however，isnotlessdecided；andleadshimtospeakasthoughtheelasticityofpopulationwerenotmerelyanessentialfactorinthesocialproblem，butthesoleprinciplefromwhichallsolutionsmustbededuced。Heisthusled，asIhavetriedtoshow，toanarrowinterpretationofhis’moralcheck。’Heisapttotake’vice’simplyasaproductofexcessivepressure，and，inhisgeneralphrasesatleast，tooverlookitsreciprocaltendencytocausepressure。The’moralcheck’isonlypreventiveornegative，notapositivecauseofsuperiorvigour。Asimilardefectappearsinhistheoryofthevismedicatrix。Hewas，Ihold，perfectlyrightinemphasisingtheimportanceofindividualresponsibility。Noreformcanbepermanentwhichdoesnotraisethemoralityoftheindividual。Hisinsistenceuponthistruthwasofthehighestimportance，anditistobewishedthatitsimportancemightbemorefullyrecognisedto-day。Theone-sidednessappearsinhisproposaltoabolishthepoor-lawsimply。Thatbecamethemostconspicuousandwidelyaccepteddoctrine。Allmenof’sense，’saidSydneySmith——
　　certainlyaqualifiedrepresentativeoftheclass——in1820，agree，first，thatthepoor-lawmustbeabolished；andsecondly，thatitmustbeabolishedverygradually。78Thatisreallytoassumethatbyrefusingtohelppeopleatall，youwillforcethemtohelpthemselves。Thereisanotheralternative，namely，thattheymay，asMalthushimselfoftenrecognises，becomedemoralisedbyexcessivepoverty。Todosimplynothingmayleadtodegenerationinsteadofincreasedenergy。Thepossibilityofanimprovedlaw，whichmightactasamoraldisciplineinsteadofasimplycorruptingagency，issimplyleftoutofaccount；andthetendencytostimulaterecklesspopulationisregardednotonlyasoneprobableconsequence，butastheveryessenceofallpoor-laws。UponMalthus’sassumptions，thestatementthatsoundpoliticalandsocialtheoriesmustbebaseduponsystematicinquiryintofacts，meantthattheindividualwastheultimateunalterableunit，whoseinterestinhisownwelfaregavetheonefulcrumforallpossiblechanges。Theideal’stateofnature’wasafiction。Thetruebasisofourinquiriesistheactualmanknowntousbyobservation。Themainfaultofthisbeingwastheexcessoftheinstinctofmultiplication，andthewaytoimprovehimwastoshowhowitmightconflictwiththeinstinctofself-preservation。InthisshapethedoctrineexpressedthemostcharacteristictendencyoftheUtilitarians，anddividedthemfromtheSocialistsorbelieversinabstractrightsofman。
　　VI。RENT
　　Here，then，weareatacentralpointoftheUtilitariancreed。Theexpansiveforceofpopulationis，inasense，thegreatmotivepowerwhichmouldsthewholesocialstructure；
　　or，rather，itforcestogethertheindependentunits，andweldsthemintoanaggregate。Theinfluenceofthisdoctrineuponothereconomicalspeculationsisofthehighestimportance。Onecriticalstageintheprocessismarkedbytheenunciationofthetheoryofrent，whichwastobecomeanotheressentialarticleofthetruefaith。Theintroductionofthisdoctrineischaracteristic，andmarksthepointatwhichRicardosupersededMalthusaschiefexpositorofthedoctrine。
