InSpainandtheEmpireSpainfiguredlittleinEuropetillthelatterpartofthefifteenthcentury；
　　tillCastileandArragonwereunitedbythemarriageofFerdinandandIsabella；
　　tillthetotalexpulsionoftheMoors，andtillthediscoveryoftheWestIndies。Afterthis，notonlySpaintookanewform，andgrewintoimmensepower；but，theheirofFerdinandandIsabellabeingheirlikewiseofthehousesofBurgundyandAustria，suchanextentofdominionaccruedtohimbyallthesesuccessions，andsuchanadditionofrankandauthoritybyhiselectiontotheempire，asnoprincehadbeenmasterofinEuropefromthedaysofCharlestheGreat。ItispropertoobserveherehowthepolicyoftheGermansalteredinthechoiceofanemperor；becausetheeffectsofthisalterationhavebeengreat。WhenRodolphusofHapsburgwaschoseintheyearonethousandtwohundredandseventy，oraboutthattime，thepovertyandthelowestateofthisprince，whohadbeenmarshalofthecourttoakingofBohemia，wasaninducementtoelecthim。Thedisorderlyandlawlessstateoftheempiremadetheprincesofitinthosedaysunwillingtohaveamorepowerfulhead。Butacontrarymaximtookplaceatthisera。CharlestheFifthandFrancistheFirst，thetwomostpowerfulprincesofEurope，werethesolecandidates；fortheelectorofSaxony，whoissaidtohavedeclined，wasratherunabletostandincompetitionwiththem：andCharleswaschosenbytheunanimoussuffragesoftheelectoralcollege，ifImistakenot。AnotherCharles，CharlestheFourth，whowasmadeemperorillegallyenoughonthedepositionofLouisofBavaria，andaboutonehundredandfiftyyearsbefore，seemstometohavecontributeddoublytoestablishthismaxim；bythewiseconstitutionsthatheprocuredtopass，thatunitedtheempireinamoreorderlyformandbettersystemofgovernment；andbyalienatingtheimperialrevenuestosuchadegree，thattheywerenolongersufficienttosupportanemperorwhohadnotgreatrevenuesofhisown。Thesamemaximandothercircumstanceshaveconcurredtokeeptheempireinthisfamilyeversince，asithadbeenoftenbefore；andthisfamilyhavinglargedominionsintheempire，andlargerpretensions，aswellasdominions，outofit，theotherstatesofEurope，France，SpainandEnglandparticularly，havebeenmoreconcernedsincethisperiodintheaffairsofGermany，thantheywerebeforeit：andbyconsequencethehistoryofGermany，fromthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury，isofimportance，andanecessarypartofthatknowledgewhichyourlordshipdesirestoacquire。
　　TheDutchcommonwealthwasnotformedtillnearacenturylater。Butassoonasitwasformed，nayevenwhilstitwasforming，theseprovinces，thatwerelosttoobservationamongthemanythatcomposedthedominionsofBurgundyandAustria，becamesoconsiderableapartofthepoliticalsystemofEurope，thattheirhistorymustbestudiedbyeverymanwhowouldinformhimselfofthissystem。
　　Soonafterthisstatehadtakenbeing，othersofamoreancientoriginalbegantomingleinthosedisputesandwars，thosecouncils，negotiations，andtreaties，thataretobetheprincipalobjectsofyourlordship’sapplicationinthestudyofhistory。Thatofthenortherncrownsdeservesyourattentionlittle，beforethelastcentury。TilltheelectionofFrederictheFirsttothecrownofDenmark，andtillthatwonderfulrevolutionwhichthefirstGustavusbroughtaboutinSweden，itisnothingmorethanaconfusedrhapsodyofevents，inwhichthegreatkingdomsandstatesofEuropeneitherhadanyconcern，nortookanypart。FromthetimeIhavementioned，thenortherncrownshaveturnedtheircounselsandtheirarmsoftensouthwards，andSwedenparticularly，withprodigiouseffect。
　　TowhatpurposeshouldItroubleyourlordshipwiththementionofhistoriesofothernations？Theyareeithersuchashavenorelationtotheknowledgeyouwouldacquire，likethatofthePoles，theMuscovites，ortheTurks；
　　ortheyaresuchas，havinganoccasionalorasecondaryrelationtoit，fallofcourseintoyourscheme；likethehistoryofItalyforinstance，whichissometimesapartofthatofFrance，sometimesofthatofSpain，andsometimesofthatofGermany。Thethreadofhistorythatyouaretokeep，isthatofthenationswhoareandmustalwaysbeconcernedinthesamescenesofactionwithyourown。Thesearetheprincipalnationsofthewest。Thingsthathavenoimmediaterelationtoyourowncountry，ortothem，areeithertooremote，ortoominute，toemploymuchofyourtime：andtheirhistoryandyourownis，forallyourpurposes，thewholehistoryofEurope。
