Mankindcanhardlybetoooftenreminded，thattherewasonceamannamedSocrates，betweenwhomandthelegalauthoritiesandpublicopinionofhistimetheretookplaceamemorablecollision。
　　Borninanageandcountryaboundinginindividualgreatness，thismanhasbeenhandeddowntousbythosewhobestknewbothhimandtheage，asthemostvirtuousmaninit;whileweknowhimastheheadandprototypeofallsubsequentteachersofvirtue，thesourceequallyoftheloftyinspirationofPlatoandthejudiciousutilitarianismofAristotle，"imastridicolorchesanno，"thetwoheadspringsofethicalasofallotherphilosophy。Thisacknowledgedmasterofalltheeminentthinkerswhohavesincelived—whosefame，stillgrowingaftermorethantwothousandyears，allbutoutweighsthewholeremainderofthenameswhichmakehisnativecityillustrious—wasputtodeathbyhiscountrymen，afterajudicialconviction，forimpietyandimmorality。Impiety，indenyingthegodsrecognisedbytheState;indeedhisaccuserasserted（seetheApologia）thathebelievedinnogodsatall。Immorality，inbeing，byhisdoctrinesandinstructions，a"corruptorofyouth。"Ofthesechargesthetribunal，thereiseverygroundforbelieving，honestlyfoundhimguilty，andcondemnedthemanwhoprobablyofallthenbornhaddeservedbestofmankindtobeputtodeathasacriminal。
　　Topassfromthistotheonlyotherinstanceofjudicialiniquity，thementionofwhich，afterthecondemnationofSocrates，wouldnotbeananti—climax：theeventwhichtookplaceonCalvaryrathermorethaneighteenhundredyearsago。ThemanwholeftonthememoryofthosewhowitnessedhislifeandconversationsuchanimpressionofhismoralgrandeurthateighteensubsequentcenturieshavedonehomagetohimastheAlmightyinperson，wasignominiouslyputtodeath，aswhat？Asablasphemer。Mendidnotmerelymistaketheirbenefactor;
　　theymistookhimfortheexactcontraryofwhathewas，andtreatedhimasthatprodigyofimpietywhichtheythemselvesarenowheldtobefortheirtreatmentofhim。Thefeelingswithwhichmankindnowregardtheselamentabletransactions，especiallythelaterofthetwo，renderthemextremelyunjustintheirjudgmentoftheunhappyactors。Thesewere，toallappearance，notbadmen—notworsethanmencommonlyare，butratherthecontrary;menwhopossessedinafull，orsomewhatmorethanafullmeasure，thereligious，moral，andpatrioticfeelingsoftheirtimeandpeople：theverykindofmenwho，inalltimes，ourownincluded，haveeverychanceofpassingthroughlifeblamelessandrespected。Thehigh—priestwhorenthisgarmentswhenthewordswerepronounced，which，accordingtoalltheideasofhiscountry，constitutedtheblackestguilt，wasinallprobabilityquiteassincereinhishorrorandindignationasthegeneralityofrespectableandpiousmennowareinthereligiousandmoralsentimentstheyprofess;andmostofthosewhonowshudderathisconduct，iftheyhadlivedinhistime，andbeenbornJews，wouldhaveactedpreciselyashedid。OrthodoxChristianswhoaretemptedtothinkthatthosewhostonedtodeaththefirstmartyrsmusthavebeenworsementhantheythemselvesare，oughttorememberthatoneofthosepersecutorswasSaintPaul。
　　Letusaddonemoreexample，themoststrikingofall，iftheimpressivenessofanerrorismeasuredbythewisdomandvirtueofhimwhofallsintoit。Ifeveranyone，possessedofpower，hadgroundsforthinkinghimselfthebestandmostenlightenedamonghiscontemporaries，itwastheEmperorMarcusAurelius。Absolutemonarchofthewholecivilisedworld，hepreservedthroughlifenotonlythemostunblemishedjustice，butwhatwaslesstobeexpectedfromhisStoicalbreeding，thetenderestheart。Thefewfailingswhichareattributedtohimwereallonthesideofindulgence：whilehiswritings，thehighestethicalproductoftheancientmind，differscarcelyperceptibly，iftheydifferatall，fromthemostcharacteristicteachingsofChrist。Thisman，abetterChristianinallbutthedogmaticsenseofthewordthanalmostanyoftheostensiblyChristiansovereignswhohavesincereigned，persecutedChristianity。Placedatthesummitofallthepreviousattainmentsofhumanity，withanopen，unfetteredintellect，andacharacterwhichledhimofhimselftoembodyinhismoralwritingstheChristianideal，heyetfailedtoseethatChristianitywastobeagoodandnotaneviltotheworld，withhisdutiestowhichhewassodeeplypenetrated。Existingsocietyheknewtobeinadeplorablestate。
　　Butsuchasitwas，hesaw，orthoughthesaw，thatitwasheldtogether，andpreventedfrombeingworse，bybeliefandreverenceofthereceiveddivinities。Asarulerofmankind，hedeemedithisdutynottosuffersocietytofallinpieces;andsawnothow，ifitsexistingtieswereremoved，anyotherscouldbeformedwhichcouldagainknitittogether。Thenewreligionopenlyaimedatdissolvingtheseties：unless，therefore，itwashisdutytoadoptthatreligion，itseemedtobehisdutytoputitdown。InasmuchthenasthetheologyofChristianitydidnotappeartohimtrueorofdivineorigin;
　　inasmuchasthisstrangehistoryofacrucifiedGodwasnotcredibletohim，andasystemwhichpurportedtorestentirelyuponafoundationtohimsowhollyunbelievable，couldnotbeforeseenbyhimtobethatrenovatingagencywhich，afterallabatements，ithasinfactprovedtobe;thegentlestandmostamiableofphilosophersandrulers，underasolemnsenseofduty，authorisedthepersecutionofChristianity。
　　Tomymindthisisoneofthemosttragicalfactsinallhistory。Itisabitterthought，howdifferentathingtheChristianityoftheworldmighthavebeen，iftheChristianfaithhadbeenadoptedasthereligionoftheempireundertheauspicesofMarcusAureliusinsteadofthoseofConstantine。Butitwouldbeequallyunjusttohimandfalsetotruthtodeny，thatnoonepleawhichcanbeurgedforpunishinganti—ChristianteachingwaswantingtoMarcusAureliusforpunishing，ashedid，thepropagationofChristianity。NoChristianmorefirmlybelievesthatAtheismisfalse，andtendstothedissolutionofsociety，thanMarcusAureliusbelievedthesamethingsofChristianity;hewho，ofallmenthenliving，mighthavebeenthoughtthemostcapableofappreciatingit。Unlessanyonewhoapprovesofpunishmentforthepromulgationofopinions，flattershimselfthatheisawiserandbettermanthanMarcusAurelius—moredeeplyversedinthewisdomofhistime，moreelevatedinhisintellectaboveit—moreearnestinhissearchfortruth，ormoresingle—mindedinhisdevotiontoitwhenfound;lethimabstainfromthatassumptionofthejointinfallibilityofhimselfandthemultitude，whichthegreatAntoninusmadewithsounfortunatearesult。
　　AwareoftheimpossibilityofdefendingtheuseofpunishmentforrestrainingirreligiousopinionsbyanyargumentwhichwillnotjustifyMarcusAntoninus，theenemiesofreligiousfreedom，whenhardpressed，occasionallyacceptthisconsequence，andsay，withDr。Johnson，thatthepersecutorsofChristianitywereintheright;