　　Malthus’sviewswerefirstfullygiveninhisInquiryintoRent，thesecondofthreepamphletswhichhepublishedduringthecorn-lawcontroversyof1814-15。79Theopinionsnowstatedhad，hesays，beenformedinthecourseofhislecturingatHaileybury；andhemadethempubliconaccountoftheirbearinguponthemostabsorbingquestionsofthetime。TheconnectionofthetheorywithMalthus’sspeculationsandwiththecontemporarydifficultiesisindeedobvious。Thelandlordhadclearlyoneofthereservedseatsatthebanquetofnature。Hewasthemostobviousembodimentof’security’asopposedtoequality。Malthus，again，hadbeeninfluencedbytheFrencheconomistsandtheirtheoryofthe’surplusfund，’providedbyagriculture。Accordingtothem，ashesays，80thisfundorrentconstitutesthewholenationalwealth。InhisfirsteditionhehaddefendedtheeconomistsagainstsomeofAdamSmith’scriticisms；andthoughhealteredhisviewsandthoughtthattheyhadbeenledintopreposterouserrors，heretainedacertainsympathyforthem。Agriculturehasstillacertain’pre-eminence。’Godhasbestoweduponthesoilthe’inestimablequalityofbeingabletomaintainmorepersonsthanarenecessarytoworkit。’81Ithasthespecialvirtuethatthesupplyofnecessariesgeneratesthedemand。Makemoreluxuriesandthepricemayfall；butgrowmorefoodandtherewillbemorepeopletoeatit。This，however，seemstobeonlyanotherwayofstatinganunpleasantfact。Theblessingof’fertility’counteractsitself。Ashearguesintheessay，82anequaldivisionoflandmightproducesuchanincreaseofpopulationaswouldexhaustanyconceivableincreaseoffood。Theseviews——not，Ithink，veryclearorconsistentlyworkedout——leadapparentlytotheconclusionthatthefertilityisindeedablessing，butonconditionofbeingconfinedtoafew。Theresult，inanycase，istheorthodoxtheoryofrent。Thelabourergetslessthanhewouldiftheproductsofthesoilwereequallydistributed。Bothwagesandprofitsmustfallasmoreislefttorent，andthatthisactuallyhappens，hesays，withunusualpositiveness，isan’incontrovertibletruth’83thefallenablesthelessfertilelandtobecultivated，andgivesanexcessofproduceonthemorefertile。
　　’Thisexcessisrent。’84Heproceedstoexpoundhisdoctrinebycomparinglandtoasetofmachinesformakingcorn。85If，inmanufacture，anewmachineisintroducedeveryoneadoptsit。Inagriculturetheworstmachineshavestilltobeused；andthosewhohavethebestandsellatthesameprice，canappropriatethesurplusadvantage。This，hedeclares，isalaw’asinvariableastheactionoftheprincipleofgravity。’86YetSmithandothershaveoverlookeda’principleofthehighestimportance’87andhavefailedtoseethatthepriceofcorn，asofotherthings，mustconformtothecostofproduction。ThesamedoctrinewasexpoundedinthesameyearbySirEdwardWest；88and，asitseemstome，moreclearlyandsimply。West，likeMalthus，saysthathehastoannounceaprincipleoverlookedbyAdamSmith。Thisisbrieflythat’eachequaladditionalquantityofworkbestowedonagricultureyieldsanactuallydiminishedreturn。’Heholdsthatprofitsfallaswealthincreases，buthedeniesAdamSmith’sviewthatthisisasimpleresultofincreasedcompetition。89Competitionwouldequalise，butwouldnotlowerprofits，for’theproductivepowersofmanufacturesareconstantlyincreasing。’Inagriculturethelawistheoppositeoneofdiminishingreturns。Hencetheadmittedfallofprofitsshowsthatthenecessityoftakinginferiorsoilsintocultivationisthetruecauseofthefall。
　　SuchcoincidencesasthatbetweenMalthusandWestarecommonenough，forveryobviousreasons。Inthiscase；Ithink，thereislessroomforsurprisethanusual。ThewritergenerallycreditedwiththediscoveryoftherentdoctrineisJamesAnderson，whohadstateditasearlyas1777。90Thestatement，however，didnotattractattentionuntilatthetimeofWestandMalthusitwasforceduponobserversbythemostconspicuousfactsoftheday。AdamSmithandothereconomistshad，asMalthusnotices，observedwhatisobviousenough，thatrentinsomewayrepresenteda’netproduce’——asomethingwhichremainedafterpayingthecostsofproduction。