Anauthorwhotreatsofnaturalphilosophy，andpretendstoassignthecausesofthegreatphaenomenaoftheuniverse，pretendstogiveanaccountoftheaffairsofaverydistantcountry，concerningwhichhemaytelluswhathepleases，andaslongashisnarrationkeepswithintheboundsofseemingpossibility，heneednotdespairofgainingourbelief。Butwhenheproposestoexplaintheoriginofourdesiresandaffections，ofoursentimentsofapprobationanddisapprobation，hepretendstogiveanaccount，notonlyoftheaffairsoftheveryparishthatwelivein，butofourowndomesticconcerns。Thoughheretoo，likeindolentmasterswhoputtheirtrustinastewardwhodeceivesthem，weareveryliabletobeimposedupon，yetweareincapableofpassinganyaccountwhichdoesnotpreservesomelittleregardtothetruth。Someofthearticles，atleast，mustbejust，andeventhosewhicharemostoverchargedmusthavehadsomefoundation，otherwisethefraudwouldbedetectedevenbythatcarelessinspectionwhichwearedisposedtogive。Theauthorwhoshouldassign，asthecauseofanynaturalsentiment，someprinciplewhichneitherhadanyconnexionwithit，norresembledanyotherprinciplewhichhadsomesuchconnexion，wouldappearabsurdandridiculoustothemostinjudiciousandunexperiencedreader。
　　OfthedifferentSystemswhichhavebeenformedconcerningthePrincipleofApprobationIntroductionAftertheinquiryconcerningthenatureofvirtue，thenextquestionofimportanceinMoralPhilosophy，isconcerningtheprincipleofapprobation，concerningthepowerorfacultyofthemindwhichrenderscertaincharactersagreeableordisagreeabletous，makesuspreferonetenourofconducttoanother，denominatetheonerightandtheotherwrong，andconsidertheoneastheobjectofapprobation，honour，andreward；theotherasthatofblame，censure，andpunishment。
　　Threedifferentaccountshavebeengivenofthisprincipleofapprobation。Accordingtosome，weapproveanddisapprovebothofourownactionsandofthoseofothers，fromself-loveonly，orfromsomeviewoftheirtendencytoourownhappinessordisadvantage:accordingtoothers，reason，thesamefacultybywhichwedistinguishbetweentruthandfalsehood，enablesustodistinguishbetweenwhatisfitandunfitbothinactionsandaffections:accorDingtoothersthisdistinctionisaltogethertheeffectofimmediatesentimentandfeeling，andarisesfromthesatisfactionordisgustwithwhichtheviewofcertainactionsoraffectionsinspiresus。Self-love，reason，andsentiment，therefore，arethethreedifferentsourceswhichhavebeenassignedfortheprincipleofapprobation。
　　BeforeIproceedtogiveanaccountofthosedifferentsystems，Imustobserve，thatthedeterminationofthissecondquestion，thoughofthegreatestimportanceinspeculation，isofnoneinpractice。Thequestionconcerningthenatureofvirtuenecessarilyhassomeinfluenceuponournotionsofrightandwronginmanyparticularcases。Thatconcerningtheprincipleofapprobationcanpossiblyhavenosucheffect。Toexaminefromwhatcontrivanceormechanismwithin，thosedifferentnotionsorsentimentsarise，isamerematterofphilosophicalcuriosity。
　　OfthoseSystemswhichdeducethePrincipleofApprobationfromSelf-loveThosewhoaccountfortheprincipleofapprobationfromself-love，donotallaccountforitinthesamemanner，andthereisagooddealofconfusionandinaccuracyinalltheirdifferentsystems。AccordingtoMrHobbes，andmanyofhisfollowers，15*manisdriventotakerefugeinsociety，notbyanynaturallovewhichhebearstohisownkind，butbecausewithouttheassistanceofothersheisincapableofsubsistingwitheaseorsafety。Society，uponthisaccount，becomesnecessarytohim，andwhatevertendstoitssupportandwelfare，heconsidersashavingaremotetendencytohisowninterest；
