Chap。XIX
IntheIntroductionofMachinesintoManufacturesprejudicialtotheInterestofaState，orhurtfultoPopulation？
ThisIfindhasbeenmadeaquestioninmoderntimes。Theancientsheldingreatvenerationtheinventorsofthesaw，ofthelathe，ofthewimble，ofthepotter’swheel；butsomemodernsfindanabuseinbringingmechanismtoperfectionseeLesInteretsdelaFrancemalentendus，p。272。313。:thegreatMontesquieufindsfaultwithwatermills，thoughIdonotfindthathehasmadeanyobjectionagainsttheuseoftheplough。
Didpeopleunderstandoneanother，itwouldbeimpossiblethatsuchpointscouldsufferadisputeamongmenofsense；butthecircumstancesreferredto，orpresupposed，whichauthorsalwaysalmostkeepintheireye，thoughtheyseldomexpressthem，renderthemostevidenttruthssusceptibleofopposition。
Itishardlypossiblesuddenlytointroducethesmallestinnovationintothepoliticaloeconomyofastate，letitbeeversoreasonable，nayeversoprofitable，withoutincurringsomeinconveniences。Aroomcannotbesweptwithoutraisingdust，onecannotwalkabroadwithoutdirtyingone’sshoes；neithercanamachine，whichabridgesthelabourofmen，beintroducedallatonceintoanextensivemanufacture，withoutthrowingmanypeopleintoidleness。
Intreatingeveryquestionofpoliticaloeconomy，I
constantlysupposeastatesmanattheheadofgovernment，systematicallyconductingeverypartofit，soastopreventthevicissitudesofmanners，andinnovations，bytheirnaturalandimmediateeffectsorconsequences，fromhurtinganyinterestwithinthecommonwealth。Whenahousewithinacitybecomescrazy，itistakendown；thisIcallsystematicalruin:wereitallowedtofall，theconsequencesmightbefatalinmanyrespects。Inlikemanner，ifanumberofmachinesareallatonceintroducedintothemanufacturesofanindustriousnation，inconsequenceofthatfreedomwhichmustnecessarilybeindulgedtoallsortsofimprovement，andwithoutwhichastatecannotthrive，itbecomesthebusinessofthestatesmantointeresthimselfsofarintheconsequences，astoprovidearemedyfortheinconveniencesresultingfromthesuddenalteration。Itisfartherhisdutytomakeeveryexerciseevenoflibertyandrefinementanobjectofgovernmentandadministration；notsoastodiscourageortocheckthem，buttopreventtherevolutionfromaffectingtheinterestsofthedifferentclassesofthepeople，whosewelfareheisparticularlyboundtotakecareof。
Theintroductionofmachinescan，Ithink，innootherwayproveit:andIhavehurtfulbymakingpeopleidle，thanbythesuddennessoffrequentlyobserved，thatallsuddenrevolutions，letthembeeversoadvantageous，mustbeaccompaniedwithinconveniences。Asafe，honourable，andlastingpeace，afteralong，dangerous，andexpensivewar，forcesanumberofhandstobeidle，anddeprivesthemofbread。Peacethenmaybeconsideredasamachinefordefendinganation，atthepoliticallossofmakinganarmyidle；yetnobody，Ibelieve，willallegethat，inordertogivebreadtosoldiers，sutlers，andundertakers，thewarshouldbecontinued。ButhereImustobserve，thatitseemstobeapalpabledefectinpolicy，ifastatesmanshallneglecttofindoutaproperexpedientatwhateverfirstexpenceitmaybeprocuredforgivingbreadtothosewho，attheriskoftheirlives，havegonethroughsomanyfatiguesfortheserviceoftheircountry。Thisexpenceshouldbechargedtotheaccountofthewar，andastateoughttoconsider，thatastheirsafetyrequiredthatnumbersshouldbetakenoutofthewayofsecuringtothemselvesalastingfundofsubsistence，whichwouldhaverenderedthemindependentofeverybody，supposingthattohavebeenthecase，shebecomesboundbythecontractofsocietywhichtiesalltogether，tofindthememployment。Letmeseekforanotherillustrationconcerningthismatter。
Iwanttomakearampartcrossariver，inordertoestablishabridge，amill，asluice，&c。Forthispurpose，Imustturnoffthewater，thatis，stoptheriver:woulditbeagoodobjectionagainstmyimprovementtosay，thatthewaterwouldoverflowtheneighbouringlands？asifIcouldbesupposedsoimprovidentasnottohavepreparedanewchannelforit？Machinesstoptheriver；itisthebusinessofthestatetomakethenewchannel，asitisthepublicwhichistoreapthebenefitofthesluice。I
imaginewhatIhavesaidwillnaturallysuggestananswertoallpossibleobjectionsagainsttheintroductionofmachines；asfortheadvantagesofthem，theyaresopalpablethatIneednotinsistuponthem。Thereis，however，onecase，inwhichIthinktheymaybedisapprovedof；butitseemsachimericalsupposition，andisbroughtinherefornootherpurposethantopointoutandillustratetheprinciplewhichinfluencesthisbranchofoursubject。
