallcasesthemostimportantinpractice，nonecanbefittertotestthegeneralmaxim。ButbeforepronouncingwhatChristianmoralityisorisnot，itwouldbedesirabletodecidewhatismeantbyChristianmorality。IfitmeansthemoralityoftheNewTestament，Iwonderthatanyonewhoderiveshisknowledgeofthisfromthebookitself，cansupposethatitwasannounced，orintended，asacompletedoctrineofmorals。TheGospelalwaysreferstoapre—existingmorality，andconfinesitspreceptstotheparticularsinwhichthatmoralitywastobecorrected，orsupersededbyawiderandhigher;expressingitself，moreover，intermsmostgeneral，oftenimpossibletobeinterpretedliterally，andpossessingrathertheimpressivenessofpoetryoreloquencethantheprecisionoflegislation。Toextractfromitabodyofethicaldoctrine，hasneverbeenpossiblewithoutekingitoutfromtheOldTestament，thatis，fromasystemelaborateindeed，butinmanyrespectsbarbarous，andintendedonlyforabarbarouspeople。St。
　　Paul，adeclaredenemytothisJudaicalmodeofinterpretingthedoctrineandfillinguptheschemeofhisMaster，equallyassumesapreexistingmorality，namelythatoftheGreeksandRomans;andhisadvicetoChristiansisinagreatmeasureasystemofaccommodationtothat;eventotheextentofgivinganapparentsanctiontoslavery。
　　WhatiscalledChristian，butshouldratherbetermedtheological，morality，wasnottheworkofChristortheApostles，butisofmuchlaterorigin，havingbeengraduallybuiltupbytheCatholicchurchofthefirstfivecenturies，andthoughnotimplicitlyadoptedbymodernsandProtestants，hasbeenmuchlessmodifiedbythemthanmighthavebeenexpected。Forthemostpart，indeed，theyhavecontentedthemselveswithcuttingofftheadditionswhichhadbeenmadetoitintheMiddleAges，eachsectsupplyingtheplacebyfreshadditions，adaptedtoitsowncharacterandtendencies。
　　Thatmankindoweagreatdebttothismorality，andtoitsearlyteachers，Ishouldbethelastpersontodeny;butIdonotscrupletosayofitthatitis，inmanyimportantpoints，incompleteandone—sided，andthatunlessideasandfeelings，notsanctionedbyit，hadcontributedtotheformationofEuropeanlifeandcharacter，humanaffairswouldhavebeeninaworseconditionthantheynoware。
　　Christianmorality（socalled）hasallthecharactersofareaction;
　　itis，ingreatpart，aprotestagainstPaganism。Itsidealisnegativeratherthanpositive;passiveratherthanactive;InnocenceratherthanNobleness;AbstinencefromEvil，ratherthanenergeticPursuitofGood;initsprecepts（ashasbeenwellsaid）"thoushaltnot"predominatesundulyover"thoushalt。"Initshorrorofsensuality，itmadeanidolofasceticism，whichhasbeengraduallycompromisedawayintooneoflegality。Itholdsoutthehopeofheavenandthethreatofhell，astheappointedandappropriatemotivestoavirtuouslife：inthisfallingfarbelowthebestoftheancients，anddoingwhatliesinittogivetohumanmoralityanessentiallyselfishcharacter，bydisconnectingeachman’sfeelingsofdutyfromtheinterestsofhisfellowcreatures，exceptsofarasaself—interestedinducementisofferedtohimforconsultingthem。Itisessentiallyadoctrineofpassiveobedience;itinculcatessubmissiontoallauthoritiesfoundestablished;whoindeedarenottobeactivelyobeyedwhentheycommandwhatreligionforbids，butwhoarenottoberesisted，farlessrebelledagainst，foranyamountofwrongtoourselves。Andwhile，inthemoralityofthebestPagannations，dutytotheStateholdsevenadisproportionateplace，infringingonthejustlibertyoftheindividual;inpurelyChristianethics，thatgranddepartmentofdutyisscarcelynoticedoracknowledged。ItisintheKoran，nottheNewTestament，thatwereadthemaxim—"Arulerwhoappointsanymantoanoffice，whenthereisinhisdominionsanothermanbetterqualifiedforit，sinsagainstGodandagainsttheState。"WhatlittlerecognitiontheideaofobligationtothepublicobtainsinmodernmoralityisderivedfromGreekandRomansources，notfromChristian;as，eveninthemoralityofprivatelife，whateverexistsofmagnanimity，highmindedness，personaldignity，eventhesenseofhonour，isderivedfromthepurelyhuman，notthereligiouspartofoureducation，andnevercouldhavegrownoutofastandardofethicsinwhichtheonlyworth，professedlyrecognised，isthatofobedience。
　　IamasfarasanyonefrompretendingthatthesedefectsarenecessarilyinherentintheChristianethicsineverymannerinwhichitcanbeconceived，orthatthemanyrequisitesofacompletemoraldoctrinewhichitdoesnotcontaindonotadmitofbeingreconciledwithit。FarlesswouldIinsinuatethisofthedoctrinesandpreceptsofChristhimself。IbelievethatthesayingsofChristareallthatIcanseeanyevidenceoftheirhavingbeenintendedtobe;thattheyareirreconcilablewithnothingwhichacomprehensivemoralityrequires;thateverythingwhichisexcellentinethicsmaybebroughtwithinthem，withnogreaterviolencetotheirlanguagethanhasbeendonetoitbyallwhohaveattemptedtodeducefromthemanypracticalsystemofconductwhatever。Butitisquiteconsistentwiththistobelievethattheycontain，andweremeanttocontain，onlyapartofthetruth;thatmanyessentialelementsofthehighestmoralityareamongthethingswhicharenotprovidedfor，norintendedtobeprovidedfor，intherecordeddeliverancesoftheFounderofChristianity，andwhichhavebeenentirelythrownasideinthesystemofethicserectedonthebasisofthosedeliverancesbytheChristianChurch。Andthisbeingso，IthinkitagreaterrortopersistinattemptingtofindintheChristiandoctrinethatcompleteruleforourguidancewhichitsauthorintendedittosanctionandenforce，butonlypartiallytoprovide。Ibelieve，too，thatthisnarrowtheoryisbecomingagravepracticalevil，detractinggreatlyfromthemoraltrainingandinstructionwhichsomanywell—meaningpersonsarenowatlengthexertingthemselvestopromote。
　　Imuchfearthatbyattemptingtoformthemindandfeelingsonanexclusivelyreligioustype，anddiscardingthosesecularstandards（asforwantofabetternametheymaybecalled）whichheretoforecoexistedwithandsupplementedtheChristianethics，receivingsomeofitsspirit，andinfusingintoitsomeoftheirs，therewillresult，andisevennowresulting，alow，abject，serviletypeofcharacter，which，submititselfasitmaytowhatitdeemstheSupremeWill，isincapableofrisingtoorsympathisingintheconceptionofSupremeGoodness。IbelievethatotherethicsthananywhichcanbeevolvedfromexclusivelyChristiansources，mustexistsidebysidewithChristianethicstoproducethemoralregenerationofmankind;andthattheChristiansystemisnoexceptiontotherule，thatinanimperfectstateofthehumanmindtheinterestsoftruthrequireadiversityofopinions。