　　thatpersecutionisanordealthroughwhichtruthoughttopass，andalwayspassessuccessfully，legalpenaltiesbeing，intheend，powerlessagainsttruth，thoughsometimesbeneficiallyeffectiveagainstmischievouserrors。Thisisaformoftheargumentforreligiousintolerancesufficientlyremarkablenottobepassedwithoutnotice。
　　Atheorywhichmaintainsthattruthmayjustifiablybepersecutedbecausepersecutioncannotpossiblydoitanyharm，cannotbechargedwithbeingintentionallyhostiletothereceptionofnewtruths;butwecannotcommendthegenerosityofitsdealingwiththepersonstowhommankindareindebtedforthem。Todiscovertotheworldsomethingwhichdeeplyconcernsit，andofwhichitwaspreviouslyignorant;toprovetoitthatithadbeenmistakenonsomevitalpointoftemporalorspiritualinterest，isasimportantaserviceasahumanbeingcanrendertohisfellowcreatures，andincertaincases，asinthoseoftheearlyChristiansandoftheReformers，thosewhothinkwithDr。Johnsonbelieveittohavebeenthemostpreciousgiftwhichcouldbebestowedonmankind。Thattheauthorsofsuchsplendidbenefitsshouldberequitedbymartyrdom;
　　thattheirrewardshouldbetobedealtwithasthevilestofcriminals，isnot，uponthistheory，adeplorableerrorandmisfortune，forwhichhumanityshouldmourninsackclothandashes，butthenormalandjustifiablestateofthings。Thepropounderofanewtruth，accordingtothisdoctrine，shouldstandasstood，inthelegislationoftheLocrians，theproposerofanewlaw，withahalterroundhisneck，tobeinstantlytightenedifthepublicassemblydidnot，onhearinghisreasons，thenandthereadopthisproposition。Peoplewhodefendthismodeoftreatingbenefactorscannotbesupposedtosetmuchvalueonthebenefit;andIbelievethisviewofthesubjectismostlyconfinedtothesortofpersonswhothinkthatnewtruthsmayhavebeendesirableonce，butthatwehavehadenoughofthemnow。
　　But，indeed，thedictumthattruthalwaystriumphsoverpersecutionisoneofthosepleasantfalsehoodswhichmenrepeatafteroneanothertilltheypassintocommonplaces，butwhichallexperiencerefutes。Historyteemswithinstancesoftruthputdownbypersecution。Ifnotsuppressedforever，itmaybethrownbackforcenturies。Tospeakonlyofreligiousopinions：theReformationbrokeoutatleasttwentytimesbeforeLuther，andwasputdown。
　　ArnoldofBresciawasputdown。FraDolcinowasputdown。Savonarolawasputdown。TheAlbigeoiswereputdown。TheVaudoiswereputdown。TheLollardswereputdown。TheHussiteswereputdown。EvenaftertheeraofLuther，whereverpersecutionwaspersistedin，itwassuccessful。InSpain，Italy，Flanders，theAustrianempire，Protestantismwasrootedout;and，mostlikely，wouldhavebeensoinEngland，hadQueenMarylived，orQueenElizabethdied。Persecutionhasalwayssucceeded，savewherethehereticsweretoostrongapartytobeeffectuallypersecuted。NoreasonablepersoncandoubtthatChristianitymighthavebeenextirpatedintheRomanEmpire。Itspread，andbecamepredominant，becausethepersecutionswereonlyoccasional，lastingbutashorttime，andseparatedbylongintervalsofalmostundisturbedpropagandism。Itisapieceofidlesentimentalitythattruth，merelyastruth，hasanyinherentpowerdeniedtoerrorofprevailingagainstthedungeonandthestake。Menarenotmorezealousfortruththantheyoftenareforerror，andasufficientapplicationoflegalorevenofsocialpenaltieswillgenerallysucceedinstoppingthepropagationofeither。Therealadvantagewhichtruthhasconsistsinthis，thatwhenanopinionistrue，itmaybeextinguishedonce，twice，ormanytimes，butinthecourseofagestherewillgenerallybefoundpersonstorediscoverit，untilsomeoneofitsreappearancesfallsonatimewhenfromfavourablecircumstancesitescapespersecutionuntilithasmadesuchheadastowithstandallsubsequentattemptstosuppressit。
　　Itwillbesaid，thatwedonotnowputtodeaththeintroducersofnewopinions：wearenotlikeourfatherswhoslewtheprophets，weevenbuildsepulchrestothem。Itistruewenolongerputhereticstodeath;andtheamountofpenalinflictionwhichmodernfeelingwouldprobablytolerate，evenagainstthemostobnoxiousopinions，isnotsufficienttoextirpatethem。Butletusnotflatterourselvesthatweareyetfreefromthestainevenoflegalpersecution。Penaltiesforopinion，oratleastforitsexpression，stillexistbylaw;andtheirenforcementisnot，eveninthesetimes，sounexampledastomakeitatallincrediblethattheymaysomedayberevivedinfullforce。
　　Intheyear1857，atthesummerassizesofthecountyofCornwall，anunfortunateman，*saidtobeofunexceptionableconductinallrelationsoflife，wassentencedtotwenty—onemonths’imprisonment，foruttering，andwritingonagate，someoffensivewordsconcerningChristianity。Withinamonthofthesametime，attheOldBailey，twopersons，ontwoseparateoccasions，*（2）wererejectedasjurymen，andoneofthemgrosslyinsultedbythejudgeandbyoneofthecounsel，becausetheyhonestlydeclaredthattheyhadnotheologicalbelief;andathird，aforeigner，*（3）forthesamereason，wasdeniedjusticeagainstathief。
　　*ThomasPooley，BodminAssizes，July31，1857。InDecemberfollowing，hereceivedafreepardonfromtheCrown。
　　*（2）GeorgeJacobHolyoake，August17，1857;EdwardTruelove，July，1857。
　　*（3）BarondeGleichen，MarlboroughStreetPoliceCourt，August4，1857。
　　Thisrefusalofredresstookplaceinvirtueofthelegaldoctrine，thatnopersoncanbeallowedtogiveevidenceinacourtofjusticewhodoesnotprofessbeliefinaGod（anygodissufficient）
　　andinafuturestate;whichisequivalenttodeclaringsuchpersonstobeoutlaws，excludedfromtheprotectionofthetribunals;whomaynotonlyberobbedorassaultedwithimpunity，ifnoonebutthemselves，orpersonsofsimilaropinions，bepresent，butanyoneelsemayberobbedorassaultedwithimpunity，iftheproofofthefactdependsontheirevidence。Theassumptiononwhichthisisgroundedisthattheoathisworthlessofapersonwhodoesnotbelieveinafuturestate;apropositionwhichbetokensmuchignoranceofhistoryinthosewhoassenttoit（sinceitishistoricallytruethatalargeproportionofinfidelsinallageshavebeenpersonsofdistinguishedintegrityandhonour）;andwouldbemaintainedbynoonewhohadthesmallestconceptionhowmanyofthepersonsingreatestreputewiththeworld，bothforvirtuesandattainments，arewellknown，atleasttotheirintimates，tobeunbelievers。Therule，besides，issuicidal，andcutsawayitsownfoundation。Underpretencethatatheistsmustbeliars，itadmitsthetestimonyofallatheistswhoarewillingtolie，andrejectsonlythosewhobravetheobloquyofpubliclyconfessingadetestedcreedratherthanaffirmafalsehood。Arulethusself—convictedofabsurditysofarasregardsitsprofessedpurpose，canbekeptinforceonlyasabadgeofhatred，arelicofpersecution;apersecution，too，havingthepeculiaritythatthequalificationforundergoingitisthebeingclearlyprovednottodeserveit。Therule，andthetheoryitimplies，arehardlylessinsultingtobelieversthantoinfidels。Forifhewhodoesnotbelieveinafuturestatenecessarilylies，itfollowsthattheywhodobelieveareonlypreventedfromlying，ifpreventedtheyare，bythefearofhell。WewillnotdotheauthorsandabettorsoftheruletheinjuryofsupposingthattheconceptionwhichtheyhaveformedofChristianvirtueisdrawnfromtheirownconsciousness。
