IntroductoryTheinstitutionofaleisureclassisfoundinitsbestdevelopmentatthehigherstagesofthebarbarianculture；as，forinstance，infeudalEuropeorfeudalJapan。Insuchcommunitiesthedistinctionbetweenclassesisveryrigorouslyobserved；andthefeatureofmoststrikingeconomicsignificanceintheseclassdifferencesisthedistinctionmaintainedbetweentheemploymentspropertotheseveralclasses。Theupperclassesarebycustomexemptorexcludedfromindustrialoccupations，andarereservedforcertainemploymentstowhichadegreeofhonourattaches。Chiefamongthehonourableemploymentsinanyfeudalcommunityiswarfare；andpriestlyserviceiscommonlysecondtowarfare。Ifthebarbariancommunityisnotnotablywarlike，thepriestlyofficemaytaketheprecedence，withthatofthewarriorsecond。Buttheruleholdswithbutslightexceptionsthat，whetherwarriorsorpriests，theupperclassesareexemptfromindustrialemployments，andthisexemptionistheeconomicexpressionoftheirsuperiorrank。BrahminIndiaaffordsafairillustrationoftheindustrialexemptionofboththeseclasses。
　　Inthecommunitiesbelongingtothehigherbarbarianculturethereisaconsiderabledifferentiationofsub-classeswithinwhatmaybecomprehensivelycalledtheleisureclass；andthereisacorrespondingdifferentiationofemploymentsbetweenthesesub-classes。Theleisureclassasawholecomprisesthenobleandthepriestlyclasses，togetherwithmuchoftheirretinue。Theoccupationsoftheclassarecorrespondinglydiversified；buttheyhavethecommoneconomiccharacteristicofbeingnonndustrial。Thesenon-industrialupper-classoccupationsmayberoughlycomprisedundergovernment，warfare，religiousobservances，andsports。
　　Atanearlier，butnottheearliest，stageofbarbarism，theleisureclassisfoundinalessdifferentiatedform。Neithertheclassdistinctionsnorthedistinctionsbetweenleisure-classoccupationsaresominuteandintricate。ThePolynesianislandersgenerallyshowthisstageofthedevelopmentingoodform，withtheexceptionthat，owingtotheabsenceoflargegame，huntingdoesnotholdtheusualplaceofhonourintheirschemeoflife。
　　TheIcelandiccommunityinthetimeoftheSagasalsoaffordsafairinstance。Insuchacommunitythereisarigorousdistinctionbetweenclassesandbetweentheoccupationspeculiartoeachclass。Manuallabour，industry，whateverhastododirectlywiththeeverydayworkofgettingalivelihood，istheexclusiveoccupationoftheinferiorclass。Thisinferiorclassincludesslavesandotherdependents，andordinarilyalsoallthewomen。Ifthereareseveralgradesofaristocracy，thewomenofhighrankarecommonlyexemptfromindustrialemployment，oratleastfromthemorevulgarkindsofmanuallabour。Themenoftheupperclassesarenotonlyexempt，butbyprescriptivecustomtheyaredebarred，fromallindustrialoccupations。Therangeofemploymentsopentothemisrigidlydefined。Asonthehigherplanealreadyspokenof，theseemploymentsaregovernment，warfare，religiousobservances，andsports。Thesefourlinesofactivitygoverntheschemeoflifeoftheupperclasses，andforthehighestrank——thekingsorchieftainsthesearetheonlykindsofactivitythatcustomorthecommonsenseofthecommunitywillallow。Indeed，wheretheschemeiswelldevelopedevensportsareaccounteddoubtfullylegitimateforthemembersofthehighestrank。Tothelowergradesoftheleisureclasscertainotheremploymentsareopen，buttheyareemploymentsthataresubsidiarytooneoranotherofthesetypicalleisure-classoccupations。Suchare，forinstance，themanufactureandcareofarmsandaccoutrementsandofwarcanoes，thedressingandhandlingofhorses，dogs，andhawks，thepreparationofsacredapparatus，etc。Thelowerclassesareexcludedfromthesesecondaryhonourableemployments，exceptfromsuchasareplainlyofanindustrialcharacterandareonlyremotelyrelatedtothetypicalleisure-classoccupations。