　　ItisnotnecessarythatinceasingtoignorethemoraltruthsnotcontainedinChristianitymenshouldignoreanyofthosewhichitdoescontain。Suchprejudice，oroversight，whenitoccurs，isaltogetheranevil;butitisonefromwhichwecannothopetobealwaysexempt，andmustberegardedasthepricepaidforaninestimablegood。Theexclusivepretensionmadebyapartofthetruthtobethewhole，mustandoughttobeprotestedagainst;andifareactionaryimpulseshouldmaketheprotestorsunjustintheirturn，thisone—sidedness，liketheother，maybelamented，butmustbetolerated。
　　IfChristianswouldteachinfidelstobejusttoChristianity，theyshouldthemselvesbejusttoinfidelity。Itcandotruthnoservicetoblinkthefact，knowntoallwhohavethemostordinaryacquaintancewithliteraryhistory，thatalargeportionofthenoblestandmostvaluablemoralteachinghasbeenthework，notonlyofmenwhodidnotknow，butofmenwhoknewandrejected，theChristianfaith。
　　Idonotpretendthatthemostunlimiteduseofthefreedomofenunciatingallpossibleopinionswouldputanendtotheevilsofreligiousorphilosophicalsectarianism。Everytruthwhichmenofnarrowcapacityareinearnestabout，issuretobeasserted，inculcated，andinmanywaysevenactedon，asifnoothertruthexistedintheworld，oratalleventsnonethatcouldlimitorqualifythefirst。Iacknowledgethatthetendencyofallopinionstobecomesectarianisnotcuredbythefreestdiscussion，butisoftenheightenedandexacerbatedthereby;thetruthwhichoughttohavebeen，butwasnot，seen，beingrejectedallthemoreviolentlybecauseproclaimedbypersonsregardedasopponents。Butitisnotontheimpassionedpartisan，itisonthecalmerandmoredisinterestedbystander，thatthiscollisionofopinionsworksitssalutaryeffect。Nottheviolentconflictbetweenpartsofthetruth，butthequietsuppressionofhalfofit，istheformidableevil;thereisalwayshopewhenpeopleareforcedtolistentobothsides;itiswhentheyattendonlytoonethaterrorshardenintoprejudices，andtruthitselfceasestohavetheeffectoftruth，bybeingexaggeratedintofalsehood。Andsincetherearefewmentalattributesmorerarethanthatjudicialfacultywhichcansitinintelligentjudgmentbetweentwosidesofaquestion，ofwhichonlyoneisrepresentedbyanadvocatebeforeit，truthhasnochancebutinproportionaseverysideofit，everyopinionwhichembodiesanyfractionofthetruth，notonlyfindsadvocates，butissoadvocatedastobelistenedto。
　　Wehavenowrecognisedthenecessitytothementalwell—beingofmankind（onwhichalltheirotherwell—beingdepends）offreedomofopinion，andfreedomoftheexpressionofopinion，onfourdistinctgrounds;whichwewillnowbrieflyrecapitulate。
　　First，ifanyopinioniscompelledtosilence，thatopinionmay，foraughtwecancertainlyknow，betrue。Todenythisistoassumeourowninfallibility。
　　Secondly，thoughthesilencedopinionbeanerror，itmay，andverycommonlydoes，containaportionoftruth;andsincethegeneralorprevailingopiniononanysubjectisrarelyorneverthewholetruth，itisonlybythecollisionofadverseopinionsthattheremainderofthetruthhasanychanceofbeingsupplied。
　　Thirdly，evenifthereceivedopinionbenotonlytrue，butthewholetruth;unlessitissufferedtobe，andactuallyis，vigorouslyandearnestlycontested，itwill，bymostofthosewhoreceiveit，beheldinthemannerofaprejudice，withlittlecomprehensionorfeelingofitsrationalgrounds。Andnotonlythis，but，fourthly，themeaningofthedoctrineitselfwillbeindangerofbeinglost，orenfeebled，anddeprivedofitsvitaleffectonthecharacterandconduct：thedogmabecomingamereformalprofession，inefficaciousforgood，butcumberingtheground，andpreventingthegrowthofanyrealandheartfeltconviction，fromreasonorpersonalexperience。
　　Beforequittingthesubjectoffreedomofopinion，itisfittotakesomenoticeofthosewhosaythatthefreeexpressionofallopinionsshouldbepermitted，onconditionthatthemannerbetemperate，anddonotpasstheboundsoffairdiscussion。Muchmightbesaidontheimpossibilityoffixingwherethesesupposedboundsaretobeplaced;forifthetestbeoffencetothosewhoseopinionsareattacked，Ithinkexperiencetestifiesthatthisoffenceisgivenwhenevertheattackistellingandpowerful，andthateveryopponentwhopushesthemhard，andwhomtheyfinditdifficulttoanswer，appearstothem，ifheshowsanystrongfeelingonthesubject，anintemperateopponent。
　　Butthis，thoughanimportantconsiderationinapracticalpointofview，mergesinamorefundamentalobjection。Undoubtedlythemannerofassertinganopinion，eventhoughitbeatrueone，maybeveryobjectionable，andmayjustlyincurseverecensure。Buttheprincipaloffencesofthekindaresuchasitismostlyimpossible，unlessbyaccidentalself—betrayal，tobringhometoconviction。Thegravestofthemis，toarguesophistically，tosuppressfactsorarguments，tomisstatetheelementsofthecase，ormisrepresenttheoppositeopinion。Butallthis，eventothemostaggravateddegree，issocontinuallydoneinperfectgoodfaith，bypersonswhoarenotconsidered，andinmanyotherrespectsmaynotdeservetobeconsidered，ignorantorincompetent，thatitisrarelypossible，onadequategrounds，conscientiouslytostampthemisrepresentationasmorallyculpable;andstilllesscouldlawpresumetointerferewiththiskindofcontroversialmisconduct。Withregardtowhatiscommonlymeantbyintemperatediscussion，namelyinvective，sarcasm，personality，andthelike，thedenunciationoftheseweaponswoulddeservemoresympathyifitwereeverproposedtointerdictthemequallytobothsides;butitisonlydesiredtorestraintheemploymentofthemagainsttheprevailingopinion：againsttheunprevailingtheymaynotonlybeusedwithoutgeneraldisapproval，butwillbelikelytoobtainforhimwhousesthemthepraiseofhonestzealandrighteousindignation。Yetwhatevermischiefarisesfromtheiruseisgreatestwhentheyareemployedagainstthecomparativelydefenceless;andwhateverunfairadvantagecanbederivedbyanyopinionfromthismodeofassertingit，accruesalmostexclusivelytoreceivedopinions。Theworstoffenceofthiskindwhichcanbecommittedbyapolemicistostigmatisethosewhoholdthecontraryopinionasbadandimmoralmen。Tocalumnyofthissort，thosewhoholdanyunpopularopinionarepeculiarlyexposed，becausetheyareingeneralfewanduninfluential，andnobodybutthemselvesfeelsmuchinterestedinseeingjusticedonethem;butthisweaponis，fromthenatureofthecase，deniedtothosewhoattackaprevailingopinion：theycanneitheruseitwithsafetytothemselves，nor，iftheycould，woulditdoanythingbutrecoilontheirowncause。Ingeneral，opinionscontrarytothosecommonlyreceivedcanonlyobtainahearingbystudiedmoderationoflanguage，andthemostcautiousavoidanceofunnecessaryoffence，fromwhichtheyhardlyeverdeviateeveninaslightdegreewithoutlosingground：whileunmeasuredvituperationemployedonthesideoftheprevailingopinionreallydoesdeterpeoplefromprofessingcontraryopinions，andfromlisteningtothosewhoprofessthem。