　　These，indeed，arebutragsandremnantsofpersecution，andmaybethoughttobenotsomuchanindicationofthewishtopersecute，asanexampleofthatveryfrequentinfirmityofEnglishminds，whichmakesthemtakeapreposterouspleasureintheassertionofabadprinciple，whentheyarenolongerbadenoughtodesiretocarryitreallyintopractice。Butunhappilythereisnosecurityinthestateofthepublicmindthatthesuspensionofworseformsoflegalpersecution，whichhaslastedforaboutthespaceofageneration，willcontinue。Inthisagethequietsurfaceofroutineisasoftenruffledbyattemptstoresuscitatepastevils，astointroducenewbenefits。Whatisboastedofatthepresenttimeastherevivalofreligion，isalways，innarrowanduncultivatedminds，atleastasmuchtherevivalofbigotry;andwherethereisthestrongpermanentleavenofintoleranceinthefeelingsofapeople，whichatalltimesabidesinthemiddleclassesofthiscountry，itneedsbutlittletoprovokethemintoactivelypersecutingthosewhomtheyhaveneverceasedtothinkproperobjectsofpersecution。*Foritisthis—itistheopinionsmenentertain，andthefeelingstheycherish，respectingthosewhodisownthebeliefstheydeemimportant，whichmakesthiscountrynotaplaceofmentalfreedom。
　　*Amplewarningmaybedrawnfromthelargeinfusionofthepassionsofapersecutor，whichmingledwiththegeneraldisplayoftheworstpartsofournationalcharacterontheoccasionoftheSepoyinsurrection。Theravingsoffanaticsorcharlatansfromthepulpitmaybeunworthyofnotice;buttheheadsoftheEvangelicalpartyhaveannouncedastheirprincipleforthegovernmentofHindoosandMahometans，thatnoschoolsbesupportedbypublicmoneyinwhichtheBibleisnottaught，andbynecessaryconsequencethatnopublicemploymentbegiventoanybutrealorpretendedChristians。AnUnder—SecretaryofState，inaspeechdeliveredtohisconstituentsonthe12thofNovember，1857，isreportedtohavesaid："Tolerationoftheirfaith"（thefaithofahundredmillionsofBritishsubjects），"thesuperstitionwhichtheycalledreligion，bytheBritishGovernment，hadhadtheeffectofretardingtheascendancyoftheBritishname，andpreventingthesalutarygrowthofChristianity……
　　Tolerationwasthegreatcorner—stoneofthereligiouslibertiesofofthiscountry;butdonotletthemabusethatpreciouswordtoleration。Asheunderstoodit，itmeantthecompletelibertytoall，freedomofworship，amongChristians，whoworshippeduponthesamefoundation。ItmeanttolerationofallsectsanddenominationsofChristianswhobelievedintheonemediation。"Idesiretocallattentiontothefact，thatamanwhohasbeendeemedfittofillahighofficeinthegovernmentofthiscountryunderaliberalministry，maintainsthedoctrinethatallwhodonotbelieveinthedivinityofChristarebeyondthepaleoftoleration。Who，afterthisimbeciledisplay，canindulgetheillusionthatreligiouspersecutionhaspassedaway，nevertoreturn？
　　Foralongtimepast，thechiefmischiefofthelegalpenaltiesisthattheystrengthenthesocialstigma。Itisthatstigmawhichisreallyeffective，andsoeffectiveisit，thattheprofessionofopinionswhichareunderthebanofsocietyismuchlesscommoninEnglandthanis，inmanyothercountries，theavowalofthosewhichincurriskofjudicialpunishment。Inrespecttoallpersonsbutthosewhosepecuniarycircumstancesmakethemindependentofthegoodwillofotherpeople，opinion，onthissubject，isasefficaciousaslaw;
　　menmightaswellbeimprisoned，asexcludedfromthemeansofearningtheirbread。Thosewhosebreadisalreadysecured，andwhodesirenofavoursfrommeninpower，orfrombodiesofmen，orfromthepublic，havenothingtofearfromtheopenavowalofanyopinions，buttobeill—thoughtofandill—spokenof，andthisitoughtnottorequireaveryheroicmouldtoenablethemtobear。Thereisnoroomforanyappealadmisericordiaminbehalfofsuchpersons。Butthoughwedonotnowinflictsomuchevilonthosewhothinkdifferentlyfromusasitwasformerlyourcustomtodo，itmaybethatwedoourselvesasmuchevilaseverbyourtreatmentofthem。
　　Socrateswasputtodeath，buttheSocraticphilosophyroselikethesuninheaven，andspreaditsilluminationoverthewholeintellectualfirmament。Christianswerecasttothelions，buttheChristianchurchgrewupastatelyandspreadingtree，overtoppingtheolderandlessvigorousgrowths，andstiflingthembyitsshade。Ourmerelysocialintolerancekillsnoone，rootsoutnoopinions，butinducesmentodisguisethem，ortoabstainfromanyactiveeffortfortheirdiffusion。Withus，hereticalopinionsdonotperceptiblygain，orevenlose，groundineachdecadeorgeneration;theyneverblazeoutfarandwide，butcontinuetosmoulderinthenarrowcirclesofthinkingandstudiouspersonsamongwhomtheyoriginate，withouteverlightingupthegeneralaffairsofmankindwitheitheratrueoradeceptivelight。
　　Andthusiskeptupastateofthingsverysatisfactorytosomeminds，because，withouttheunpleasantprocessoffiningorimprisoninganybody，itmaintainsallprevailingopinionsoutwardlyundisturbed，whileitdoesnotabsolutelyinterdicttheexerciseofreasonbydissentientsafflictedwiththemaladyofthought。A
　　convenientplanforhavingpeaceintheintellectualworld，andkeepingallthingsgoingonthereinverymuchastheydoalready。
　　Butthepricepaidforthissortofintellectualpacificationisthesacrificeoftheentiremoralcourageofthehumanmind。Astateofthingsinwhichalargeportionofthemostactiveandinquiringintellectsfinditadvisabletokeepthegeneralprinciplesandgroundsoftheirconvictionswithintheirownbreasts，andattempt，inwhattheyaddresstothepublic，tofitasmuchastheycanoftheirownconclusionstopremiseswhichtheyhaveinternallyrenounced，cannotsendforththeopen，fearlesscharacters，andlogical，consistentintellectswhoonceadornedthethinkingworld。Thesortofmenwhocanbelookedforunderit，areeithermereconformerstocommonplace，ortime—serversfortruth，whoseargumentsonallgreatsubjectsaremeantfortheirhearers，andarenotthosewhichhaveconvincedthemselves。Thosewhoavoidthisalternative，dosobynarrowingtheirthoughtsandintereststothingswhichcanbespokenofwithoutventuringwithintheregionofprinciples，thatis，tosmallpracticalmatters，whichwouldcomerightofthemselves，ifbutthemindsofmankindwerestrengthenedandenlarged，andwhichwillneverbemadeeffectuallyrightuntilthen：whilethatwhichwouldstrengthenandenlargemen’sminds，freeanddaringspeculationonthehighestsubjects，isabandoned。