　　Ifwegoastepbackofthisexemplarybarbarianculture，intothelowerstagesofbarbarism，wenolongerfindtheleisureclassinfullydevelopedform。Butthislowerbarbarismshowstheusages，motives，andcircumstancesoutofwhichtheinstitutionofaleisureclasshasarisen，andindicatesthestepsofitsearlygrowth。Nomadichuntingtribesinvariouspartsoftheworldillustratethesemoreprimitivephasesofthedifferentiation。AnyoneoftheNorthAmericanhuntingtribesmaybetakenasaconvenientillustration。Thesetribescanscarcelybesaidtohaveadefinedleisureclass。Thereisadifferentiationoffunction，andthereisadistinctionbetweenclassesonthebasisofthisdifferenceoffunction，buttheexemptionofthesuperiorclassfromworkhasnotgonefarenoughtomakethedesignation“leisureclass“altogetherapplicable。
　　Thetribesbelongingonthiseconomiclevelhavecarriedtheeconomicdifferentiationtothepointatwhichamarkeddistinctionismadebetweentheoccupationsofmenandwomen，andthisdistinctionisofaninvidiouscharacter。Innearlyallthesetribesthewomenare，byprescriptivecustom，heldtothoseemploymentsoutofwhichtheindustrialoccupationsproperdevelopatthenextadvance。Themenareexemptfromthesevulgaremploymentsandarereservedforwar，hunting，sports，anddevoutobservances。Averynicediscriminationisordinarilyshowninthismatter。
　　Thisdivisionoflabourcoincideswiththedistinctionbetweentheworkingandtheleisureclassasitappearsinthehigherbarbarianculture。Asthediversificationandspecialisationofemploymentsproceed，thelineofdemarcationsodrawncomestodividetheindustrialfromthenon-industrialemployments。Theman’soccupationasitstandsattheearlierbarbarianstageisnottheoriginaloutofwhichanyappreciableportionoflaterindustryhasdeveloped。Inthelaterdevelopmentitsurvivesonlyinemploymentsthatarenotclassedasindustrial，——war，politics，sports，learning，andthepriestlyoffice。Theonlynotableexceptionsareaportionofthefisheryindustryandcertainslightemploymentsthataredoubtfullytobeclassedasindustry；suchasthemanufactureofarms，toys，andsportinggoods。Virtuallythewholerangeofindustrialemploymentsisanoutgrowthofwhatisclassedaswoman’sworkintheprimitivebarbariancommunity。
　　Theworkofthemeninthelowerbarbariancultureisnolessindispensabletothelifeofthegroupthantheworkdonebythewomen。Itmayevenbethatthemen’sworkcontributesasmuchtothefoodsupplyandtheothernecessaryconsumptionofthegroup。Indeed，soobviousisthis“productive“characterofthemen’sworkthatintheconventionaleconomicwritingsthehunter’sworkistakenasthetypeofprimitiveindustry。Butsuchisnotthebarbarian’ssenseofthematter。Inhisowneyesheisnotalabourer，andheisnottobeclassedwiththewomeninthisrespect；norishisefforttobeclassedwiththewomen’sdrudgery，aslabourorindustry，insuchasenseastoadmitofitsbeingconfoundedwiththelatter。Thereisinallbarbariancommunitiesaprofoundsenseofthedisparitybetweenman’sandwoman’swork。Hisworkmayconducetothemaintenanceofthegroup，butitisfeltthatitdoessothroughanexcellenceandanefficacyofakindthatcannotwithoutderogationbecomparedwiththeuneventfuldiligenceofthewomen。