Ifyoucanimagineacountrypeopledtotheutmostextentofthefertilityofthesoil，andabsolutelycutofffromanycommunicationwithothernations；alltheinhabitantsfullyemployedinsupplyingthewantsofoneanother，thecirculationofmoneygoingforwardregularly，proportionally，anduniformlythrougheveryvein，asImaycallit，ofthepoliticalbody；nosuddenorextraordinarydemandatanytimeforanybranchofindustry；noredundancyofanyemployment；nopossibilityofincreasingeithercirculation，industry，orconsumption。Insuchasituationasthis，Ishoulddisapproveoftheintroductionofmachines，asIdisapproveoftakingphysicinanestablishedstateofperfecthealth。Idisapproveofamachinefornootherreasonbutbecauseitisaninnovationinastateabsolutelyperfectinthesebranchesofitspoliticaloeconomy:andwherethereisperfectiontherecanbenoimprovement。Ifartherdisapproveofitbecauseitmightforceamantobeidle，whowouldbefoundtherebyinaphysicalimpossibilityofgettinghisbread，inanyotherwaythanthatinwhichheissupposedtobeactuallyemployed。
ThepresentsituationofeverycountryinEuropeissowidelydistantfromthisdegreeofperfection，thatImustconsidertheintroductionofmachines，andofeverymethodofaugmentingtheproduceorassistingthelabourandingenuityofman，asofthegreatestutility。Whydopeoplewishtoaugmentpopulation，butinordertocompasstheseends？Whereindoestheeffectofamachinedifferfromthatofnewinhabitants？
Asagriculture，exercisedasatrade，purgesthelandofidlemouths，andpushesthemtoanewindustrywhichthestatemayturntoherownadvantage；sodoesamachineintroducedintoamanufacture，purgeoffhandswhichthenbecomesuperfluousinthatbranch，andwhichmayquicklybeemployedinanother。
Ifthereforethemachineproveshurtful，itcanonlybebecauseitpresentsthestatewithanadditionalnumberofhandsbredtolabour；consequently，iftheseareafterwardsfoundwithoutbread，itmustproceedfromawantofattentioninthestatesman:foranindustriousman，madeidle，mayconstantlybeemployedtoadvantage，andwithprofittohimwhoemployshim。
Whatcouldanactofnaturalizationdomore，thantofurnishindustrioushands，forcedtobeidle，anddemandingemployment？
MachinesthereforeIconsiderasamethodofaugmentingvirtuallythenumberoftheindustrious，withouttheexpenceoffeedinganadditionalnumbers:thisbynomeansobstructsnaturalandusefulpopulation，forthemostobviousreasons。
Wehaveshewnhowpopulationmustgoon，inproportiontosubsistence，andinproportiontoindustry:nowthemachineeatsnothing，thereforedoesnotdiminishsubsistence；andindustryinourageatleastisinnodangerofbeingover-stockedinanywell-governedstate:forletalltheworldcopyyourimprovements，theystillwillbethescholars。Andif，onthecontrary，intheintroductionofmachinesyouarefoundtobethescholarsofothernations，inthatcaseyouarebroughttothedilemmaofacceptingtheinventionwithallitsinconveniences，orofrenouncingeveryforeigncommunication。
Inspeculationsofthiskind，oneoughtnot，Ithink，toconclude，thatexperiencemustofnecessityprovewhatweimagineourreasoninghaspointedout。
Theconsequencesofinnovationsinpoliticaloeconomy，admitofanfinitevariety，becauseoftheinfinitevarietyofcircumstanceswhichattendthem:noreasoning，therefore，howeverrefined，canpointoutapriori，whatuponsuchoccasionsmustindispensiblyfollow。Theexperimentmustbemade，circumstancesmustbeallowedtooperate；inconveniencesmustbepreventedorrectifiedasfaraspossible；andwhentheseprovetoomany，ortoogreattoberemoved，themostrational，thebestconcertedschemeintheorymustbelaidaside，untilpreparatorystepsbetakenforrenderingitpracticable。
Uponthewhole，dailyexperienceshewstheadvantageandimprovementacquiredbytheintroductionofmachines。Lettheinconveniencescomplainedofbeeversosensiblyfelt，letastatesmanbeeversocarelessinrelievingthosewhoareforcedtobeidle，alltheseinconveniencesareonlytemporary；theadvantageispermanent，andthenecessityofintroducingeverymethodofabridginglabourandexpence，inordertosupplythewantsofluxuriousmankind，isabsolutelyindispensable，accordingtomodernpolicy，accordingtoexperience，andaccordingtoreason。
Chap。XX