　　Fortheinterest，therefore，oftruthandjustice，itisfarmoreimportanttorestrainthisemploymentofvituperativelanguagethantheother;and，forexample，ifitwerenecessarytochoose，therewouldbemuchmoreneedtodiscourageoffensiveattacksoninfidelitythanonreligion。Itis，however，obviousthatlawandauthorityhavenobusinesswithrestrainingeither，whileopinionought，ineveryinstance，todetermineitsverdictbythecircumstancesoftheindividualcase;condemningeveryone，onwhicheversideoftheargumentheplaceshimself，inwhosemodeofadvocacyeitherwantofcandour，ormalignity，bigotry，orintoleranceoffeelingmanifestthemselves;butnotinferringthesevicesfromthesidewhichapersontakes，thoughitbethecontrarysideofthequestiontoourown;andgivingmeritedhonourtoeveryone，whateveropinionhemayhold，whohascalmnesstoseeandhonestytostatewhathisopponentsandtheiropinionsreallyare，exaggeratingnothingtotheirdiscredit，keepingnothingbackwhichtells，orcanbesupposedtotell，intheirfavour。Thisistherealmoralityofpublicdiscussion：andifoftenviolated，Iamhappytothinkthattherearemanycontroversialistswhotoagreatextentobserveit，andastillgreaternumberwhoconscientiouslystrivetowardsit。
　　Chapter3。
　　OfIndividuality，asoneoftheElementsofWell—being。
　　SUCHBEINGthereasonswhichmakeitimperativethathumanbeingsshouldbefreetoformopinions，andtoexpresstheiropinionswithoutreserve;andsuchthebanefulconsequencestotheintellectual，andthroughthattothemoralnatureofman，unlessthislibertyiseitherconceded，orassertedinspiteofprohibition;letusnextexaminewhetherthesamereasonsdonotrequirethatmenshouldbefreetoactupontheiropinions—tocarrytheseoutintheirlives，withouthindrance，eitherphysicalormoral，fromtheirfellow—men，solongasitisattheirownriskandperil。
　　Thislastprovisoisofcourseindispensable。Noonepretendsthatactionsshouldbeasfreeasopinions。Onthecontrary，evenopinionslosetheirimmunitywhenthecircumstancesinwhichtheyareexpressedaresuchastoconstitutetheirexpressionapositiveinstigationtosomemischievousact。Anopinionthatcorn—dealersarestarversofthepoor，orthatprivatepropertyisrobbery，oughttobeunmolestedwhensimplycirculatedthroughthepress，butmayjustlyincurpunishmentwhendeliveredorallytoanexcitedmobassembledbeforethehouseofacorn—dealer，orwhenhandedaboutamongthesamemobintheformofaplacard。Acts，ofwhateverkind，which，withoutjustifiablecause，doharmtoothers，maybe，andinthemoreimportantcasesabsolutelyrequiretobe，controlledbytheunfavourablesentiments，and，whenneedful，bytheactiveinterferenceofmankind。Thelibertyoftheindividualmustbethusfarlimited;hemustnotmakehimselfanuisancetootherpeople。Butifherefrainsfrommolestingothersinwhatconcernsthem，andmerelyactsaccordingtohisowninclinationandjudgmentinthingswhichconcernhimself，thesamereasonswhichshowthatopinionshouldbefree，provealsothatheshouldbeallowed，withoutmolestation，tocarryhisopinionsintopracticeathisowncost。Thatmankindarenotinfallible;thattheirtruths，forthemostpart，areonlyhalf—truths;thatunityofopinion，unlessresultingfromthefullestandfreestcomparisonofoppositeopinions，isnotdesirable，anddiversitynotanevil，butagood，untilmankindaremuchmorecapablethanatpresentofrecognisingallsidesofthetruth，areprinciplesapplicabletomen’smodesofaction，notlessthantotheiropinions。Asitisusefulthatwhilemankindareimperfectthereshouldbedifferentopinions，soitisthatthereshouldbedifferentexperimentsofliving;thatfreescopeshouldbegiventovarietiesofcharacter，shortofinjurytoothers;andthattheworthofdifferentmodesoflifeshouldbeprovedpractically，whenanyonethinksfittotrythem。Itisdesirable，inshort，thatinthingswhichdonotprimarilyconcernothers，individualityshouldassertitself。Where，nottheperson’sowncharacter，butthetraditionsorcustomsofotherpeoplearetheruleofconduct，thereiswantingoneoftheprincipalingredientsofhumanhappiness，andquitethechiefingredientofindividualandsocialprogress。
　　Inmaintainingthisprinciple，thegreatestdifficultytobeencountereddoesnotlieintheappreciationofmeanstowardsanacknowledgedend，butintheindifferenceofpersonsingeneraltotheenditself。Ifitwerefeltthatthefreedevelopmentofindividualityisoneoftheleadingessentialsofwell—being;thatitisnotonlyaco—ordinateelementwithallthatisdesignatedbythetermscivilisation，instruction，education，culture，butisitselfanecessarypartandconditionofallthosethings;therewouldbenodangerthatlibertyshouldbeundervalued，andtheadjustmentoftheboundariesbetweenitandsocialcontrolwouldpresentnoextraordinarydifficulty。Buttheevilis，thatindividualspontaneityishardlyrecognisedbythecommonmodesofthinkingashavinganyintrinsicworth，ordeservinganyregardonitsownaccount。Themajority，beingsatisfiedwiththewaysofmankindastheynoware（foritistheywhomakethemwhattheyare），cannotcomprehendwhythosewaysshouldnotbegoodenoughforeverybody;andwhatismore，spontaneityformsnopartoftheidealofthemajorityofmoralandsocialreformers，butisratherlookedonwithjealousy，asatroublesomeandperhapsrebelliousobstructiontothegeneralacceptanceofwhatthesereformers，intheirownjudgment，thinkwouldbebestformankind。Fewpersons，outofGermany，evencomprehendthemeaningofthedoctrinewhichWilhelmvonHumboldt，soeminentbothasasavantandasapolitician，madethetextofatreatise—