　　Atafartherstepbackwardintheculturalscale——amongsavagegroups——thedifferentiationofemploymentsisstilllesselaborateandtheinvidiousdistinctionbetweenclassesandemploymentsislessconsistentandlessrigorous。Unequivocalinstancesofaprimitivesavageculturearehardtofind。Fewofthesegroupsorcommunitiesthatareclassedas“savage“shownotracesofregressionfromamoreadvancedculturalstage。Buttherearegroups——someofthemapparentlynottheresultofretrogression——whichshowthetraitsofprimitivesavagerywithsomefidelity。Theirculturediffersfromthatofthebarbariancommunitiesintheabsenceofaleisureclassandtheabsence，ingreatmeasure，oftheanimusorspiritualattitudeonwhichtheinstitutionofaleisureclassrests。Thesecommunitiesofprimitivesavagesinwhichthereisnohierarchyofeconomicclassesmakeupbutasmallandinconspicuousfractionofthehumanrace。AsgoodaninstanceofthisphaseofcultureasmaybehadisaffordedbythetribesoftheAndamans，orbytheTodasoftheNilgiriHills。TheschemeoflifeofthesegroupsatthetimeoftheirearliestcontactwithEuropeansseemstohavebeennearlytypical，sofarasregardstheabsenceofaleisureclass。
　　AsafurtherinstancemightbecitedtheAinuofYezo，and，moredoubtfully，alsosomeBushmanandEskimogroups。SomePueblocommunitiesarelessconfidentlytobeincludedinthesameclass。Most，ifnotall，ofthecommunitiesherecitedmaywellbecasesofdegenerationfromahigherbarbarism，ratherthanbearersofaculturethathasneverrisenaboveitspresentlevel。Ifso，theyareforthepresentpurposetobetakenwiththeallowance，buttheymayservenonethelessasevidencetothesameeffectasiftheywerereally“primitive“populations。
　　Thesecommunitiesthatarewithoutadefinedleisureclassresembleoneanotheralsoincertainotherfeaturesoftheirsocialstructureandmanneroflife。Theyaresmallgroupsandofasimplearchaicstructure；theyarecommonlypeaceableandsedentary；theyarepoor；andindividualownershipisnotadominantfeatureoftheireconomicsystem。Atthesametimeitdoesnotfollowthatthesearethesmallestofexistingcommunities，orthattheirsocialstructureisinallrespectstheleastdifferentiated；nordoestheclassnecessarilyincludeallprimitivecommunitieswhichhavenodefinedsystemofindividualownership。Butitistobenotedthattheclassseemstoincludethemostpeaceable——perhapsallthecharacteristicallypeaceable——primitivegroupsofmen。Indeed，themostnotabletraitcommontomembersofsuchcommunitiesisacertainamiableinefficiencywhenconfrontedwithforceorfraud。
　　Theevidenceaffordedbytheusagesandculturaltraitsofcommunitiesatalowstageofdevelopmentindicatesthattheinstitutionofaleisureclasshasemergedgraduallyduringthetransitionfromprimitivesavagerytobarbarism；ormoreprecisely，duringthetransitionfromapeaceabletoaconsistentlywarlikehabitoflife。Theconditionsapparentlynecessarytoitsemergenceinaconsistentformare:1thecommunitymustbeofapredatoryhabitoflifewarorthehuntingoflargegameorboth；thatistosay，themen，whoconstitutetheinchoateleisureclassinthesecases，mustbehabituatedtotheinflictionofinjurybyforceandstratagem；
　　2subsistencemustbeobtainableonsufficientlyeasytermstoadmitoftheexemptionofaconsiderableportionofthecommunityfromsteadyapplicationtoaroutineoflabour。Theinstitutionofleisureclassistheoutgrowthofanearlydiscriminationbetweenemployments，accordingtowhichsomeemploymentsareworthyandothersunworthy。Underthisancientdistinctiontheworthyemploymentsarethosewhichmaybeclassedasexploit；
　　unworthyarethosenecessaryeverydayemploymentsintowhichnoappreciableelementofexploitenters。