MiscellaneousObservationsuponAgricultureandPopulationIhavehithertoconsideredtheobjectofagriculture，asnomorethantheraisingofgrain；thefoodofmankindhasbeenestimatedbythequantitytheyconsumeofthisproduction；andhusbandmenhavebeensupposedtohavetheirresidenceinthecountry。Asmysubjecthasbutanindirectconnectionwiththescienceofagriculture，Ihavesimplifiedmanythingscomplexinthemselves，thebettertoadaptthemtotheprincipalobjectofmyinquiry，andthebettertokeepmyattentionfixedupononeideaatatime。Iamnowgoingtoreturntosomepartsofmysubject，whichIthinkIhavetreatedtoosuperficially；andtoexamine，asIgoalong，somemiscellaneousquestionswhichwillnaturallyarisefromwhatistobesaid。
QUEST。I。Everyonealmostwhohaswrittenuponpopulation，anduponagriculture，consideredasanessentialconcomitantofit，hasrecommendedtheequaldistributionofthepropertyoflandsasusefultoboth……afewreflectionsuponthisquestion，afterwhathasbeenthrownoutinthecourseoftheforegoingchapters，maynotbeimproper；moreinordertoexamineandapplytheprincipleslaiddown，thanwithaviewtocombattheopinionofothers。
Ihavealready，uponseveraloccasions，takennoticeofthegreatdifferencebetweenthepoliticaloeconomyoftheancients，andthatofmoderntimes；forthisreason，amongothers，thatI
perceivethatthesentimentsoftheancients，whichwerefoundeduponreasonandcommonsense，relativetotheirsituation，havebeenadoptedbysomemoderns，whohavenotperhapssufficientlyattendedtothechangeofourmanners，andtotheeffectswhichthischangemustoperateuponeverythingrelativetoouroeconomy。Theancientsrecommendedstronglyanequaldistributionoflandsasthebestsecurityforliberty，andthebestmethod，notonlytopreserveanequalityamongthecitizens，butalsotoincreasetheirnumber。
Inthosedays，thecitizensdidnotcomposeonehalf，perhapsnotonefourth，ofthestaterelativelytonumbers；andtherewasnosuchthingalmostasanestablishedmoneyedinterest，whichcannowherebefoundedbutupontrade，andanextensiveindustry。
Inthosedaystherewasnosolidincome，butinland:andthisbeingequallydividedamongthecitizens，wasfavourabletotheirmultiplicationandproducedequality。Butinourdays，richesdonotconsistinlandsonly；naywesometimesfindthemostconsiderableproprietorsoftheseinveryindifferentcircumstances；loadedwithdebts，anddependingupontheindulgenceofmenwhohavenotanacre，andwhoaretheircreditors。Letusthereforedivideourlandsasweplease，weshallneverproduceequalitybyit。This，withrespecttoonepoint，isanessentialdifferencebetweenusandtheancients。
Nowastotheother；towit，population。
Theequaldivisionoflandstendsgreatly，nodoubt，toincreasethenumbersofoneclassofinhabitants，towit，thelandlords。Inancienttimes，ashasbeenobserved，thechiefattentionwastoincreasethecitizens，thatis，thehigherclassesofthestate；andtheequaldivisionofpropertysoeffectuallyproducedthiseffect，thatsomeGreekstateswereobligedtoallowtheexpositionofchildren；andAristotlelookeduponitasathingindispensablynecessary，asM。deMontesquieuhasveryjudiciouslyobserved。Themultiplicationofthelowestclasses，thatis，oftheslaves，neverenteredintotheconsiderationofthepublic，butremainedpurelyamatterofprivateconcern；andwefinditwasaquestionwithsome，whetherornotitwasworthwhiletobreedfromthematall。Butinourdaystheprincipalobjectistosupportthelowerclassesfromtheirownmultiplication；andforthispurpose，anunequaldivisionofpropertyseemstomethemorefavourablescheme；
becausethewealthoftherichamongus，fallsnaturallyintothepocketsofourindustriouspoor；whereastheproduceofaverymiddlingfortunedoeslittlemorethanfeedthechildrenoftheproprietor，whoincoursebecomeverycommonlyandverynaturallyanuselessburthenupontheland。Letmeapplythistoanexample。Dowenotfamiliarlyobserve，thattheconsolidationofsmallestates，andthediminutionofgentlemen’sfamiliesofmiddlingfortune，dolittleharmtoamodernstate。Therearealwaysabundanceofthisclassofinhabitantstobefoundwheneverthereisoccasionforthem。Whenagreatmanbuysupthelandsoftheneighbouringgentry，orsmallproprietors，allthecomplaintswhichareheard，turnuponthedistresswhichthenceresultstothelowerclasses，fromthelossoftheirmastersandprotectors；butneveronewordisheardofthatmadebythestate，fromtheextinctionoftheformerproprietor’sfamily。
Thisabundantlyshewsthattheobjectofmodernattentionisthemultiplicationofthelowerclasses；consequentlyitmustbeaninconsistencytoadoptthepracticeoftheancients，whenouroeconomyisentirelyoppositetotheirs。