　　Thoseinwhoseeyesthisreticenceonthepartofhereticsisnoevilshouldconsider，inthefirstplace，thatinconsequenceofitthereisneveranyfairandthoroughdiscussionofhereticalopinions;
　　andthatsuchofthemascouldnotstandsuchadiscussion，thoughtheymaybepreventedfromspreading，donotdisappear。Butitisnotthemindsofhereticsthataredeterioratedmostbythebanplacedonallinquirywhichdoesnotendintheorthodoxconclusions。Thegreatestharmdoneistothosewhoarenotheretics，andwhosewholementaldevelopmentiscramped，andtheirreasoncowed，bythefearofheresy。Whocancomputewhattheworldlosesinthemultitudeofpromisingintellectscombinedwithtimidcharacters，whodarenotfollowoutanybold，vigorous，independenttrainofthought，lestitshouldlandtheminsomethingwhichwouldadmitofbeingconsideredirreligiousorimmoral？Amongthemwemayoccasionallyseesomemanofdeepconscientiousness，andsubtleandrefinedunderstanding，whospendsalifeinsophisticatingwithanintellectwhichhecannotsilence，andexhauststheresourcesofingenuityinattemptingtoreconcilethepromptingsofhisconscienceandreasonwithorthodoxy，whichyethedoesnot，perhaps，totheendsucceedindoing。
　　Noonecanbeagreatthinkerwhodoesnotrecognise，thatasathinkeritishisfirstdutytofollowhisintellecttowhateverconclusionsitmaylead。Truthgainsmoreevenbytheerrorsofonewho，withduestudyandpreparation，thinksforhimself，thanbythetrueopinionsofthosewhoonlyholdthembecausetheydonotsufferthemselvestothink。Notthatitissolely，orchiefly，toformgreatthinkers，thatfreedomofthinkingisrequired。Onthecontrary，itisasmuchandevenmoreindispensabletoenableaveragehumanbeingstoattainthementalstaturewhichtheyarecapableof。Therehavebeen，andmayagainbe，greatindividualthinkersinageneralatmosphereofmentalslavery。Butthereneverhasbeen，noreverwillbe，inthatatmosphereanintellectuallyactivepeople。Whereanypeoplehasmadeatemporaryapproachtosuchacharacter，ithasbeenbecausethedreadofheterodoxspeculationwasforatimesuspended。Wherethereisatacitconventionthatprinciplesarenottobedisputed;wherethediscussionofthegreatestquestionswhichcanoccupyhumanityisconsideredtobeclosed，wecannothopetofindthatgenerallyhighscaleofmentalactivitywhichhasmadesomeperiodsofhistorysoremarkable。Neverwhencontroversyavoidedthesubjectswhicharelargeandimportantenoughtokindleenthusiasm，wasthemindofapeoplestirredupfromitsfoundations，andtheimpulsegivenwhichraisedevenpersonsofthemostordinaryintellecttosomethingofthedignityofthinkingbeings。OfsuchwehavehadanexampleintheconditionofEuropeduringthetimesimmediatelyfollowingtheReformation;another，thoughlimitedtotheContinentandtoamorecultivatedclass，inthespeculativemovementofthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcentury;andathird，ofstillbrieferduration，intheintellectualfermentationofGermanyduringtheGoethianandFichteanperiod。Theseperiodsdifferedwidelyintheparticularopinionswhichtheydeveloped;butwerealikeinthis，thatduringallthreetheyokeofauthoritywasbroken。Ineach，anoldmentaldespotismhadbeenthrownoff，andnonewonehadyettakenitsplace。TheimpulsegivenatthesethreeperiodshasmadeEuropewhatitnowis。Everysingleimprovementwhichhastakenplaceeitherinthehumanmindorininstitutions，maybetraceddistinctlytooneorotherofthem。Appearanceshaveforsometimeindicatedthatallthreeimpulsesarewellnighspent;andwecanexpectnofreshstartuntilweagainassertourmentalfreedom。
　　Letusnowpasstotheseconddivisionoftheargument，anddismissingthesuppositionthatanyofthereceivedopinionsmaybefalse，letusassumethemtobetrue，andexamineintotheworthofthemannerinwhichtheyarelikelytobeheld，whentheirtruthisnotfreelyandopenlycanvassed。Howeverunwillinglyapersonwhohasastrongopinionmayadmitthepossibilitythathisopinionmaybefalse，heoughttobemovedbytheconsiderationthat，howevertrueitmaybe，ifitisnotfully，frequently，andfearlesslydiscussed，itwillbeheldasadeaddogma，notalivingtruth。
　　Thereisaclassofpersons（happilynotquitesonumerousasformerly）whothinkitenoughifapersonassentsundoubtinglytowhattheythinktrue，thoughhehasnoknowledgewhateverofthegroundsoftheopinion，andcouldnotmakeatenabledefenceofitagainstthemostsuperficialobjections。Suchpersons，iftheycanoncegettheircreedtaughtfromauthority，naturallythinkthatnogood，andsomeharm，comesofitsbeingallowedtobequestioned。Wheretheirinfluenceprevails，theymakeitnearlyimpossibleforthereceivedopiniontoberejectedwiselyandconsiderately，thoughitmaystillberejectedrashlyandignorantly;fortoshutoutdiscussionentirelyisseldompossible，andwhenitoncegetsin，beliefsnotgroundedonconvictionareapttogivewaybeforetheslightestsemblanceofanargument。Waiving，however，thispossibility—assumingthatthetrueopinionabidesinthemind，butabidesasaprejudice，abeliefindependentof，andproofagainst，argument—thisisnotthewayinwhichtruthoughttobeheldbyarationalbeing。Thisisnotknowingthetruth。Truth，thusheld，isbutonesuperstitionthemore，accidentallyclingingtothewordswhichenunciateatruth。
　　Iftheintellectandjudgmentofmankindoughttobecultivated，athingwhichProtestantsatleastdonotdeny，onwhatcanthesefacultiesbemoreappropriatelyexercisedbyanyone，thanonthethingswhichconcernhimsomuchthatitisconsiderednecessaryforhimtoholdopinionsonthem？Ifthecultivationoftheunderstandingconsistsinonethingmorethaninanother，itissurelyinlearningthegroundsofone’sownopinions。Whateverpeoplebelieve，onsubjectsonwhichitisofthefirstimportancetobelieverightly，theyoughttobeabletodefendagainstatleastthecommonobjections。But，someonemaysay，"Letthembetaughtthegroundsoftheiropinions。Itdoesnotfollowthatopinionsmustbemerelyparrotedbecausetheyareneverheardcontroverted。Personswholearngeometrydonotsimplycommitthetheoremstomemory，butunderstandandlearnlikewisethedemonstrations;anditwouldbeabsurdtosaythattheyremainignorantofthegroundsofgeometricaltruths，becausetheyneverhearanyonedeny，andattempttodisprovethem。"Undoubtedly：andsuchteachingsufficesonasubjectlikemathematics，wherethereisnothingatalltobesaidonthewrongsideofthequestion。Thepeculiarityoftheevidenceofmathematicaltruthsisthatalltheargumentisononeside。Therearenoobjections，andnoanswerstoobjections。Butoneverysubjectonwhichdifferenceofopinionispossible，thetruthdependsonabalancetobestruckbetweentwosetsofconflictingreasons。Eveninnaturalphilosophy，thereisalwayssomeotherexplanationpossibleofthesamefacts;somegeocentrictheoryinsteadofheliocentric，somephlogistoninsteadofoxygen;andithastobeshownwhythatothertheorycannotbethetrueone：anduntilthisisshown，anduntilweknowhowitisshown，wedonotunderstandthegroundsofouropinion。