　　Thetwogreatpowers，thatofFranceandthatofAustria，beingformed，andarivalshipestablishedbyconsequencebetweenthem；itbegantobetheinterestoftheirneighborstoopposethestrongestandmostenterprisingofthetwo，andtobetheallyandfriendoftheweakest。FromhencearosethenotionofabalanceofpowerinEurope，ontheequalpoiseofwhichthesafetyandtranquilityofallmustdepend。Todestroytheequalityofthisbalancehasbeentheaimofeachoftheserivalsinhisturn：andtohinderitfrombeingdestroyed，bypreventingtoomuchpowerfromfallingintoonescale，hasbeentheprincipleofallthewisecouncilsofEurope，relativelytoFranceandtothehouseofAustria，throughthewholeperiodthatbeganattheerawehavefixed，andsubsistsatthishour。Tomakeacarefulandjustobservation，therefore，oftheriseanddeclineofthesepowers，inthetwolastcenturies，andinthepresent；oftheprojectswhichtheirambitionformed；ofthemeanstheyemployedtocarrytheseprojectsonwithsuccess；
　　ofthemeansemployedbyotherstodefeatthem；oftheissueofalltheseendeavorsinwarandinnegotiation；andparticularly，tobringyourobservationshometoyourowncountryandyourownuse，oftheconductthatEnglandheld，toherhonorordishonor，toheradvantageordisadvantage，ineveryoneofthenumerousandimportantconjuncturesthathappened-oughttobetheprincipalsubjectofyourlordship’sattentioninreadingandreflectingonthispartofmodernhistory。
　　Nowtothispurposeyouwillfinditofgreatuse，mylord，whenyouhaveageneralplanofthehistoryinyourmind，togooverthewholeagaininanothermethod；whichIproposetobethis。Dividetheentireperiodintosuchparticularperiodsasthegeneralcourseofaffairswillmarkouttoyousufficiently，bytheriseofnewconjunctures，ofdifferentschemesofconduct，andofdifferenttheatresofaction。Examinethisperiodofhistoryasyouwouldexamineatragedyoracomedy；thatis，takefirsttheideaorageneralnotionofthewhole，andafterthatexamineeveryactandeverysceneapart。Considertheminthemselves，andconsiderthemrelativelytooneanother。Readthishistoryasyouwouldthatofanyancientperiod；butstudyitafterwards，asitwouldnotbeworthyourwhiletostudytheother；
　　nayasyoucouldnothaveinyourpowerthemeansofstudyingtheother，ifthestudywasreallyworthyourwhile。Theformerpartofthisperiodaboundsingreathistorians：andthelatterpartissomodern，thateventraditionisauthenticenoughtosupplythewantofgoodhistory，ifwearecurioustoinquire，andifwehearkentothelivingwiththesameimpartialityandfreedomofjudgmentaswereadthedead；andhethatdoesone，willdotheother。Thewholeperiodaboundsinmemorials，incollectionsofpublicactsandmonuments，ofprivateletters，andoftreaties。Allthesemustcomeintoyourplanofstudy，mylord：manymaynotbereadthrough，butalltobeconsultedandcompared。Theymustnotleadyou，Ithink，toyourinquiries，butyourinquiriesmustleadyoutothem。Byjoininghistoryandthatwhichwecallthemateriahistoricatogetherinthismanner，andbydrawingyourinformationfromboth，yourlordshipwillacquirenotonlythatknowledge，whichmanyhaveinsomedegree，ofthegreattransactionsthathavepassed，andthegreateventsthathavehappenedinEuropeduringthisperiod，andoftheirimmediateandobviouscausesandconsequences；butyourlordshipwillacquireamuchsuperiorknowledge，andsuchaoneasveryfewmenpossessalmostinanydegree，aknowledgeofthetruepoliticalsystemofEuropeduringthistime。Youwillseeitinitsprimitiveprinciples，intheconstitutionsofgovernments，thesituationsofcountries，theirnationalandtrueinterests，thecharactersandthereligionofpeople，andotherpermanentcircumstances。
　　Youwilltraceitthroughallitsfluctuations，andobservehowtheobjectsvaryseldom，butthemeansperpetually，accordingtothedifferentcharactersofprincesandofthosewhogovern；thedifferentabilitiesofthosewhoserve；thecourseofaccidents，andamultitudeofotherirregularandcontingentcircumstances。
　　Theparticularperiodsintowhichthewholeperiodshouldbedivided，inmyopinion，arethese。1Fromthefifteenthtotheendofthesixteenthcentury。2FromthencetothePyreneantreaty。3Fromthencedowntothepresenttime。
　　Yourlordshipwillfindthisdivisionasaptandasproper，relativelytotheparticularhistoriesofEngland，France，Spain，andGermany，theprincipalnationsconcerned，asitisrelativelytothegeneralhistoryofEurope。