QUEST。II。Letthissufficetopointouthowfarthedifferenceofourmannersshouldinfluencethedivisionofourlands。Ishallnowexamineaquestionrelativetothescienceofagriculture，notconsideredasamethodofimprovingthesoil，thiswillcomeinmorenaturallyafterwards，butofmakingitproducetothebestadvantage，supposingittobealreadyimproved。
Intreatingoftheproductionsoftheearth，inconsequenceofagriculture，Ihaveallalongdistinguishedthemfromthosewhichspontaneouslyproceedfromtheforceofnature:thesearetheimmediategiftofGod，thosearethereturnofthelabourofhiscreatures。Everyoneknowsthatthelabourofmankindisnotinproportiontotheirnumbers，buttotheirindustry。Theproducethereforeofagriculturemustbeestimated，notaccordingtothequantityoffruitsonly，butalsoaccordingtothelabouremployedtoproducethem。Thesethingspremised，thequestionhereproposedtobeexaminedarises，viz。Whichspeciesofagricultureisthemostadvantageoustoamodernsociety，thatwhichproducesthegreatestquantityoffruitsabsolutelytaken，orthatwhichproducesthegreatestquantityrelativelytaken，I
meantothelabouremployed？
Thisquestionmighteasilyberesolved，ingeneral，bytheapplicationofprinciplesalreadydeduced；althoughitcannotadmitofadirectanswer，inthemannerIhaveputit。One，therefore，maysayindeterminately，thatspeciesisthebestwhichproducesasurplusthebestproportionedtotheindustry，andtothedemandsofallthefreehandsofthestate。ButasthissolutionwouldnotleadmetotheobjectIhaveinview，I
havethrowninanalternativeinordertogainattentiontotheprincipleswhichIamgoingtoexamine，andwhichinfluenceanddeterminetheestablishmentoftheoneortheotherspeciesofagriculture。
TheprincipaldifficultyIfindintheexaminationofthisquestion，istodistinguishtheeffectsofagriculturefromthoseofthisspontaneousproductionoftheearth。Thereturnsfrompasture，forexample，relativelytaken，are，aswehaveobserved，bothfromreasonandfromexperience，fargreaterthanthoseofcornfields，vid。supra，chap。8。thoughIlittledoubtbutthat，absolutelytaken，thecaseisquiteotherwise；thatistosay，thatanacreofthefinestcorn-landwillproducemorenourishmentforman，thananequalportionofthefinestpasture:
butherewearefollowingtheproportionofspaceandproduce，notoflabour；foriftheproduceofbothacresbeconsideredrelativelytothelabournecessaryforthecultivation，aswellastotheextent，theproduceofpasturewillbefoundfargreater，thishoweverIascribetothespontaneousoperationofnature，andnottothesuperiorutilityofthiskindofagriculture。
Sincethereforeitisimpossiblerightlytoseparatetheeffectsofnaturefromthoseofartandindustry，inthisspeciesofimprovement，letusconfineourspeculationstothoseonlywhichhavefortheirobjecttheturningupthesurface，andthesowingorcultivatingannualvegetables。Forthebetterconveyingourideas，letustakeanexample，andreasonfromasupposition。
Letmesupposeanislandofasmallextentandfruitfulsoil，suffIcientlyimproved，andcultivatedafterthemannerofthebestlandsofEngland，intheordinarymethodoffarming。
Inthiscasewemayinfer，fromwhatwaslaiddowninthe8thchapter，thatthenumberofpeopleemployedaboutfarmingmaybenearlyaboutonehalfofthewholesociety。Letthewholeinhabitantsoftheislandbecalled1000，thatis500farmers，andasmanyfreehands。The500farmersmustthenfeed1000；the500freehandsmustprovideforalltheotherwantsof1000。Bythissupposition，andallowingthatthereisanequaldegreeofindustryinthesetwoclasses，theprovidingoffoodwillappeartobeanoccupationjustequaltothatofprovidingforallotherwants。
Oneofthesocietyproposestoaugmentthenumberofinhabitantsbyintroducingamoreoperosespeciesofagriculture，theproduceofwhichmaybeabsolutelygreater，thoughrelativelyless。
Thefirstquestionthestatesmanwouldnaturallyputtothisreformerwouldbe:Whatisyourviewinincreasingthenumberofourinhabitants；isittodefendusagainstourenemies；isittosupplythewantsofstrangers，andtherebytoenrichourselves；
isittosupplyourownwantswithmoreabundance；orisittoprovideusmoreabundantlywithfood？Icanhardlyfindoutanyotherrationalviewinwishingforanadditionalnumberofpeopleinanycountrywhatsoever。Letitbeanswered，thatalltheseendsmaybetherebyobtained:andnowletusexaminehowfarthisreformationuponagriculturewillhavetheeffectofincreasinginhabitants，howfarsuchincreasewillprocuretheendsproposed，andhowfartheexecutionofsuchaplanisapracticableschemetoanindustriouspeople。