　　Butwhenweturntosubjectsinfinitelymorecomplicated，tomorals，religion，politics，socialrelations，andthebusinessoflife，three—fourthsoftheargumentsforeverydisputedopinionconsistindispellingtheappearanceswhichfavoursomeopiniondifferentfromit。Thegreatestorator，saveone，ofantiquity，hasleftitonrecordthathealwaysstudiedhisadversary’scasewithasgreat，ifnotstillgreater，intensitythanevenhisown。WhatCiceropractisedasthemeansofforensicsuccessrequirestobeimitatedbyallwhostudyanysubjectinordertoarriveatthetruth。Hewhoknowsonlyhisownsideofthecase，knowslittleofthat。Hisreasonsmaybegood，andnoonemayhavebeenabletorefutethem。Butifheisequallyunabletorefutethereasonsontheoppositeside;ifhedoesnotsomuchasknowwhattheyare，hehasnogroundforpreferringeitheropinion。Therationalpositionforhimwouldbesuspensionofjudgment，andunlesshecontentshimselfwiththat，heiseitherledbyauthority，oradopts，likethegeneralityoftheworld，thesidetowhichhefeelsmostinclination。Norisitenoughthatheshouldheartheargumentsofadversariesfromhisownteachers，presentedastheystatethem，andaccompaniedbywhattheyofferasrefutations。
　　Thatisnotthewaytodojusticetothearguments，orbringthemintorealcontactwithhisownmind。Hemustbeabletohearthemfrompersonswhoactuallybelievethem;whodefendtheminearnest，anddotheirveryutmostforthem。Hemustknowthemintheirmostplausibleandpersuasiveform;hemustfeelthewholeforceofthedifficultywhichthetrueviewofthesubjecthastoencounteranddisposeof;elsehewillneverreallypossesshimselfoftheportionoftruthwhichmeetsandremovesthatdifficulty。
　　Ninety—nineinahundredofwhatarecallededucatedmenareinthiscondition;evenofthosewhocanarguefluentlyfortheiropinions。
　　Theirconclusionmaybetrue，butitmightbefalseforanythingtheyknow：theyhaveneverthrownthemselvesintothementalpositionofthosewhothinkdifferentlyfromthem，andconsideredwhatsuchpersonsmayhavetosay;andconsequentlytheydonot，inanypropersenseoftheword，knowthedoctrinewhichtheythemselvesprofess。Theydonotknowthosepartsofitwhichexplainandjustifytheremainder;theconsiderationswhichshowthatafactwhichseeminglyconflictswithanotherisreconcilablewithit，orthat，oftwoapparentlystrongreasons，oneandnottheotheroughttobepreferred。Allthatpartofthetruthwhichturnsthescale，anddecidesthejudgmentofacompletelyinformedmind，theyarestrangersto;norisiteverreallyknown，buttothosewhohaveattendedequallyandimpartiallytobothsides，andendeavouredtoseethereasonsofbothinthestrongestlight。Soessentialisthisdisciplinetoarealunderstandingofmoralandhumansubjects，thatifopponentsofallimportanttruthsdonotexist，itisindispensabletoimaginethem，andsupplythemwiththestrongestargumentswhichthemostskilfuldevil’sadvocatecanconjureup。
　　Toabatetheforceoftheseconsiderations，anenemyoffreediscussionmaybesupposedtosay，thatthereisnonecessityformankindingeneraltoknowandunderstandallthatcanbesaidagainstorfortheiropinionsbyphilosophersandtheologians。Thatitisnotneedfulforcommonmentobeabletoexposeallthemisstatementsorfallaciesofaningeniousopponent。Thatitisenoughifthereisalwayssomebodycapableofansweringthem，sothatnothinglikelytomisleaduninstructedpersonsremainsunrefuted。Thatsimpleminds，havingbeentaughttheobviousgroundsofthetruthsinculcatedonthem，maytrusttoauthorityfortherest，andbeingawarethattheyhaveneitherknowledgenortalenttoresolveeverydifficultywhichcanberaised，mayreposeintheassurancethatallthosewhichhavebeenraisedhavebeenorcanbeanswered，bythosewhoarespeciallytrainedtothetask。
　　Concedingtothisviewofthesubjecttheutmostthatcanbeclaimedforitbythosemosteasilysatisfiedwiththeamountofunderstandingoftruthwhichoughttoaccompanythebeliefofit;evenso，theargumentforfreediscussionisnowayweakened。Foreventhisdoctrineacknowledgesthatmankindoughttohavearationalassurancethatallobjectionshavebeensatisfactorilyanswered;andhowaretheytobeansweredifthatwhichrequirestobeansweredisnotspoken？orhowcantheanswerbeknowntobesatisfactory，iftheobjectorshavenoopportunityofshowingthatitisunsatisfactory？Ifnotthepublic，atleastthephilosophersandtheologianswhoaretoresolvethedifficulties，mustmakethemselvesfamiliarwiththosedifficultiesintheirmostpuzzlingform;andthiscannotbeaccomplishedunlesstheyarefreelystated，andplacedinthemostadvantageouslightwhichtheyadmitof。TheCatholicChurchhasitsownwayofdealingwiththisembarrassingproblem。Itmakesabroadseparationbetweenthosewhocanbepermittedtoreceiveitsdoctrinesonconviction，andthosewhomustacceptthemontrust。Neither，indeed，areallowedanychoiceastowhattheywillaccept;buttheclergy，suchatleastascanbefullyconfidedin，mayadmissiblyandmeritoriouslymakethemselvesacquaintedwiththeargumentsofopponents，inordertoanswerthem，andmay，therefore，readhereticalbooks;thelaity，notunlessbyspecialpermission，hardtobeobtained。Thisdisciplinerecognisesaknowledgeoftheenemy’scaseasbeneficialtotheteachers，butfindsmeans，consistentwiththis，ofdenyingittotherestoftheworld：thusgivingtotheelitemorementalculture，thoughnotmorementalfreedom，thanitallowstothemass。Bythisdeviceitsucceedsinobtainingthekindofmentalsuperioritywhichitspurposesrequire;forthoughculturewithoutfreedomnevermadealargeandliberalmind，itcanmakeaclevernisipriusadvocateofacause。ButincountriesprofessingProtestantism，thisresourceisdenied;
　　sinceProtestantshold，atleastintheory，thattheresponsibilityforthechoiceofareligionmustbebornebyeachforhimself，andcannotbethrownoffuponteachers。Besides，inthepresentstateoftheworld，itispracticallyimpossiblethatwritingswhicharereadbytheinstructedcanbekeptfromtheuninstructed。Iftheteachersofmankindaretobecognisantofallthattheyoughttoknow，everythingmustbefreetobewrittenandpublishedwithoutrestraint。