　　and，onthecontrary，whateverislikelytodisturbordestroyit，heregardsasinsomemeasurehurtfulorpernicioustohimself。Virtueisthegreatsupport，andvicethegreatdisturberofhumansociety。Theformer，therefore，isagreeable，andthelatteroffensivetoeveryman；asfromtheoneheforeseestheprosperity，andfromtheothertheruinanddisorderofwhatissonecessaryforthecomfortandsecurityofhisexistence。
　　Thatthetendencyofvirtuetopromote，andofvicetodisturbtheorderofsociety，whenweconsideritcoollyandphilosophically，reflectsaverygreatbeautyupontheone，andaverygreatdeformityupontheother，cannot，asIhaveobserveduponaformeroccasion，becalledinquestion。Humansociety，whenwecontemplateitinacertainabstractandphilosophicallight，appearslikeagreat，animmensemachine，whoseregularandharmoniousmovementsproduceathousandagreeableeffects。Asinanyotherbeautifulandnoblemachinethatwastheproductionofhumanart，whatevertendedtorenderitsmovementsmoresmoothandeasy，wouldderiveabeautyfromthiseffect，and，onthecontrary，whatevertendedtoobstructthemwoulddispleaseuponthataccount:sovirtue，whichis，asitwere，thefinepolishtothewheelsofsociety，necessarilypleases；whilevice，likethevilerust，whichmakesthemjarandgrateupononeanother，isasnecessarilyoffensive。Thisaccount，therefore，oftheoriginofapprobationanddisapprobation，sofarasitderivesthemfromaregardtotheorderofsociety，runsintothatprinciplewhichgivesbeautytoutility，andwhichIhaveexplaineduponaformeroccasion；anditisfromthencethatthissystemderivesallthatappearanceofprobabilitywhichitpossesses。Whenthoseauthorsdescribetheinnumerableadvantagesofacultivatedandsocial，aboveasavageandsolitarylife；whentheyexpatiateuponthenecessityofvirtueandgoodorderforthemaintenanceoftheone，anddemonstratehowinfalliblytheprevalenceofviceanddisobediencetothelawstendtobringbacktheother，thereaderischarmedwiththenoveltyandgrandeurofthoseviewswhichtheyopentohim:heseesplainlyanewbeautyinvirtue，andanewdeformityinvice，whichhehadnevertakennoticeofbefore，andiscommonlysodelightedwiththediscovery，thatheseldomtakestimetoreflect，thatthispoliticalview，havingneveroccurredtohiminhislifebefore，cannotpossiblybethegroundofthatapprobationanddisapprobationwithwhichhehasalwaysbeenaccustomedtoconsiderthosedifferentqualities。
　　Whenthoseauthors，ontheotherhand，deducefromself-lovetheinterestwhichwetakeinthewelfareofsociety，andtheesteemwhichuponthataccountwebestowuponvirtue，theydonotmean，thatwhenweinthisageapplaudthevirtueofCato，anddetestthevillanyofCatiline，oursentimentsareinfluencedbythenotionofanybenefitwereceivefromtheone，orofanydetrimentwesufferfromtheother。Itwasnotbecausetheprosperityorsubversionofsociety，inthoseremoteagesandnations，wasapprehendedtohaveanyinfluenceuponourhappinessormiseryinthepresenttimes；thataccordingtothosephilosophers，weesteemedthevirtuous，andblamedthedisorderlycharacters。Theyneverimaginedthatoursentimentswereinfluencedbyanybenefitordamagewhichwesupposedactuallytoredoundtous，fromeither；butbythatwhichmighthaveredoundedtous，hadwelivedinthosedistantagesandcountries；orbythatwhichmightstillredoundtous，ifinourowntimesweshouldmeetwithcharactersofthesamekind。Theidea，inshort，whichthoseauthorsweregropingabout，butwhichtheywereneverabletounfolddistinctly，wasthatindirectsympathywhichwefeelwiththegratitudeorresentmentofthosewhoreceivedthebenefitorsufferedthedamageresultingfromsuchoppositecharacters:anditwasthiswhichtheywereindistinctlypointingat，whentheysaid，thatitwasnotthethoughtofwhatwehadgainedorsufferedwhichpromptedourapplauseorindignation，buttheconceptionorimaginationofwhatwemightgainorsufferifweweretoactinsocietywithsuchassociates。