　　ThedeathofqueenElizabeth，andtheaccessionofkingJamestheFirst，madeavastalterationinthegovernmentofournationathome，andinherconductabroad，abouttheendofthefirstoftheseperiods。Thewarsthatreligionoccasioned，andambitionfomentedinFrance，throughthereignsofFrancistheSecond，CharlestheNinth，HenrytheThird，andapartofHenrytheFourth，ended：andthefuriesoftheleaguewerecrushedbythisgreatprince，aboutthesametime。PhilliptheSecondofSpainmarksthisperiodlikewisebyhisdeath，andbytheexhaustedconditioninwhichheleftthemonarchyhegoverned：whichtooktheleadnolongerindisturbingthepeaceofmankind，butactedasecondpartinabettingthebigotryandambitionofFerdinandtheSecondandtheThird。ThethirtyyearswarthatdevastedGermanydidnotbegintilltheeighteenthyearoftheseventeenthcentury，buttheseedsofitweresowingsometimebefore，andevenattheendofthesixteenth。FerdinandtheFirstandMaximilianhadshownmuchlenityandmoderationinthedisputesandtroublesthataroseonaccountofreligion。
　　UnderRodolphusandMatthias，asthesuccessionoftheircousinFerdinandapproached，thefiresthatwerecoveredbegantosmokeandtosparkle：andifthewardidnotbeginwiththiscentury，thepreparationforit，andtheexpectationofitdid。
　　Thesecondperiodendsinonethousandsixhundredandsixty，theyearoftherestorationofCharlestheSecondtothethroneofEngland；whenourcivilwars，andallthedisorderswhichCromwell’susurpationhadproduced，wereover；andthereforearemarkablepointoftime，withrespecttoourcountry。ItisnolessremarkablewithrespecttoGermany，Spain，andFrance。
　　AstoGermany；theambitiousprojectsoftheGermanbranchofAustriahadbeenentirelydefeated，thepeaceoftheempirehadbeenrestored，andalmostanewconstitutionformed，oranoldonerevived，bythetreatiesofWestphalia；naytheimperialeaglewasnotonlyfallen，butherwingswereclipped。
　　AstoSpain；theSpanishbranchwasfallenaslowtwelveyearsafterwards，thatis，intheyearonethousandsixhundredandsixty。PhiliptheSecondlefthissuccessorsaruinedmonarchy。Heleftthemsomethingworse；heleftthemhisexampleandhisprinciplesofgovernment，foundedinambition，inpride，inignorance，inbigotry，andallthepedantryofstate。Ihavereadsomewhereorother，thatthewaroftheLowCountriesalonecosthim，byhisownconfession，fivehundredandsixty-fourmillions，aprodigioussuminwhatspeciessoeverhereckoned。PhiliptheThirdandPhiliptheFourthfollowedhisexampleandhisprinciplesofgovernment，athomeandabroad。
　　Athome，therewasmuchform，butnogoodorder，noeconomy，norwisdomofpolicyinthestate。Thechurchcontinuedtodevourthestate，andthatmonstertheinquisitiontodispeoplethecountry，evenmorethanperpetualwar，andallthenumerouscoloniesthatSpainhadsenttotheWestIndies：foryourlordshipwillfindthatPhiliptheThirddrovemorethanninehundredthousandMoriscoesoutofhisdominionsbyoneedict，withsuchcircumstancesofinhumanityintheexecutionofit，asSpaniardsalonecouldexercise，andthattribunal，whohadprovokedthisunhappyracetorevolt，couldaloneapprove。Abroad，theconductoftheseprinceswasdirectedbythesamewildspiritofambition：
　　rashinundertakingthoughslowtoexecute，andobstinateinpursuingthoughunabletosucceed，theyopenedanewsluicetoletoutthelittlelifeandvigorthatremainedintheirmonarchy。PhiliptheSecondissaidtohavebeenpiquedagainsthisuncleFerdinand，forrefusingtoyieldtheempiretohimontheabdicationofCharlestheFifth。Certainitis，thatasmuchashelovedtodisturbthepeaceofmankind，andtomeddleineveryquarrelthathadtheappearanceofsupportingtheRomanandoppressingeveryotherchurch，hemeddledlittleintheaffairsofGermany。But，FerdinandandMaximiliandead，andtheoffspringofMaximilianextinct，thekingsofSpainespousedtheinterestsoftheotherbranchoftheirfamily，entertainedremoteviewsofambitioninfavoroftheirownbranch，evenonthatside，andmadealltheenterprisesofFerdinandofGratz，bothbeforeandafterhiselevationtotheempire，thecommoncauseofthehouseofAustria。Whatcompletedtheirruinwasthis：theyknewnothowtolose，norwhentoyield。TheyacknowledgedtheindependenceoftheDutchcommonwealth，andbecamethealliesoftheirancientsubjectsatthetreatyofMunster；buttheywouldnotforegotheirusurpedclaimonPortugal，andtheypersistedtocarryonsinglythewaragainstFrance。Thustheywerereducedtosuchalownessofpowerascanhardlybeparallelledinanyothercase：andPhiliptheFourthwasobligedatlasttoconcludeapeace，ontermsrepugnanttohisinclination，tothatofhispeople，totheinterestofSpain，andtothatofallEurope，inthePyreneantreaty。