　　Thisdistinctionhasbutlittleobvioussignificanceinamodernindustrialcommunity，andithas，therefore，receivedbutslightattentionatthehandsofeconomicwriters。Whenviewedinthelightofthatmoderncommonsensewhichhasguidedeconomicdiscussion，itseemsformalandinsubstantial。Butitpersistswithgreattenacityasacommonplacepreconceptioneveninmodernlife，asisshown，forinstance，byourhabitualaversiontomenialemployments。Itisadistinctionofapersonalkind——ofsuperiorityandinferiority。Intheearlierstagesofculture，whenthepersonalforceoftheindividualcountedmoreimmediatelyandobviouslyinshapingthecourseofevents，theelementofexploitcountedformoreintheeverydayschemeoflife。Interestcentredaboutthisfacttoagreaterdegree。
　　Consequentlyadistinctionproceedingonthisgroundseemedmoreimperativeandmoredefinitivethenthanisthecaseto-day。Asafactinthesequenceofdevelopment，therefore，thedistinctionisasubstantialoneandrestsonsufficientlyvalidandcogentgrounds。
　　Thegroundonwhichadiscriminationbetweenfactsishabituallymadechangesastheinterestfromwhichthefactsarehabituallyviewedchanges。Thosefeaturesofthefactsathandaresalientandsubstantialuponwhichthedominantinterestofthetimethrowsitslight。Anygivengroundofdistinctionwillseeminsubstantialtoanyonewhohabituallyapprehendsthefactsinquestionfromadifferentpointofviewandvaluesthemforadifferentpurpose。Thehabitofdistinguishingandclassifyingthevariouspurposesanddirectionsofactivityprevailsofnecessityalwaysandeverywhere；foritisindispensableinreachingaworkingtheoryorschemeoflife。Theparticularpointofview，ortheparticularcharacteristicthatispitcheduponasdefinitiveintheclassificationofthefactsoflifedependsupontheinterestfromwhichadiscriminationofthefactsissought。Thegroundsofdiscrimination，andthenormofprocedureinclassifyingthefacts，therefore，progressivelychangeasthegrowthofcultureproceeds；fortheendforwhichthefactsoflifeareapprehendedchanges，andthepointofviewconsequentlychangesalso。Sothatwhatarerecognisedasthesalientanddecisivefeaturesofaclassofactivitiesorofasocialclassatonestageofculturewillnotretainthesamerelativeimportanceforthepurposesofclassificationatanysubsequentstage。
　　Butthechangeofstandardsandpointsofviewisgradualonly，anditseldomresultsinthesubversionofentiresuppressionofastandpointonceaccepted。Adistinctionisstillhabituallymadebetweenindustrialandnon-industrialoccupations；andthismoderndistinctionisatransmutedformofthebarbariandistinctionbetweenexploitanddrudgery。Suchemploymentsaswarfare，politics，publicworship，andpublicmerrymaking，arefelt，inthepopularapprehension，todifferintrinsicallyfromthelabourthathastodowithelaboratingthematerialmeansoflife。Thepreciselineofdemarcationisnotthesameasitwasintheearlybarbarianscheme，butthebroaddistinctionhasnotfallenintodisuse。
　　Thetacit，common-sensedistinctionto-dayis，ineffect，thatanyeffortistobeaccountedindustrialonlysofarasitsultimatepurposeistheutilisationofnon-humanthings。Thecoerciveutilisationofmanbymanisnotfelttobeanindustrialfunction；butalleffortdirectedtoenhancehumanlifebytakingadvantageofthenon-humanenvironmentisclassedtogetherasindustrialactivity。Bytheeconomistswhohavebestretainedandadaptedtheclassicaltradition，man’s“powerovernature“iscurrentlypostulatedasthecharacteristicfactofindustrialproductivity。Thisindustrialpowerovernatureistakentoincludeman’spoweroverthelifeofthebeastsandoveralltheelementalforces。Alineisinthiswaydrawnbetweenmankindandbrutecreation。