　　that"theendofman，orthatwhichisprescribedbytheeternalorimmutabledictatesofreason，andnotsuggestedbyvagueandtransientdesires，isthehighestandmostharmoniousdevelopmentofhispowerstoacompleteandconsistentwhole";that，therefore，theobject"towardswhicheveryhumanbeingmustceaselesslydirecthisefforts，andonwhichespeciallythosewhodesigntoinfluencetheirfellow—menmusteverkeeptheireyes，istheindividualityofpoweranddevelopment";thatforthistherearetworequisites，"freedom，andvarietyofsituations";andthatfromtheunionofthesearise"individualvigourandmanifolddiversity，"whichcombinethemselvesin"originality。"*
　　*TheSphereandDutiesofGovernment，fromtheGermanofBaronWilhelmvonHumboldt，pp。11—13。
　　Little，however，aspeopleareaccustomedtoadoctrinelikethatofVonHumboldt，andsurprisingasitmaybetothemtofindsohighavalueattachedtoindividuality，thequestion，onemustneverthelessthink，canonlybeoneofdegree。Noone’sideaofexcellenceinconductisthatpeopleshoulddoabsolutelynothingbutcopyoneanother。Noonewouldassertthatpeopleoughtnottoputintotheirmodeoflife，andintotheconductoftheirconcerns，anyimpresswhateveroftheirownjudgment，oroftheirownindividualcharacter。Ontheotherhand，itwouldbeabsurdtopretendthatpeopleoughttoliveasifnothingwhateverhadbeenknownintheworldbeforetheycameintoit;asifexperiencehadasyetdonenothingtowardsshowingthatonemodeofexistenceorofconduct，ispreferabletoanother。Nobodydeniesthatpeopleshouldbesotaughtandtrainedinyouthastoknowandbenefitbytheascertainedresultsofhumanexperience。Butitistheprivilegeandproperconditionofahumanbeing，arrivedatthematurityofhisfaculties，touseandinterpretexperienceinhisownway。Itisforhimtofindoutwhatpartofrecordedexperienceisproperlyapplicabletohisowncircumstancesandcharacter。Thetraditionsandcustomsofotherpeopleare，toacertainextent，evidenceofwhattheirexperiencehastaughtthem;presumptiveevidence，andassuch，haveaclaimtohisdeference：but，inthefirstplace，theirexperiencemaybetoonarrow;ortheymaynothaveinterpreteditrightly。Secondly，theirinterpretationofexperiencemaybecorrect，butunsuitabletohim。
　　Customsaremadeforcustomarycircumstancesandcustomarycharacters;
　　andhiscircumstancesorhischaractermaybeuncustomary。Thirdly，thoughthecustomsbebothgoodascustoms，andsuitabletohim，yettoconformtocustom，merelyascustom，doesnoteducateordevelopinhimanyofthequalitieswhicharethedistinctiveendowmentofahumanbeing。Thehumanfacultiesofperception，judgment，discriminativefeeling，mentalactivity，andevenmoralpreference，areexercisedonlyinmakingachoice。Hewhodoesanythingbecauseitisthecustommakesnochoice。Hegainsnopracticeeitherindiscerningorindesiringwhatisbest。Thementalandmoral，likethemuscularpowers，areimprovedonlybybeingused。Thefacultiesarecalledintonoexercisebydoingathingmerelybecauseothersdoit，nomorethanbybelievingathingonlybecauseothersbelieveit。Ifthegroundsofanopinionarenotconclusivetotheperson’sownreason，hisreasoncannotbestrengthened，butislikelytobeweakened，byhisadoptingit：andiftheinducementstoanactarenotsuchasareconsentaneoustohisownfeelingsandcharacter（whereaffection，ortherightsofothers，arenotconcerned）itissomuchdonetowardsrenderinghisfeelingsandcharacterinertandtorpid，insteadofactiveandenergetic。
　　Hewholetstheworld，orhisownportionofit，choosehisplanoflifeforhim，hasnoneedofanyotherfacultythantheape—likeoneofimitation。Hewhochooseshisplanforhimself，employsallhisfaculties。Hemustuseobservationtosee，reasoningandjudgmenttoforesee，activitytogathermaterialsfordecision，discriminationtodecide，andwhenhehasdecided，firmnessandself—controltoholdtohisdeliberatedecision。Andthesequalitiesherequiresandexercisesexactlyinproportionasthepartofhisconductwhichhedeterminesaccordingtohisownjudgmentandfeelingsisalargeone。Itispossiblethathemightbeguidedinsomegoodpath，andkeptoutofharm’sway，withoutanyofthesethings。Butwhatwillbehiscomparativeworthasahumanbeing？Itreallyisofimportance，notonlywhatmendo，butalsowhatmannerofmentheyarethatdoit。
　　Amongtheworksofman，whichhumanlifeisrightlyemployedinperfectingandbeautifying，thefirstinimportancesurelyismanhimself。Supposingitwerepossibletogethousesbuilt，corngrown，battlesfought，causestried，andevenchurcheserectedandprayerssaid，bymachinery—byautomatonsinhumanform—itwouldbeaconsiderablelosstoexchangefortheseautomatonseventhemenandwomenwhoatpresentinhabitthemorecivilisedpartsoftheworld，andwhoassuredlyarebutstarvedspecimensofwhatnaturecanandwillproduce。Humannatureisnotamachinetobebuiltafteramodel，andsettodoexactlytheworkprescribedforit，butatree，whichrequirestogrowanddevelopitselfonallsides，accordingtothetendencyoftheinwardforceswhichmakeitalivingthing。
　　Itwillprobablybeconcededthatitisdesirablepeopleshouldexercisetheirunderstandings，andthatanintelligentfollowingofcustom，orevenoccasionallyanintelligentdeviationfromcustom，isbetterthanablindandsimplymechanicaladhesiontoit。Toacertainextentitisadmittedthatourunderstandingshouldbeourown：butthereisnotthesamewillingnesstoadmitthatourdesiresandimpulsesshouldbeourownlikewise;orthattopossessimpulsesofourown，andofanystrength，isanythingbutaperilandasnare。Yetdesiresandimpulsesareasmuchapartofaperfecthumanbeingasbeliefsandrestraints：andstrongimpulsesareonlyperilouswhennotproperlybalanced;whenonesetofaimsandinclinationsisdevelopedintostrength，whileothers，whichoughttoco—existwiththem，remainweakandinactive。Itisnotbecausemen’sdesiresarestrongthattheyactill;itisbecausetheirconsciencesareweak。Thereisnonaturalconnectionbetweenstrongimpulsesandaweakconscience。Thenaturalconnectionistheotherway。Tosaythatoneperson’sdesiresandfeelingsarestrongerandmorevariousthanthoseofanother，ismerelytosaythathehasmoreoftherawmaterialofhumannature，andisthereforecapable，perhapsofmoreevil，butcertainlyofmoregood。Strongimpulsesarebutanothernameforenergy。Energymaybeturnedtobaduses;butmoregoodmayalwaysbemadeofanenergeticnature，thanofanindolentandimpassiveone。Thosewhohavemostnaturalfeelingarealwaysthosewhosecultivatedfeelingsmaybemadethestrongest。