Iftheinhabitantsbenotsufficientlyfed，whichistheonlythingthatcanpreventtheirmultiplication，itmustproceedfromoneoftwocauses。Eitherfirst，thatthosedoprocreatewhocannotproduceanequivalentforthefoodoftheirchildren；orsecondly，thatindustrymakingaquickerprogressthanagriculture，theindustriouscometoostronglyincompetitionwithoneanother，forthesurplusoffoodtobefound；whichhastheeffectofraisingthepricesofit，andreducingtheportionstoolowtosufferadivision；andtherebyofpreventingmarriageandmultiplicationinthelowerclassesofthefreehands。
Inthefirstcase，itistonopurposetoincreasetheproduceofagriculture，byrenderingitmoreexpensive；forthosewhohavenoequivalenttogivewhenfoodischeap，willstillbeingreaternecessitywhenitrisesintheprice。Inthesecondcase，itishurtfultodiminishthesurplusofthefarmers，becausethesuppositionprovesthatthebalanceisalreadytooheavyuponthesideofthefreehands，thatis，thatthesurplusofthefarmersisalreadybecomeinsufficientfullytofeedthem。
Tworemediesmaybeproposedforthisinconvenience，theonetendingtopopulation，theothertodepopulation；andastheendtobecompassedistosetthebalanceevenbetweenhusbandmenandfreehands，Ishallexplainboth，andpointouthowfarfromprinciplesitappears，thatineitherwaytheendmaybeattained。
Thefirsttendingtoincreasepopulationistheremedyproposed，and，nodoubt，wereitpossibletointroduceanewsystemofagricultureofalargerabsoluteproduction，althoughtherelativeproductionshouldbeless，theinhabitantsofthestate，becomingtherebybetterfed，thoughatagreatercost，wouldinfalliblymultiply。LetmethereforeexaminethisfirstpartbeforeIsayanythingoftheother；andforthegreaterdistinctnessIshallreturntomyexample，andexamineboththeconsequencesandthepossibilityofputtingsuchaplaninexecution。
Letmesuppose，thatbyusingthespadeandrake，insteadoftheploughandharrow，thelandsofourislandmightbebroughttoproducewithmoreabundance；thisisamethodofincreasingtheexpenceofagriculture，whichwouldrequireanadditionalnumberofhusbandmen。
Now，bythesupposition，500farmersfed，thoughscantily，thewholeoftheinhabitants，thatis1000persons。Iftherefore100ofthefreehandscanbeengagedtobecomefarmers，theendmaybeattained:morenourishmentwillbeproduced；thepeoplewillbebetterfed；theywillmultiply。thatis，theirnumberwillriseabove1000。Letusnextendeavourtoformajudgmentofthisincrease，andoftheconsequenceoftherevolution。
Thesocietywillnowbecomposedof600farmersand400freehands。The600willcertainlyproducemorefruitsthanformerly；
butastheirlabourisrelativelylessproductivebythesupposition，itwillbeimpossibleforthemtofurnishasurplusequaltotheirownconsumption；consequently，thefreehandsneverwillbeabletorisetoanumberequaltotheirs；thatis，thesocietywillnevergetupto1200。Butwesupposed，thattheotherwantsofthesocietyrequiredtheindustryofonehalfoftheinhabitantstosupplythem；thatis，ofallthe500freehands；and，asthenumberofthesehasbeenalreadyreduced，andcannevermorerisetotheformerproportion，ashasbeensaid，mustnoteitherthepeoplevoluntarilyadoptamoresimplewayofliving；ormustnotthedemandforworkriseveryconsiderably？
Letmeconsidertheconsequencesinbothcases。Inthefirst，youperceive，thatiftheinhabitantsthemselvesareobligedtosimplifytheirwayofliving，forwantofhandstosupplywhattheyformerlyconsumed，threeofthefourobjectsproposedbythereformationbecomeimpossibletobeattained；towit，thedefendingthemselvesagainsttheirenemies，thesupplyingthewantsofstrangers，andthesupplyingtheirownwithmoreabundance。Andwithregardtothefourth，thebeingbetterfed，thismustceasetobethecase，themomenttheendisobtained；
thatis，themomenttheinhabitantsaremultiplieduptotheproportionofadditionalfood。Consequently，bysimplifyingtheirwayoflife，andallowingfarmingtostanduponthenewfooting，theycompassnotanyoneoftheendstheyproposed。