　　Sympathy，however，cannot，inanysense，beregardedasaselfishprinciple。WhenIsympathizewithyoursorroworyourindignation，itmaybepretended，indeed，thatmyemotionisfoundedinself-love，becauseitarisesfrombringingyourcasehometomyself，fromputtingmyselfinyoursituation，andthenceconceivingwhatIshouldfeelinthelikecircumstances。Butthoughsympathyisveryproperlysaidtoarisefromanimaginarychangeofsituationswiththepersonprincipallyconcerned，yetthisimaginarychangeisnotsupposedtohappentomeinmyownpersonandcharacter，butinthatofthepersonwithwhomI
　　sympathize。WhenIcondolewithyouforthelossofyouronlyson，inordertoenterintoyourgriefIdonotconsiderwhatI，apersonofsuchacharacterandprofession，shouldsuffer，ifI
　　hadason，andifthatsonwasunfortunatelytodie:butI
　　considerwhatIshouldsufferifIwasreallyyou，andInotonlychangecircumstanceswithyou，butIchangepersonsandcharacters。Mygrief，therefore，isentirelyuponyouraccount，andnotintheleastuponmyown。Itisnot，therefore，intheleastselfish。Howcanthatberegardedasaselfishpassion，whichdoesnotariseevenfromtheimaginationofanythingthathasbefallen，orthatrelatestomyself，inmyownproperpersonandcharacter，butwhichisentirelyoccupiedaboutwhatrelatestoyou？Amanmaysympathizewithawomaninchild-bed；thoughitisimpossiblethatheshouldconceivehimselfassufferingherpainsinhisownproperpersonandcharacter。Thatwholeaccountofhumannature，however，whichdeducesallsentimentsandaffectionsfromself-love，whichhasmadesomuchnoiseintheworld，butwhich，sofarasIknow，hasneveryetbeenfullyanddistinctlyexplained，seemstometohavearisenfromsomeconfusedmisapprehensionofthesystemofsympathy。
　　OfthoseSystemswhichmakeReasonthePrincipleofApprobationItiswellknowntohavebeenthedoctrineofMrHobbes，thatastateofnatureisastateofwar；andthatantecedenttotheinstitutionofcivilgovernmenttherecouldbenosafeorpeaceablesocietyamongmen。Topreservesociety，therefore，accordingtohim，wastosupportcivilgovernment，andtodestroycivilgovernmentwasthesamethingastoputanendtosociety。
　　Buttheexistenceofcivilgovernmentdependsupontheobediencethatispaidtothesuprememagistrate。Themomentheloseshisauthority，allgovernmentisatanend。Asself-preservation，therefore，teachesmentoapplaudwhatevertendstopromotethewelfareofsociety，andtoblamewhateverislikelytohurtit；
　　sothesameprinciple，iftheywouldthinkandspeakconsistently，oughttoteachthemtoapplauduponalloccasionsobediencetothecivilmagistrate，andtoblamealldisobedienceandrebellion。Theveryideasoflaudableandblamable，oughttobethesamewiththoseofobedienceanddisobedience。Thelawsofthecivilmagistrate，therefore，oughttoberegardedasthesoleultimatestandardsofwhatwasjustandunjust，ofwhatwasrightandwrong。
　　ItwastheavowedintentionofMrHobbes，bypropagatingthesenotions，tosubjecttheconsciencesofmenimmediatelytothecivil，andnottotheecclesiasticalpowers，whoseturbulenceandambition，hehadbeentaught，bytheexampleofhisowntimes，toregardastheprincipalsourceofthedisordersofsociety。Hisdoctrine，uponthisaccount，waspeculiarlyoffensivetotheologians，whoaccorDinglydidnotfailtoventtheirindignationagainsthimwithgreatasperityandbitterness。
　　Itwaslikewiseoffensivetoallsoundmoralists，asitsupposedthattherewasnonaturaldistinctionbetweenrightandwrong，thattheseweremutableandchangeable，anddependeduponthemerearbitrarywillofthecivilmagistrate。Thisaccountofthings，therefore，wasattackedfromallquarters，andbyallsortsofweapons，bysoberreasonaswellasbyfuriousdeclamation。