　　Thesamestrongsusceptibilitieswhichmakethepersonalimpulsesvividandpowerful，arealsothesourcefromwhencearegeneratedthemostpassionateloveofvirtue，andthesternestself—control。
　　Itisthroughthecultivationofthesethatsocietybothdoesitsdutyandprotectsitsinterests：notbyrejectingthestuffofwhichheroesaremade，becauseitknowsnothowtomakethem。Apersonwhosedesiresandimpulsesarehisown—aretheexpressionofhisownnature，asithasbeendevelopedandmodifiedbyhisownculture—issaidtohaveacharacter。Onewhosedesiresandimpulsesarenothisown，hasnocharacter，nomorethanasteam—enginehasacharacter。
　　If，inadditiontobeinghisown，hisimpulsesarestrong，andareunderthegovernmentofastrongwill，hehasanenergeticcharacter。
　　Whoeverthinksthatindividualityofdesiresandimpulsesshouldnotbeencouragedtounfolditself，mustmaintainthatsocietyhasnoneedofstrongnatures—isnotthebetterforcontainingmanypersonswhohavemuchcharacter—andthatahighgeneralaverageofenergyisnotdesirable。
　　Insomeearlystatesofsociety，theseforcesmightbe，andwere，toomuchaheadofthepowerwhichsocietythenpossessedofdiscipliningandcontrollingthem。Therehasbeenatimewhentheelementofspontaneityandindividualitywasinexcess，andthesocialprinciplehadahardstrugglewithit。Thedifficultythenwastoinducemenofstrongbodiesormindstopayobediencetoanyruleswhichrequiredthemtocontroltheirimpulses。Toovercomethisdifficulty，lawanddiscipline，likethePopesstrugglingagainsttheEmperors，assertedapoweroverthewholeman，claimingtocontrolallhislifeinordertocontrolhischaracter—whichsocietyhadnotfoundanyothersufficientmeansofbinding。Butsocietyhasnowfairlygotthebetterofindividuality;andthedangerwhichthreatenshumannatureisnottheexcess，butthedeficiency，ofpersonalimpulsesandpreferences。Thingsarevastlychangedsincethepassionsofthosewhowerestrongbystationorbypersonalendowmentwereinastateofhabitualrebellionagainstlawsandordinances，andrequiredtoberigorouslychaineduptoenablethepersonswithintheirreachtoenjoyanyparticleofsecurity。Inourtimes，fromthehighestclassofsocietydowntothelowest，everyonelivesasundertheeyeofahostileanddreadedcensorship。Notonlyinwhatconcernsothers，butinwhatconcernsonlythemselves，theindividualorthefamilydonotaskthemselves—whatdoIprefer？or，whatwouldsuitmycharacteranddisposition？or，whatwouldallowthebestandhighestinmetohavefairplay，andenableittogrowandthrive？Theyaskthemselves，whatissuitabletomyposition？whatisusuallydonebypersonsofmystationandpecuniarycircumstances？or（worsestill）whatisusuallydonebypersonsofastationandcircumstancessuperiortomine？Idonotmeanthattheychoosewhatiscustomaryinpreferencetowhatsuitstheirowninclination。Itdoesnotoccurtothemtohaveanyinclination，exceptforwhatiscustomary。Thustheminditselfisbowedtotheyoke：eveninwhatpeopledoforpleasure，conformityisthefirstthingthoughtof;theylikeincrowds;theyexercisechoiceonlyamongthingscommonlydone：peculiarityoftaste，eccentricityofconduct，areshunnedequallywithcrimes：untilbydintofnotfollowingtheirownnaturetheyhavenonaturetofollow：theirhumancapacitiesarewitheredandstarved：theybecomeincapableofanystrongwishesornativepleasures，andaregenerallywithouteitheropinionsorfeelingsofhomegrowth，orproperlytheirown。Nowisthis，orisitnot，thedesirableconditionofhumannature？
　　Itisso，ontheCalvinistictheory。Accordingtothat，theonegreatoffenceofmanisself—will。Allthegoodofwhichhumanityiscapableiscomprisedinobedience。Youhavenochoice;thusyoumustdo，andnootherwise："whateverisnotaduty，isasin。"Humannaturebeingradicallycorrupt，thereisnoredemptionforanyoneuntilhumannatureiskilledwithinhim。Tooneholdingthistheoryoflife，crushingoutanyofthehumanfaculties，capacities，andsusceptibilities，isnoevil：manneedsnocapacity，butthatofsurrenderinghimselftothewillofGod：andifheusesanyofhisfacultiesforanyotherpurposebuttodothatsupposedwillmoreeffectually，heisbetterwithoutthem。ThisisthetheoryofCalvinism;anditisheld，inamitigatedform，bymanywhodonotconsiderthemselvesCalvinists;themitigationconsistingingivingalessasceticinterpretationtotheallegedwillofGod;assertingittobehiswillthatmankindshouldgratifysomeoftheirinclinations;
　　ofcoursenotinthemannertheythemselvesprefer，butinthewayofobedience，thatis，inawayprescribedtothembyauthority;
　　and，therefore，bythenecessaryconditionofthecase，thesameforall。
　　Insomesuchinsidiousformthereisatpresentastrongtendencytothisnarrowtheoryoflife，andtothepinchedandhideboundtypeofhumancharacterwhichitpatronises。Manypersons，nodoubt，sincerelythinkthathumanbeingsthuscrampedanddwarfedareastheirMakerdesignedthemtobe;justasmanyhavethoughtthattreesareamuchfinerthingwhenclippedintopollards，orcutoutintofiguresofanimals，thanasnaturemadethem。ButifitbeanypartofreligiontobelievethatmanwasmadebyagoodBeing，itismoreconsistentwiththatfaithtobelievethatthisBeinggaveallhumanfacultiesthattheymightbecultivatedandunfolded，notrootedoutandconsumed，andthathetakesdelightineverynearerapproachmadebyhiscreaturestotheidealconceptionembodiedinthem，everyincreaseinanyoftheircapabilitiesofcomprehension，ofaction，orofenjoyment。ThereisadifferenttypeofhumanexcellencefromtheCalvinistic：aconceptionofhumanityashavingitsnaturebestowedonitforotherpurposesthanmerelytobeabnegated。"Paganself—assertion"isoneoftheelementsofhumanworth，aswellas"Christianself—denial。"*ThereisaGreekidealofself—development，whichthePlatonicandChristianidealofself—governmentblendswith，butdoesnotsupersede。ItmaybebettertobeaJohnKnoxthananAlcibiades，butitisbettertobeaPericlesthaneither;norwouldaPericles，ifwehadoneinthesedays，bewithoutanythinggoodwhichbelongedtoJohnKnox。
　　*Sterling’sEssays。
　　Itisnotbywearingdownintouniformityallthatisindividualinthemselves，butbycultivatingit，andcallingitforth，withinthelimitsimposedbytherightsandinterestsofothers，thathumanbeingsbecomeanobleandbeautifulobjectofcontemplation;andastheworkspartakethecharacterofthosewhodothem，bythesameprocesshumanlifealsobecomesrich，diversified，andanimating，furnishingmoreabundantalimenttohighthoughtsandelevatingfeelings，andstrengtheningthetiewhichbindseveryindividualtotherace，bymakingtheraceinfinitelybetterworthbelongingto。