Somuchwasobvioustoanycommon-senseobserver。InacuriouspaperofDecember1804，91Cobbettpointsoutthatthelandlordswillalwayskeeptheprofitsoffarmersdowntotheaveragerateofequallyagreeablebusinesses。Thisgranted，itisashortthoughimportantsteptothetheoryofrent。TheEnglishsystemhad，infact，spontaneouslyanalysedtheproblem。Thelandlord，farmer，andlabourerrepresentedthethreeinterestswhichmightelsewherebecombined。Pricesraisedbywarandfaminehadledtotheenclosureofwastesandthebreakingupofpastures。The’marginofcultivation’wasthusillustratedbyfacts。Farmerswerecomplainingthattheycouldnotmakeaprofitifpriceswerelowered。Thelandedclasseswereprofitingbyariseofpriceraised，accordingtoafamiliarlaw，ingreaterproportionthanthedeficiencyoftheharvest。Factsofthiskindwere，onemustsuppose，familiartoeveryland-agent；andtodiscoverthelawofrent，itwasonlynecessaryforMalthusandWesttoputthemintheirnaturalorder。Theegghadonlytobeputonitsend，thoughthat，asweknow，isoftenadifficulttask。WhenthefeatwasaccomplishedconsequencesfollowedwhichwerefullydevelopedbyRicardo。
　　NOTES：
　　1。MrJamesBonar’sMalthusandhisWork1885givesanadmirableaccountofMalthus。ThechieforiginalauthoritiesarealifebyBishopOtter，prefixedtoasecondeditionofthePoliticalEconomy1831，andanarticlebyEmpson，Malthus’scolleague，intheEdinburghReviewforJanuary1837。
　　2。PoliticalJustice3rdedition，1798，ii，bkviii，chap。ix，p。514。
　　3。WallacewroteinanswertoHume，ADissertationontheNumbersofMankindinAncientandModernTimes1753，andVariousProspectsofMankind，andNatureandProvidence1761。Godwinreferstothelast。
　　4。PoliticalJustice，ii，520。
　　5。Ibid。，ii，528。
　　6。Firstpublishedin1795，afterthefirstedition，asGodwinremarks，ofthePoliticalJustice。
　　7。Amideshommesreprintof1883，p。15。
　　8。Amideshommes，p。26。
　　9。SeethecuriousdebateinParl。Hist。xiv，1318-1365。
　　10。TheseventheditionofPrice’sObservationsonReversionaryPayments，etc。，1812，containsacorrespondencewithPitti，216，etc。Theeditor，W。Morgan，accusesPittofadoptingPrice’splanswithoutdueacknowledgmentandafterwardsspoilingthem。
　　11。EssayonPopulation，p。18。InObservations，ii，141，heestimatesthediminutionatamillionandahalf。OtherbooksreferringtothesamecontroversyareHowlett’sExaminationofDr。Price’sEssay1781；LettertoLordCarlisle，byWilliamEden1744-1814，firstLordAuckland；WilliamWale’sEnquiryintoPresentStateofPopulation，etc。1781；andGeo。Chalmer’sEstimateoftheComparativeStrengthofGreatBritain1782andseverallatereditions。
　　12。Essayfirstedition
　　p。339。
　　13。Memoirs，etc。，1819，ii，10。
　　14。SoSirJamesStewart，whoselightwasextinguishedbyAdamSmithbeginshisEnquiryintothePrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy1767bydiscussingthequestionofpopulation，andcomparesthe’generativefaculty’toaspringloadedwithaweight，andexertingitselfinproportiontothediminutionofresistenceWorks，1805，i，22。Hecomparespopulationto’rabbitsinawarren。’
　　JosephTownsend，inhisJourneyThroughSpain1791，towhomMalthusrefers，haddiscussedthesupposeddecayoftheSpanishpopulation，andillustrateshisprinciplesbyageometricprogression；seeii，213-56，386-91。Eden，inhisbookonthepoori，214，quotesatractattributedtoSirMatthewHaleforthestatementthatthepoorincreaseon’geometricalprogression。’
　　15。MalthusandhisWork，p。85。