　　If，however，themischievousoperationoftheabsenceoffreediscussion，whenthereceivedopinionsaretrue，wereconfinedtoleavingmenignorantofthegroundsofthoseopinions，itmightbethoughtthatthis，ifanintellectual，isnomoralevil，anddoesnotaffecttheworthoftheopinions，regardedintheirinfluenceonthecharacter。Thefact，however，is，thatnotonlythegroundsoftheopinionareforgottenintheabsenceofdiscussion，buttoooftenthemeaningoftheopinionitself。Thewordswhichconveyitceasetosuggestideas，orsuggestonlyasmallportionofthosetheywereoriginallyemployedtocommunicate。Insteadofavividconceptionandalivingbelief，thereremainonlyafewphrasesretainedbyrote;
　　or，ifanypart，theshellandhuskonlyofthemeaningisretained，thefineressencebeinglost。Thegreatchapterinhumanhistorywhichthisfactoccupiesandfills，cannotbetooearnestlystudiedandmeditatedon。
　　Itisillustratedintheexperienceofalmostallethicaldoctrinesandreligiouscreeds。Theyareallfullofmeaningandvitalitytothosewhooriginatethem，andtothedirectdisciplesoftheoriginators。Theirmeaningcontinuestobefeltinundiminishedstrength，andisperhapsbroughtoutintoevenfullerconsciousness，solongasthestrugglelaststogivethedoctrineorcreedanascendancyoverothercreeds。Atlastiteitherprevails，andbecomesthegeneralopinion，oritsprogressstops;itkeepspossessionofthegroundithasgained，butceasestospreadfurther。Wheneitheroftheseresultshasbecomeapparent，controversyonthesubjectflags，andgraduallydiesaway。Thedoctrinehastakenitsplace，ifnotasareceivedopinion，asoneoftheadmittedsectsordivisionsofopinion：thosewhoholdithavegenerallyinherited，notadoptedit;andconversionfromoneofthesedoctrinestoanother，beingnowanexceptionalfact，occupieslittleplaceinthethoughtsoftheirprofessors。Insteadofbeing，asatfirst，constantlyonthealerteithertodefendthemselvesagainsttheworld，ortobringtheworldovertothem，theyhavesubsidedintoacquiescence，andneitherlisten，whentheycanhelpit，toargumentsagainsttheircreed，nortroubledissentients（iftherebesuch）withargumentsinitsfavour。Fromthistimemayusuallybedatedthedeclineinthelivingpowerofthedoctrine。
　　Weoftenheartheteachersofallcreedslamentingthedifficultyofkeepingupinthemindsofbelieversalivelyapprehensionofthetruthwhichtheynominallyrecognise，sothatitmaypenetratethefeelings，andacquirearealmasteryovertheconduct。Nosuchdifficultyiscomplainedofwhilethecreedisstillfightingforitsexistence：eventheweakercombatantsthenknowandfeelwhattheyarefightingfor，andthedifferencebetweenitandotherdoctrines;
　　andinthatperiodofeverycreed’sexistence，notafewpersonsmaybefound，whohaverealiseditsfundamentalprinciplesinalltheformsofthought，haveweighedandconsideredtheminalltheirimportantbearings，andhaveexperiencedthefulleffectonthecharacterwhichbeliefinthatcreedoughttoproduceinamindthoroughlyimbuedwithit。Butwhenithascometobeanhereditarycreed，andtobereceivedpassively，notactively—whenthemindisnolongercompelled，inthesamedegreeasatfirst，toexerciseitsvitalpowersonthequestionswhichitsbeliefpresentstoit，thereisaprogressivetendencytoforgetallofthebeliefexcepttheformularies，ortogiveitadullandtorpidassent，asifacceptingitontrustdispensedwiththenecessityofrealisingitinconsciousness，ortestingitbypersonalexperience，untilitalmostceasestoconnectitselfatallwiththeinnerlifeofthehumanbeing。Thenareseenthecases，sofrequentinthisageoftheworldasalmosttoformthemajority，inwhichthecreedremainsasitwereoutsidethemind，incrustingandpetrifyingitagainstallotherinfluencesaddressedtothehigherpartsofournature;
　　manifestingitspowerbynotsufferinganyfreshandlivingconvictiontogetin，butitselfdoingnothingforthemindorheart，exceptstandingsentineloverthemtokeepthemvacant。
　　Towhatanextentdoctrinesintrinsicallyfittedtomakethedeepestimpressionuponthemindmayremaininitasdeadbeliefs，withoutbeingeverrealisedintheimagination，thefeelings，ortheunderstanding，isexemplifiedbythemannerinwhichthemajorityofbelieversholdthedoctrinesofChristianity。ByChristianityIheremeanwhatisaccountedsuchbyallchurchesandsects—themaximsandpreceptscontainedintheNewTestament。Theseareconsideredsacred，andacceptedaslaws，byallprofessingChristians。YetitisscarcelytoomuchtosaythatnotoneChristianinathousandguidesortestshisindividualconductbyreferencetothoselaws。Thestandardtowhichhedoesreferit，isthecustomofhisnation，hisclass，orhisreligiousprofession。Hehasthus，ontheonehand，acollectionofethicalmaxims，whichhebelievestohavebeenvouchsafedtohimbyinfalliblewisdomasrulesforhisgovernment;
　　andontheotherasetofevery—dayjudgmentsandpractices，whichgoacertainlengthwithsomeofthosemaxims，notsogreatalengthwithothers，standindirectoppositiontosome，andare，onthewhole，acompromisebetweentheChristiancreedandtheinterestsandsuggestionsofworldlylife。Tothefirstofthesestandardshegiveshishomage;totheotherhisrealallegiance。
　　AllChristiansbelievethattheblessedarethepoorandhumble，andthosewhoareill—usedbytheworld;thatitiseasierforacameltopassthroughtheeyeofaneedlethanforarichmantoenterthekingdomofheaven;thattheyshouldjudgenot，lesttheybejudged;
　　thattheyshouldswearnotatall;thattheyshouldlovetheirneighbourasthemselves;thatifonetaketheircloak，theyshouldgivehimtheircoatalso;thattheyshouldtakenothoughtforthemorrow;thatiftheywouldbeperfecttheyshouldsellallthattheyhaveandgiveittothepoor。Theyarenotinsincerewhentheysaythattheybelievethesethings。Theydobelievethem，aspeoplebelievewhattheyhavealwaysheardlaudedandneverdiscussed。Butinthesenseofthatlivingbeliefwhichregulatesconduct，theybelievethesedoctrinesjustuptothepointtowhichitisusualtoactuponthem。Thedoctrinesintheirintegrityareserviceabletopeltadversarieswith;anditisunderstoodthattheyaretobeputforward（whenpossible）asthereasonsforwhateverpeopledothattheythinklaudable。Butanyonewhoremindedthemthatthemaximsrequireaninfinityofthingswhichtheynevereventhinkofdoing，wouldgainnothingbuttobeclassedamongthoseveryunpopularcharacterswhoaffecttobebetterthanotherpeople。Thedoctrineshavenoholdonordinarybelievers—arenotapowerintheirminds。
　　Theyhaveanhabitualrespectforthesoundofthem，butnofeelingwhichspreadsfromthewordstothethingssignified，andforcesthemindtotakethemin，andmakethemconformtotheformula。Wheneverconductisconcerned，theylookroundforMr。AandBtodirectthemhowfartogoinobeyingChrist。