　　Inproportiontothedevelopmentofhisindividuality，eachpersonbecomesmorevaluabletohimself，andisthereforecapableofbeingmorevaluabletoothers。Thereisagreaterfulnessoflifeabouthisownexistence，andwhenthereismorelifeintheunitsthereismoreinthemasswhichiscomposedofthem。Asmuchcompressionasisnecessarytopreventthestrongerspecimensofhumannaturefromencroachingontherightsofotherscannotbedispensedwith;butforthisthereisamplecompensationeveninthepointofviewofhumandevelopment。Themeansofdevelopmentwhichtheindividuallosesbybeingpreventedfromgratifyinghisinclinationstotheinjuryofothers，arechieflyobtainedattheexpenseofthedevelopmentofotherpeople。Andeventohimselfthereisafullequivalentinthebetterdevelopmentofthesocialpartofhisnature，renderedpossiblebytherestraintputupontheselfishpart。Tobeheldtorigidrulesofjusticeforthesakeofothers，developsthefeelingsandcapacitieswhichhavethegoodofothersfortheirobject。Buttoberestrainedinthingsnotaffectingtheirgood，bytheirmeredispleasure，developsnothingvaluable，exceptsuchforceofcharacterasmayunfolditselfinresistingtherestraint。Ifacquiescedin，itdullsandbluntsthewholenature。Togiveanyfairplaytothenatureofeach，itisessentialthatdifferentpersonsshouldbeallowedtoleaddifferentlives。Inproportionasthislatitudehasbeenexercisedinanyage，hasthatagebeennoteworthytoposterity。Evendespotismdoesnotproduceitsworsteffects，solongasindividualityexistsunderit;andwhatevercrushesindividualityisdespotism，bywhatevernameitmaybecalled，andwhetheritprofessestobeenforcingthewillofGodortheinjunctionsofmen。
　　Havingsaidthattheindividualityisthesamethingwithdevelopment，andthatitisonlythecultivationofindividualitywhichproduces，orcanproduce，well—developedhumanbeings，Imighthereclosetheargument：forwhatmoreorbettercanbesaidofanyconditionofhumanaffairsthanthatitbringshumanbeingsthemselvesnearertothebestthingtheycanbe？orwhatworsecanbesaidofanyobstructiontogoodthanthatitpreventsthis？Doubtless，however，theseconsiderationswillnotsufficetoconvincethosewhomostneedconvincing;anditisnecessaryfurthertoshow，thatthesedevelopedhumanbeingsareofsomeusetotheundeveloped—topointouttothosewhodonotdesireliberty，andwouldnotavailthemselvesofit，thattheymaybeinsomeintelligiblemannerrewardedforallowingotherpeopletomakeuseofitwithouthindrance。
　　Inthefirstplace，then，Iwouldsuggestthattheymightpossiblylearnsomethingfromthem。Itwillnotbedeniedbyanybody，thatoriginalityisavaluableelementinhumanaffairs。Thereisalwaysneedofpersonsnotonlytodiscovernewtruths，andpointoutwhenwhatwereoncetruthsaretruenolonger，butalsotocommencenewpractices，andsettheexampleofmoreenlightenedconduct，andbettertasteandsenseinhumanlife。Thiscannotwellbegainsaidbyanybodywhodoesnotbelievethattheworldhasalreadyattainedperfectioninallitswaysandpractices。Itistruethatthisbenefitisnotcapableofbeingrenderedbyeverybodyalike：therearebutfewpersons，incomparisonwiththewholeofmankind，whoseexperiments，ifadoptedbyothers，wouldbelikelytobeanyimprovementonestablishedpractice。Butthesefewarethesaltoftheearth;withoutthem，humanlifewouldbecomeastagnantpool。Notonlyisittheywhointroducegoodthingswhichdidnotbeforeexist;itistheywhokeepthelifeinthosewhichalreadyexist。Iftherewerenothingnewtobedone，wouldhumanintellectceasetobenecessary？Woulditbeareasonwhythosewhodotheoldthingsshouldforgetwhytheyaredone，anddothemlikecattle，notlikehumanbeings？Thereisonlytoogreatatendencyinthebestbeliefsandpracticestodegenerateintothemechanical;andunlesstherewereasuccessionofpersonswhoseeverrecurringoriginalitypreventsthegroundsofthosebeliefsandpracticesfrombecomingmerelytraditional，suchdeadmatterwouldnotresistthesmallestshockfromanythingreallyalive，andtherewouldbenoreasonwhycivilisationshouldnotdieout，asintheByzantineEmpire。Personsofgenius，itistrue，are，andarealwayslikelytobe，asmallminority;butinordertohavethem，itisnecessarytopreservethesoilinwhichtheygrow。
　　Geniuscanonlybreathefreelyinanatmosphereoffreedom。Personsofgeniusare，exvitermini，moreindividualthananyotherpeople—lesscapable，consequently，offittingthemselves，withouthurtfulcompression，intoanyofthesmallnumberofmouldswhichsocietyprovidesinordertosaveitsmembersthetroubleofformingtheirowncharacter。Iffromtimiditytheyconsenttobeforcedintooneofthesemoulds，andtoletallthatpartofthemselveswhichcannotexpandunderthepressureremainunexpanded，societywillbelittlethebetterfortheirgenius。Iftheyareofastrongcharacter，andbreaktheirfetters，theybecomeamarkforthesocietywhichhasnotsucceededinreducingthemtocommonplace，topointoutwithsolemnwarningas"wild，""erratic，"andthelike;muchasifoneshouldcomplainoftheNiagarariverfornotflowingsmoothlybetweenitsbankslikeaDutchcanal。
　　Iinsistthusemphaticallyontheimportanceofgenius，andthenecessityofallowingittounfolditselffreelybothinthoughtandinpractice，beingwellawarethatnoonewilldenythepositionintheory，butknowingalsothatalmosteveryone，inreality，istotallyindifferenttoit。Peoplethinkgeniusafinethingifitenablesamantowriteanexcitingpoem，orpaintapicture。Butinitstruesense，thatoforiginalityinthoughtandaction，thoughnoonesaysthatitisnotathingtobeadmired，nearlyall，atheart，thinkthattheycandoverywellwithoutit。Unhappilythisistoonaturaltobewonderedat。Originalityistheonethingwhichunoriginalmindscannotfeeltheuseof。Theycannotseewhatitistodoforthem：howshouldthey？Iftheycouldseewhatitwoulddoforthem，itwouldnotbeoriginality。Thefirstservicewhichoriginalityhastorenderthem，isthatofopeningtheireyes：whichbeingoncefullydone，theywouldhaveachanceofbeingthemselvesoriginal。Meanwhile，recollectingthatnothingwaseveryetdonewhichsomeonewasnotthefirsttodo，andthatallgoodthingswhichexistarethefruitsoforiginality，letthemmodestenoughtobelievethatthereissomethingstillleftforittoaccomplish，andassurethemselvesthattheyaremoreinneedoforiginality，thelesstheyareconsciousofthewant。