Next，ifwesuppose，thattheinhabitantsdonotinclinetosimplifytheirwayoflife，butthatthewealthyamongtheminsistuponpurchasingalltheinstrumentsofluxurywhichtheyformerlywereusedtoenjoy，mustnotdemandforworkgreatlyrise，andmustnot，ofconsequence，anadditionalencouragementbegiventothatspeciesoflabourwhichhadbeendiminished，intaking100personsfromindustry，tothrowthemintotheclassoffarmers？Willnotthismakethemquicklydeserttheirspade，andtherather，astheyhavetakentoanemploymentlesslucrativethanthatoffarming，accordingtotheformersystem？
Somuchfortheconsequenceswhichwouldfollow，incasetheplanproposedwasfoundpracticable；thatis，supposingittobeathingpossibletotransportintoagricultureapartofanindustrioussociety，alreadyotherwiseemployed，andtochangeallatoncetherelativeproportionbetweenthosewhosupplyfood，andthosewhopurchaseitwiththeirindustry。Wehavebegun，bytakingthisfirststepforgranted；andnowIamtoshewwhatobstacleswillbefoundintheexecution。
Wehavesaid，thatitisthemultiplicityandcomplexityofwantswhichgiveanencouragementtoagriculture，andnotagriculture，oranabundanceoffood，whichinspiresmankindwithadispositiontolabour。Now，ifthisprinciplebetrue，thesuppositionwehaveproceededuponisabsurd。Iamafraid，bothreasonandexperiencewillabundantlyprovethatitisso。
Thenaturalandnecessaryeffectofindustry，intradesandmanufactures，istopromotetheincreaseofrelativehusbandry；
whichbyaugmentingthesurplus，tendsofcoursetoincreasetheproportionofthefreehandsrelativelytothefarmers。Arivermayaseasilyascendtoitssource，asapeoplevoluntarilyadoptamoreoperoseagriculturethanthatalreadyestablished，supposingthelandstobefullyimproved，thespiritofindustrytoprevailononehand，andthefarmerstohaveprofitonlyinviewontheother。
Whatfarmercouldsellthesurplusofanexpensiveagricultureincompetitionwithanotherwhoexercisedaspeciesrelativelymoreproductive？
Whenlandsareimproved，thesimplificationofagricultureisanecessaryconcomitantofindustry，becausediminishingexpenceistheonlymethodofgainingapreferenceatmarket。
QUEST。III。Whenindustryissetonfoot，itgivesencouragementtoagricultureexercisedasatrade:andbytheallurementsofease，whichalargesurplusprocurestothefarmers，itdoeshurttothatspecieswhichisexercisedasamethodofsubsistence。Landsbecomemoregenerally，andlessthoroughlylaboured。Insomecountries，tillageissetonfootandencouraged；thisisanoperoseagriculture。Whileindustrygoesforward，andwhileapeoplecanremainsatisfiedwithanourishmentconsistingchieflyofbread，thissystemofagriculturewillsubsist，andwillcarrynumbersveryhigh。Ifwealthincreases，andifthosewhohaveitbegintodemandamuchgreaterproportionofworkthanformerly，whiletheyconsumenomorefood，thenIbelievenumbersmaydiminishfromtheprinciplesIamnowgoinginquestof。
Ireturntothecounciloftheislandwherethepropositionlaiddownuponthecarpetis，Thescantysubsistenceoftheinhabitantsrequiresredress。
AMachiavelianstandsupofsuchtherearesomeineverycountryandproposes，insteadofmultiplyingtheinhabitants，byrenderingagriculturemoreoperose，todiminishtheirnumber，bythrowingaquantityofcorn-fieldsintograss。Whatistheintentionofagriculture，sayshe，buttonourishastate？Byouroperosemethodofplowingandsowing，onehalfofthewholeproduceisconsumedbythosewhoraiseit；whereasbyhavingagreatpartofourislandinpasture，onehalfofthehusbandmenmaybesaved。Praywhatdoyouproposetodowiththosewhomyouintendtomakeidle？repliesacitizen。Letthembetakethemselvestoindustry。Butindustryissufficiently，naymorethansufficiently，stockedalready。If，saysMachiavel，thesupernumeraryhusbandmenbethrownoutofawayofliving，theymaygowheretheyplease；wehavenooccasionforthem，norforanyonewholivestofeedhimselfalone。Butyoudiminishthenumberofyourpeople，repliesthecitizen，andconsequentlyyourstrength；andifafterwardsyoucometobeattackedbyyourenemies，youwillwishtohavethosebackagainforyourdefence，whominyoursecurityyoudespised。Tothistheothermakesanswer:thereyoutrusttotheEgyptianreed。Iftheybenecessaryforfeedingusatpresent，howshallwebeabletolivewhileweemploythemassoldiers？Wemaylivewithoutmanythings，butnotwithoutthelabourofourhusbandmen。Whetherwehaveourgroundsintillageorinpasture，ifthisclassberightlyproportionedtothelabourrequired，wenevercantakeanyfromit。Inthosecountrieswhereweseeprinceshaverecoursetothelandtorecruittheirarmies，wemaysafelyconclude，thattherethelandisoverstocked；andthatindustryhasnotasyetbeenabletopurgeoffallthesuperfluousmouths:
butwithusthecaseisdifferent，whereagricultureisjustlyproportionedtothenumberofhusbandmen。IfIproposeareform，itistoaugmentonlythesurplus，uponwhichallthestate，exceptthehusbandmen，arefed；ifthesurplus，afterthereform，isgreaterthanatpresent，theplanisgood，although250ofourfarmersshouldtherebybeforcedtostarveforhunger。
Thoughnomanis，Ibelieve，capabletoreasoninsoinhumanastyle，andthoughtherevolutionhereproposedbeanimpossiblesupposition，ifmeanttobeexecutedallatonce，thesameeffectshowevermustbeproduced，ineverycountrywhereweseecorn-fieldsbydegreesturnedintopasture:thechangeisgradualonly，industryisnotoverstockedanywhere，andsubsistencemaybedrawnfromothercountries，wheretheoperosespeciesofagriculturecanbecarriedonwithprofit。
Imustnowtouchagainuponanotherpartofmysubject，whichIthinkhasbeentreatedtoosuperficially。
InaformerchapterIhaveshewnhowindustryhasthenaturaleffectofcollectingintotownsandcitiesthefreehandsofastate，leavingthefarmersintheirfarmsandvillages。Thisdistributionservedthepurposeofexplainingcertainprinciples；
butwhenexaminedrelativelytoothercircumstanceswhichatthattimeIhadnotinmyeye，itwillbefoundbyfartoogeneral。
Letmethereforeaddsomefartherobservationsuponthismatter。
Theextensiveagricultureofplowingandsowing，istheproperemploymentofthecountry，andisthefoundationofpopulationineverynationfeduponitsownproduce。Citiesarecommonlysurroundedbykitchen-gardens，andrichgrass-fields；
thesearetheproperobjectsofagricultureforthosewholiveinsuburbs，orwhoareshutupwithinthewallsofsmalltowns。Thegardensproducevariouskindsofnourishment，whichcannoteasilybebroughtfromadistance，inthatfreshandluxuriantstatewhichpleasestheeye，andconducestohealth。Theyofferacontinualoccupationtoman，andverylittleforcattle；
thereforeareproperlysituatedintheproximityoftownsandcities。Thegrassfieldsagainarecommonlyeithergrazedbycows，fortheproductionofmilk，butter，cream，&c。whichsufferbylongcarriage；orkeptinpastureforpreservingfattedanimalsingoodorderuntilthemarketsdemandthem；ortheyarecutingrassforthecattleofthecity。Theymayalsobeturnedintohaywithprofit；becausethecarriageofabulkycommodityfromagreatdistanceissometimestooexpensive。Thuswecommonlyfindagriculturedisposedinthefollowingmanner。Inthecenterstandsthecity，surroundedbykitchen-gardens；beyondtheseliesabeltoffineluxuriantpastureorhay-fields；
stretchbeyondthis，andyoufindthebeginningofwhatIcalloperosefarming，plowingandsowing；beyondthisliegrazingfarmsforthefatteningofcattle；andlastofallcomethemountainousandlargeextentsofunimprovedorillimprovedgrounds，whereanimalsarebred。Thisseemsthenaturaldistribution，andsuchIhavefounditalmosteverywhereestablished，whenparticularcircumstancesdonotinverttheorder。
ThepoornessofthesoilnearParis，forexample，presentsyouwithfieldsofrye-cornattheverygates，andwiththemostextensivekitchen-gardensandorchards，evenforcherriesandpeaches，ataconsiderabledistancefromtown。OthercitiesI
havefound，andIcancitetheexampleofthiswhichIatpresentinhabitPadoua，wherenokitchen-gardenistobefoundnearit，buteveryspotiscoveredwiththerichestgrain；twothirdswithwheat，andtheremainingthirdwithIndiancorn。Thereasonofthisispalpable。Thetownisofavastextent，inproportiontotheinhabitants；thegardensareallwithinthewalls，andthedungofthecityenablesthecorn-fieldstoproduceconstantly。
Hayisbroughtfromagreaterdistance，becausetheexpenceofdistributingthedungoveradistantfield，wouldbegreaterthanthatoftransportingthehaybywater-carriage。Thefarm-houseshereappearnolargerthanhuts，astheyreallyare，builtbythefarmers，becausethespacetobelabouredisverysmall，inproportiontotheproduce；henceitis，thatafarmerherepaysthevalueofthefullhalfofthecroptothelandlord，andoutoftheremaininghalf，notonlysowsthegroundandbuysthedung，butfurnishesthecattleandlabouringinstruments，nayevenrebuildshishouse，whenoccasionrequires。
WhenfirstIexaminedthesefertileplains，Ibegantolamenttheprodigalconsumptionofsuchvaluablelands，inamultitudeofverybroadhighways，issuingtoallquarters；manyofwhichI
thoughtmightbesaved，inconsiderationofthevastadvantageaccruinguponsuchoeconomy。butuponfartherrejectionI