　　Nowwemaybewellassuredthatthecasewasnotthus，butfarotherwise，withtheearlyChristians。Haditbeenthus，ChristianityneverwouldhaveexpandedfromanobscuresectofthedespisedHebrewsintothereligionoftheRomanempire。Whentheirenemiessaid，"SeehowtheseChristiansloveoneanother"（aremarknotlikelytobemadebyanybodynow），theyassuredlyhadamuchlivelierfeelingofthemeaningoftheircreedthantheyhaveeverhadsince。Andtothiscause，probably，itischieflyowingthatChristianitynowmakessolittleprogressinextendingitsdomain，andaftereighteencenturiesisstillnearlyconfinedtoEuropeansandthedescendantsofEuropeans。Evenwiththestrictlyreligious，whoaremuchinearnestabouttheirdoctrines，andattachagreateramountofmeaningtomanyofthemthanpeopleingeneral，itcommonlyhappensthatthepartwhichisthuscomparativelyactiveintheirmindsisthatwhichwasmadebyCalvin，orKnox，orsomesuchpersonmuchnearerincharactertothemselves。ThesayingsofChristcoexistpassivelyintheirminds，producinghardlyanyeffectbeyondwhatiscausedbymerelisteningtowordssoamiableandbland。Therearemanyreasons，doubtless，whydoctrineswhicharethebadgeofasectretainmoreoftheirvitalitythanthosecommontoallrecognisedsects，andwhymorepainsaretakenbyteacherstokeeptheirmeaningalive;butonereasoncertainlyis，thatthepeculiardoctrinesaremorequestioned，andhavetobeoftenerdefendedagainstopengainsayers。
　　Bothteachersandlearnersgotosleepattheirpost，assoonasthereisnoenemyinthefield。
　　Thesamethingholdstrue，generallyspeaking，ofalltraditionaldoctrines—thoseofprudenceandknowledgeoflife，aswellasofmoralsorreligion。Alllanguagesandliteraturesarefullofgeneralobservationsonlife，bothastowhatitis，andhowtoconductoneselfinit;observationswhicheverybodyknows，whicheverybodyrepeats，orhearswithacquiescence，whicharereceivedastruisms，yetofwhichmostpeoplefirsttrulylearnthemeaningwhenexperience，generallyofapainfulkind，hasmadeitarealitytothem。Howoften，whensmartingundersomeunforeseenmisfortuneordisappointment，doesapersoncalltomindsomeproverborcommonsaying，familiartohimallhislife，themeaningofwhich，ifhehadeverbeforefeltitashedoesnow，wouldhavesavedhimfromthecalamity。Thereareindeedreasonsforthis，otherthantheabsenceofdiscussion;therearemanytruthsofwhichthefullmeaningcannotberealiseduntilpersonalexperiencehasbroughtithome。
　　Butmuchmoreofthemeaningevenofthesewouldhavebeenunderstood，andwhatwasunderstoodwouldhavebeenfarmoredeeplyimpressedonthemind，ifthemanhadbeenaccustomedtohearitarguedproandconbypeoplewhodidunderstandit。Thefataltendencyofmankindtoleaveoffthinkingaboutathingwhenitisnolongerdoubtful，isthecauseofhalftheirerrors。Acontemporaryauthorhaswellspokenof"thedeepslumberofadecidedopinion。"
　　Butwhat！（itmaybeasked）Istheabsenceofunanimityanindispensableconditionoftrueknowledge？Isitnecessarythatsomepartofmankindshouldpersistinerrortoenableanytorealisethetruth？Doesabeliefceasetoberealandvitalassoonasitisgenerallyreceived—andisapropositionneverthoroughlyunderstoodandfeltunlesssomedoubtofitremains？Assoonasmankindhaveunanimouslyacceptedatruth，doesthetruthperishwithinthem？Thehighestaimandbestresultofimprovedintelligence，ithashithertobeenthought，istounitemankindmoreandmoreintheacknowledgmentofallimportanttruths;anddoestheintelligenceonlylastaslongasithasnotachieveditsobject？Dothefruitsofconquestperishbytheverycompletenessofthevictory？
　　Iaffirmnosuchthing。Asmankindimprove，thenumberofdoctrineswhicharenolongerdisputedordoubtedwillbeconstantlyontheincrease：andthewell—beingofmankindmayalmostbemeasuredbythenumberandgravityofthetruthswhichhavereachedthepointofbeinguncontested。Thecessation，ononequestionafteranother，ofseriouscontroversy，isoneofthenecessaryincidentsoftheconsolidationofopinion;aconsolidationassalutaryinthecaseoftrueopinions，asitisdangerousandnoxiouswhentheopinionsareerroneous。Butthoughthisgradualnarrowingoftheboundsofdiversityofopinionisnecessaryinbothsensesoftheterm，beingatonceinevitableandindispensable，wearenotthereforeobligedtoconcludethatallitsconsequencesmustbebeneficial。
　　Thelossofsoimportantanaidtotheintelligentandlivingapprehensionofatruth，asisaffordedbythenecessityofexplainingitto，ordefendingitagainst，opponents，thoughnotsufficienttooutweigh，isnotriflingdrawbackfrom，thebenefitofitsuniversalrecognition。Wherethisadvantagecannolongerbehad，IconfessI
　　shouldliketoseetheteachersofmankindendeavouringtoprovideasubstituteforit;somecontrivanceformakingthedifficultiesofthequestionaspresenttothelearner’sconsciousness，asiftheywerepresseduponhimbyadissentientchampion，eagerforhisconversion。
　　Butinsteadofseekingcontrivancesforthispurpose，theyhavelostthosetheyformerlyhad。TheSocraticdialectics，somagnificentlyexemplifiedinthedialoguesofPlato，wereacontrivanceofthisdescription。Theywereessentiallyanegativediscussionofthegreatquestionofphilosophyandlife，directedwithconsummateskilltothepurposeofconvincinganyonewhohadmerelyadoptedthecommonplacesofreceivedopinionthathedidnotunderstandthesubject—thatheasyetattachednodefinitemeaningtothedoctrinesheprofessed;inorderthat，becomingawareofhisignorance，hemightbeputinthewaytoobtainastablebelief，restingonaclearapprehensionbothofthemeaningofdoctrinesandoftheirevidence。
　　TheschooldisputationsoftheMiddleAgeshadasomewhatsimilarobject。Theywereintendedtomakesurethatthepupilunderstoodhisownopinion，and（bynecessarycorrelation）theopinionopposedtoit，andcouldenforcethegroundsoftheoneandconfutethoseoftheother。Theselast—mentionedcontestshadindeedtheincurabledefect，thatthepremisesappealedtoweretakenfromauthority，notfromreason;and，asadisciplinetothemind，theywereineveryrespectinferiortothepowerfuldialecticswhichformedtheintellectsofthe"Socraticiviri";butthemodernmindowesfarmoretoboththanitisgenerallywillingtoadmit，andthepresentmodesofeducationcontainnothingwhichinthesmallestdegreesuppliestheplaceeitheroftheoneoroftheother。Apersonwhoderivesallhisinstructionfromteachersorbooks，evenifheescapethebesettingtemptationofcontentinghimselfwithcram，isundernocompulsiontohearbothsides;accordinglyitisfarfromafrequentaccomplishment，evenamongthinkers，toknowbothsides;
　　andtheweakestpartofwhateverybodysaysindefenceofhisopinioniswhatheintendsasareplytoantagonists。