　　Insobertruth，whateverhomagemaybeprofessed，orevenpaid，torealorsupposedmentalsuperiority，thegeneraltendencyofthingsthroughouttheworldistorendermediocritytheascendantpoweramongmankind。Inancienthistory，intheMiddleAges，andinadiminishingdegreethroughthelongtransitionfromfeudalitytothepresenttime，theindividualwasapowerinhimself;andifhehadeithergreattalentsorahighsocialposition，hewasaconsiderablepower。Atpresentindividualsarelostinthecrowd。Inpoliticsitisalmostatrivialitytosaythatpublicopinionnowrulestheworld。Theonlypowerdeservingthenameisthatofmasses，andofgovernmentswhiletheymakethemselvestheorganofthetendenciesandinstinctsofmasses。Thisisastrueinthemoralandsocialofprivatelifeasinpublictransactions。Thosewhoseopinionsgobythenameofpublicopinionarenotalwaysthesamesortofpublic：inAmericatheyarethewholewhitepopulation;inEngland，chieflythemiddleclass。Buttheyarealwaysamass，thatistosay，collectivemediocrity。Andwhatisastillgreaternovelty，themassdonotnowtaketheiropinionsfromdignitariesinChurchorState，fromostensibleleaders，orfrombooks。Theirthinkingisdoneforthembymenmuchlikethemselves，addressingthemorspeakingintheirname，onthespurofthemoment，throughthenewspapers。
　　Iamnotcomplainingofallthis。Idonotassertthatanythingbetteriscompatible，asageneralrule，withthepresentlowstateofthehumanmind。Butthatdoesnothinderthegovernmentofmediocrityfrombeingmediocregovernment。Nogovernmentbyademocracyoranumerousaristocracy，eitherinitspoliticalactsorintheopinions，qualities，andtoneofmindwhichitfosters，everdidorcouldriseabovemediocrity，exceptinsofarasthesovereignManyhaveletthemselvesbeguided（whichintheirbesttimestheyalwayshavedone）bythecounselsandinfluenceofamorehighlygiftedandinstructedOneorFew。Theinitiationofallwiseornoblethingscomesandmustcomefromindividuals;generallyatfirstfromsomeoneindividual。Thehonourandgloryoftheaveragemanisthatheiscapableoffollowingthatinitiative;thathecanrespondinternallytowiseandnoblethings，andbeledtothemwithhiseyesopen。Iamnotcountenancingthesortof"hero—worship"whichapplaudsthestrongmanofgeniusforforciblyseizingonthegovernmentoftheworldandmakingitdohisbiddinginspiteofitself。Allhecanclaimis，freedomtopointouttheway。Thepowerofcompellingothersintoitisnotonlyinconsistentwiththefreedomanddevelopmentofalltherest，butcorruptingtothestrongmanhimself。Itdoesseem，however，thatwhentheopinionsofmassesofmerelyaveragemenareeverywherebecomeorbecomingthedominantpower，thecounterpoiseandcorrectivetothattendencywouldbethemoreandmorepronouncedindividualityofthosewhostandonthehighereminencesofthought。Itisinthesecircumstancesmostespecially，thatexceptionalindividuals，insteadofbeingdeterred，shouldbeencouragedinactingdifferentlyfromthemass。Inothertimestherewasnoadvantageintheirdoingso，unlesstheyactednotonlydifferentlybutbetter。Inthisage，themereexampleofnon—conformity，themererefusaltobendthekneetocustom，isitselfaservice。Preciselybecausethetyrannyofopinionissuchastomakeeccentricityareproach，itisdesirable，inordertobreakthroughthattyranny，thatpeopleshouldbeeccentric。Eccentricityhasalwaysaboundedwhenandwherestrengthofcharacterhasabounded;andtheamountofeccentricityinasocietyhasgenerallybeenproportionaltotheamountofgenius，mentalvigour，andmoralcourageitcontained。
　　Thatsofewnowdaretobeeccentricmarksthechiefdangerofthetime。
　　Ihavesaidthatitisimportanttogivethefreestscopepossibletouncustomarythings，inorderthatitmayintimeappearwhichofthesearefittobeconvertedintocustoms。Butindependenceofaction，anddisregardofcustom，arenotsolelydeservingofencouragementforthechancetheyaffordthatbettermodesaction，andcustomsmoreworthyofgeneraladoption，maybestruckout;norisitonlypersonsofdecidedmentalsuperioritywhohaveajustclaimtocarryontheirlivesintheirownway。Thereisnoreasonthatallhumanexistenceshouldbeconstructedonsomeoneorsomesmallnumberofpatterns。Ifapersonpossessesanytolerableamountofcommonsenseandexperience，hisownmodeoflayingouthisexistenceisthebest，notbecauseitisthebestinitself，butbecauseitishisownmode。Humanbeingsarenotlikesheep;andevensheeparenotundistinguishablyalike。Amancannotgetacoatorapairofbootstofithimunlesstheyareeithermadetohismeasure，orhehasawholewarehousefultochoosefrom：andisiteasiertofithimwithalifethanwithacoat，orarehumanbeingsmorelikeoneanotherintheirwholephysicalandspiritualconformationthanintheshapeoftheirfeet？Ifitwereonlythatpeoplehavediversitiesoftaste，thatisreasonenoughfornotattemptingtoshapethemallafteronemodel。
　　Butdifferentpersonsalsorequiredifferentconditionsfortheirspiritualdevelopment;andcannomoreexisthealthilyinthesamemoral，thanallthevarietyofplantscaninthesamephysical，atmosphereandclimate。Thesamethingswhicharehelpstoonepersontowardsthecultivationofhishighernaturearehindrancestoanother。Thesamemodeoflifeisahealthyexcitementtoone，keepingallhisfacultiesofactionandenjoymentintheirbestorder，whiletoanotheritisadistractingburthen，whichsuspendsorcrushesallinternallife。Sucharethedifferencesamonghumanbeingsintheirsourcesofpleasure，theirsusceptibilitiesofpain，andtheoperationonthemofdifferentphysicalandmoralagencies，thatunlessthereisacorrespondingdiversityintheirmodesoflife，theyneitherobtaintheirfairshareofhappiness，norgrowuptothemental，moral，andaestheticstatureofwhichtheirnatureiscapable。
　　Whythenshouldtolerance，asfarasthepublicsentimentisconcerned，extendonlytotastesandmodesoflifewhichextortacquiescencebythemultitudeoftheiradherents？Nowhere（exceptinsomemonasticinstitutions）isdiversityoftasteentirelyunrecognised;apersonmay，withoutblame，eitherlikeordislikerowing，orsmoking，ormusic，orathleticexercises，orchess，orcards，orstudy，becauseboththosewholikeeachofthesethings，andthosewhodislikethem，aretoonumeroustobeputdown。Buttheman，andstillmorethewoman，whocanbeaccusedeitherofdoing"Whatnobodydoes，"orofnotdoing"whateverybodydoes，"isthesubjectofasmuchdepreciatoryremarkasifheorshehadcommittedsomegravemoraldelinquency。Personsrequiretopossessatitle，orsomeotherbadgeofrank，oroftheconsiderationofpeopleofrank，tobeabletoindulgesomewhatintheluxuryofdoingastheylikewithoutdetrimenttotheirestimation。Toindulgesomewhat，I
　　repeat：forwhoeverallowthemselvesmuchofthatindulgence，incurtheriskofsomethingworsethandisparagingspeeches—theyareinperilofacommissiondelunatico，andofhavingtheirpropertytakenfromthemandgiventotheirrelations。*
　　*Thereissomethingbothcontemptibleandfrightfulinthesortofevidenceonwhich，oflateyears，anypersoncanbejudiciallydeclaredunfitforthemanagementofhisaffairs;andafterhisdeath，hisdisposalofhispropertycanbesetaside，ifthereisenoughofittopaytheexpensesoflitigation—whicharechargedonthepropertyitself。Alltheminutedetailsofhisdailylifearepriedinto，andwhateverisfoundwhich，seenthroughthemediumoftheperceivinganddescribingfacultiesofthelowestofthelow，bearsanappearanceunlikeabsolutecommonplace，islaidbeforethejuryasevidenceofinsanity，andoftenwithsuccess;thejurorsbeinglittle，ifatall，lessvulgarandignorantthanthewitnesses;whilethejudges，withthatextraordinarywantofknowledgeofhumannatureandlifewhichcontinuallyastonishesusinEnglishlawyers，oftenhelptomisleadthem。Thesetrialsspeakvolumesastothestateoffeelingandopinionamongthevulgarwithregardtohumanliberty。Sofarfromsettinganyvalueonindividuality—sofarfromrespectingtherightofeachindividualtoact，inthingsindifferent，asseemsgoodtohisownjudgmentandinclinations，judgesandjuriescannotevenconceivethatapersoninastateofsanitycandesiresuchfreedom。
　　Informerdays，whenitwasproposedtoburnatheists，charitablepeopleusedtosuggestputtingtheminamadhouseinstead：itwouldbenothingsurprisingnow—a—dayswerewetoseethisdone，andthedoersapplaudingthemselves，because，insteadofpersecutingforreligion，theyhadadoptedsohumaneandChristianamodeoftreatingtheseunfortunates，notwithoutasilentsatisfactionattheirhavingtherebyobtainedtheirdeserts。
　　Thereisonecharacteristicofthepresentdirectionofpublicopinionpeculiarlycalculatedtomakeitintolerantofanymarkeddemonstrationofindividuality。Thegeneralaverageofmankindarenotonlymoderateinintellect，butalsomoderateininclinations：theyhavenotastesorwishesstrongenoughtoinclinethemtodoanythingunusual，andtheyconsequentlydonotunderstandthosewhohave，andclassallsuchwiththewildandintemperatewhomtheyareaccustomedtolookdownupon。Now，inadditiontothisfactwhichisgeneral，wehaveonlytosupposethatastrongmovementhassetintowardstheimprovementofmorals，anditisevidentwhatwehavetoexpect。Inthesedayssuchamovementhassetin;muchhasactuallybeeneffectedinthewayofincreasedregularityofconductanddiscouragementofexcesses;andthereisaphilanthropicspiritabroad，fortheexerciseofwhichthereisnomoreinvitingfieldthanthemoralandprudentialimprovementofourfellowcreatures。Thesetendenciesofthetimescausethepublictobemoredisposedthanatmostformerperiodstoprescribegeneralrulesofconduct，andendeavourtomakeeveryoneconformtotheapprovedstandard。Andthatstandard，expressortacit，istodesirenothingstrongly。Itsidealofcharacteristobewithoutanymarkedcharacter;tomaimbycompression，likeaChineselady’sfoot，everypartofhumannaturewhichstandsoutprominently，andtendstomakethepersonmarkedlydissimilarinoutlinetocommonplacehumanity。
　　Asisusuallythecasewithidealswhichexcludeone—halfofwhatisdesirable，thepresentstandardofapprobationproducesonlyaninferiorimitationoftheotherhalf。Insteadofgreatenergiesguidedbyvigorousreason，andstrongfeelingsstronglycontrolledbyaconscientiouswill，itsresultisweakfeelingsandweakenergies，whichthereforecanbekeptinoutwardconformitytorulewithoutanystrengtheitherofwillorofreason。Alreadyenergeticcharactersonanylargescalearebecomingmerelytraditional。Thereisnowscarcelyanyoutletforenergyinthiscountryexceptbusiness。Theenergyexpendedinthismaystillberegardedasconsiderable。Whatlittleisleftfromthatemploymentisexpendedonsomehobby;whichmaybeauseful，evenaphilanthropichobby，butisalwayssomeonething，andgenerallyathingofsmalldimensions。ThegreatnessofEnglandisnowallcollective;individuallysmall，weonlyappearcapableofanythinggreatbyourhabitofcombining;andwiththisourmoralandreligiousphilanthropistsareperfectlycontented。ButitwasmenofanotherstampthanthisthatmadeEnglandwhatithasbeen;
　　andmenofanotherstampwillbeneededtopreventitsdecline。
　　Thedespotismofcustomiseverywherethestandinghindrancetohumanadvancement，beinginunceasingantagonismtothatdispositiontoaimatsomethingbetterthancustomary，whichiscalled，accordingtocircumstances，thespiritofliberty，orthatofprogressorimprovement。Thespiritofimprovementisnotalwaysaspiritofliberty，foritmayaimatforcingimprovementsonanunwillingpeople;andthespiritofliberty，insofarasitresistssuchattempts，mayallyitselflocallyandtemporarilywiththeopponentsofimprovement;buttheonlyunfailingandpermanentsourceofimprovementisliberty，sincebyitthereareasmanypossibleindependentcentresofimprovementasthereareindividuals。Theprogressiveprinciple，however，ineithershape，whetherastheloveoflibertyorofimprovement，isantagonistictotheswayofCustom，involvingatleastemancipationfromthatyoke;andthecontestbetweenthetwoconstitutesthechiefinterestofthehistoryofmankind。Thegreaterpartoftheworldhas，properlyspeaking，nohistory，becausethedespotismofCustomiscomplete。ThisisthecaseoverthewholeEast。Customisthere，inallthings，thefinalappeal;
　　justiceandrightmeanconformitytocustom;theargumentofcustomnoone，unlesstyrantintoxicatedwithpower，thinksofresisting。Andweseetheresult。Thosenationsmustoncehavehadoriginality;theydidnotstartoutofthegroundpopulous，lettered，andversedinmanyoftheartsoflife;theymadethemselvesallthis，andwerethenthegreatestandmostpowerfulnationsoftheworld。Whataretheynow？Thesubjectsordependentsoftribeswhoseforefatherswanderedintheforestswhentheirshadmagnificentpalacesandgorgeoustemples，butoverwhomcustomexercisedonlyadividedrulewithlibertyandprogress。