　　Itisthefashionofthepresenttimetodisparagenegativelogic—thatwhichpointsoutweaknessesintheoryorerrorsinpractice，withoutestablishingpositivetruths。Suchnegativecriticismwouldindeedbepoorenoughasanultimateresult;butasameanstoattaininganypositiveknowledgeorconvictionworthythename，itcannotbevaluedtoohighly;anduntilpeopleareagainsystematicallytrainedtoit，therewillbefewgreatthinkers，andalowgeneralaverageofintellect，inanybutthemathematicalandphysicaldepartmentsofspeculation。Onanyothersubjectnoone’sopinionsdeservethenameofknowledge，exceptsofarashehaseitherhadforceduponhimbyothers，orgonethroughofhimself，thesamementalprocesswhichwouldhavebeenrequiredofhimincarryingonanactivecontroversywithopponents。That，therefore，whichwhenabsent，itissoindispensable，butsodifficult，tocreate，howworsethanabsurditistoforego，whenspontaneouslyofferingitself！Ifthereareanypersonswhocontestareceivedopinion，orwhowilldosoiflaworopinionwillletthem，letusthankthemforit，openourmindstolistentothem，andrejoicethatthereissomeonetodoforuswhatweotherwiseought，ifwehaveanyregardforeitherthecertaintyorthevitalityofourconvictions，todowithmuchgreaterlabourforourselves。
　　Itstillremainstospeakofoneoftheprincipalcauseswhichmakediversityofopinionadvantageous，andwillcontinuetodosountilmankindshallhaveenteredastageofintellectualadvancementwhichatpresentseemsatanincalculabledistance。Wehavehithertoconsideredonlytwopossibilities：thatthereceivedopinionmaybefalse，andsomeotheropinion，consequently，true;orthat，thereceivedopinionbeingtrue，aconflictwiththeoppositeerrorisessentialtoaclearapprehensionanddeepfeelingofitstruth。Butthereisacommonercasethaneitherofthese;whentheconflictingdoctrines，insteadofbeingonetrueandtheotherfalse，sharethetruthbetweenthem;andthenonconformingopinionisneededtosupplytheremainderofthetruth，ofwhichthereceiveddoctrineembodiesonlyapart。Popularopinions，onsubjectsnotpalpabletosense，areoftentrue，butseldomorneverthewholetruth。Theyareapartofthetruth;sometimesagreater，sometimesasmallerpart，butexaggerated，distorted，anddisjointedfromthetruthsbywhichtheyoughttobeaccompaniedandlimited。Hereticalopinions，ontheotherhand，aregenerallysomeofthesesuppressedandneglectedtruths，burstingthebondswhichkeptthemdown，andeitherseekingreconciliationwiththetruthcontainedinthecommonopinion，orfrontingitasenemies，andsettingthemselvesup，withsimilarexclusiveness，asthewholetruth。Thelattercaseishithertothemostfrequent，as，inthehumanmind，one—sidednesshasalwaysbeentherule，andmany—sidednesstheexception。Hence，eveninrevolutionsofopinion，onepartofthetruthusuallysetswhileanotherrises。
　　Evenprogress，whichoughttosuperadd，forthemostpartonlysubstitutes，onepartialandincompletetruthforanother;improvementconsistingchieflyinthis，thatthenewfragmentoftruthismorewanted，moreadaptedtotheneedsofthetime，thanthatwhichitdisplaces。Suchbeingthepartialcharacterofprevailingopinions，evenwhenrestingonatruefoundation，everyopinionwhichembodiessomewhatoftheportionoftruthwhichthecommonopinionomits，oughttobeconsideredprecious，withwhateveramountoferrorandconfusionthattruthmaybeblended。Nosoberjudgeofhumanaffairswillfeelboundtobeindignantbecausethosewhoforceonournoticetruthswhichweshouldotherwisehaveoverlooked，overlooksomeofthosewhichwesee。Rather，hewillthinkthatsolongaspopulartruthisone—sided，itismoredesirablethanotherwisethatunpopulartruthshouldhaveone—sidedassertorstoo;suchbeingusuallythemostenergetic，andthemostlikelytocompelreluctantattentiontothefragmentofwisdomwhichtheyproclaimasifitwerethewhole。
　　Thus，intheeighteenthcentury，whennearlyalltheinstructed，andallthoseoftheuninstructedwhowereledbythem，werelostinadmirationofwhatiscalledcivilisation，andofthemarvelsofmodernscience，literature，andphilosophy，andwhilegreatlyoverratingtheamountofunlikenessbetweenthemenofmodernandthoseofancienttimes，indulgedthebeliefthatthewholeofthedifferencewasintheirownfavour;withwhatasalutaryshockdidtheparadoxesofRousseauexplodelikebombshellsinthemidst，dislocatingthecompactmassofone—sidedopinion，andforcingitselementstorecombineinabetterformandwithadditionalingredients。NotthatthecurrentopinionswereonthewholefartherfromthetruththanRousseau’swere;onthecontrary，theywerenearertoit;theycontainedmoreofpositivetruth，andverymuchlessoferror。NeverthelesstherelayinRousseau’sdoctrine，andhasfloateddownthestreamofopinionalongwithit，aconsiderableamountofexactlythosetruthswhichthepopularopinionwanted;andthesearethedepositwhichwasleftbehindwhenthefloodsubsided。
　　Thesuperiorworthofsimplicityoflife，theenervatinganddemoralisingeffectofthetrammelsandhypocrisiesofartificialsociety，areideaswhichhaveneverbeenentirelyabsentfromcultivatedmindssinceRousseauwrote;andtheywillintimeproducetheirdueeffect，thoughatpresentneedingtobeassertedasmuchasever，andtobeassertedbydeeds，forwords，onthissubject，havenearlyexhaustedtheirpower。
　　Inpolitics，again，itisalmostacommonplace，thatapartyoforderorstability，andapartyofprogressorreform，arebothnecessaryelementsofahealthystateofpoliticallife;untiltheoneortheothershallhavesoenlargeditsmentalgraspastobeapartyequallyoforderandofprogress，knowinganddistinguishingwhatisfittobepreservedfromwhatoughttobesweptaway。Eachofthesemodesofthinkingderivesitsutilityfromthedeficienciesoftheother;butitisinagreatmeasuretheoppositionoftheotherthatkeepseachwithinthelimitsofreasonandsanity。Unlessopinionsfavourabletodemocracyandtoaristocracy，topropertyandtoequality，tocooperationandtocompetition，toluxuryandtoabstinence，tosocialityandindividuality，tolibertyanddiscipline，andalltheotherstandingantagonismsofpracticallife，areexpressedwithequalfreedom，andenforcedanddefendedwithequaltalentandenergy，thereisnochanceofbothelementsobtainingtheirdue;onescaleissuretogoup，andtheotherdown。Truth，inthegreatpracticalconcernsoflife，issomuchaquestionofthereconcilingandcombiningofopposites，thatveryfewhavemindssufficientlycapaciousandimpartialtomaketheadjustmentwithanapproachtocorrectness，andithastobemadebytheroughprocessofastrugglebetweencombatantsfightingunderhostilebanners。Onanyofthegreatopenquestionsjustenumerated，ifeitherofthetwoopinionshasabetterclaimthantheother，notmerelytobetolerated，buttobeencouragedandcountenanced，itistheonewhichhappensattheparticulartimeandplacetobeinaminority。