perceived，thatthelosswasinconsiderable；forthefertilityofthesoilproceedingchieflyfromthemanurelaiduponit，thelosssustainedfromtheroadsoughttobecomputedatnomorethanthevalueofthelandwhenuncultivated。Thecasewouldbeverydifferent，wereroadsnowtobechanged，ornewonescarriedthroughthecorn-fields；thelossthenwouldbeconsiderable，thougheventhiswouldbetemporary，andaffectparticularpersonsonly；forthesamedung，whichnowsupportstheselandsintheirfertility，wouldquicklyfertilizeothersintheirplace，andinafewyearsmatterswouldstandasatpresent。
TheselastreflectionsnaturallyleadmetoexamineaquestionwhichhasbeentreatedbyaverypoliteFrenchwriter，theauthorofl’Amidel’Homme，andwhichcomesinherenaturallyenough，beforeIputanendtothisfirstbook。Hereitis。
QUEST。IV。Doesanunnecessaryconsumptionoftheearth’sproductions，eitherinfood，clothing，orotherwants；andaprodigalemploymentoffinerichfields，ingardens，avenues，greatroads，andotheruseswhichgivesmallreturns，hurtpopulation，byrenderingfoodandnecessarieslessabundant，inakingdomsuchasFrance，initspresentsituation？
Myansweris，That，wereFrancefullycultivatedandpeopled，theintroductionofsuperfluousconsumptionwouldbeanabuse，andwoulddiminishthenumberofinhabitants；asthecontraryisthecase，itprovesanadvantage。IshallnowgivemyreasonsfordifferinginopinionfromthegentlemanwhoseperformanceIhavecited。
Asthequestionisput，youperceivetheendtobecompassedis，torenderfoodandnecessariesabundant；becausetheabuseisconsideredinnootherlight，thanrelativelytotheparticulareffectofdiminishingtheproperquantityofsubsistence，whichthekingwouldinclinetopreserve，forthenourishmentandusesofhispeople。Ishallconfinemyselfthereforechieflytothisobject，andifIshew，thatthesesuperfluousemploymentsofthesurfaceoftheearth，andprodigalconsumptionsofherfruits，arereallynoharm，butanencouragementtotheimprovementofthelandsofFranceinherpresentstate，Ishallconsiderthequestionassufficientlyresolved:becauseiftheabuse，asitiscalled，provefavourabletoagriculture，itcanneverprovehurtfultopopulation；however，fromtheinattentionofgovernment，itmayaffectforeigntrade:Thisisanobjectentirelyforeigntothepresentquestion。ButbeforeIenteruponthesubject，itispropertoobserve，thatIamofopinion，thatanysystemofoeconomywhichnecessarilytendstocorruptthemannersofapeople，oughtbyeverypossiblemeanstobediscouraged，althoughnoparticularprejudiceshouldresultfromit，eithertopopulation，ortoplentifulsubsistence。
Nowinthequestionbeforeus，theonlyabuseIcanfindinthesehabitsofextraordinaryconsumption，appearstoberelativetothecharacteroftheconsumers，andseemsinnowaytoproceedfromtheeffectsoftheconsumption。Thevicesofmenmaynodoubtprovethecauseoftheirmakingasuperfluousconsumption；
buttheconsumptiontheymakecanhardlyeverbethecauseofthisvice。ThemostvirtuousmaninFrancemayhavethemostsplendidtable，therichestclothes，themostmagnificentequipages，thegreatestnumberofuselesshorses，themostpompouspalace，andmostextensivegardens。Themostenormousluxurytobeconceived，inouracceptationofthisterm，solongasitisdirectedtonootherobjectthantheconsumptionofthelabourandingenuityofman，iscompatiblewithvirtueaswellaswithvice。Thisbeingpremised，Icometothepointinhand。
France，atpresent，isinherinfancyastoimprovement，althoughtheadvancesshehasmadewithinacenturyexcitetheadmirationoftheworld。Ishallnotgofarinsearchoftheproofofthisassertion。Greattractsofherlandsarestilluncultivated，millionsofherinhabitantsareidle。Whenallcomestobecultivated，andallareemployed，thenshewillbeinastateofperfection，relativelytothemoralpossibilityofbeingimproved。Thepeoplearefree，slaveryisunknown，andeverymanischargedwithfeedinghimself，andbringinguphischildren。Theportsofthecountryareopentoreceivesubsistence，andthisnation，asmuchasanyother，maybeconsideredasanindividualinthegreatsocietyoftheworld；
thatis，mayincreaseinpower，wealth，andease，relativelytoothers，inproportiontotheindustryofherinhabitants。Thisbeingthecase，alltheprinciplesofpoliticaloeconomy，whichwehavebeeninquiringafter，mayfreelyoperateinthiskingdom。
Francehasarrivedatherpresentpitchofluxury，relativelytoconsumption，byslowdegrees。Asshehasgrowninwealth，herdesireofemployingithasgrownalso。Inproportionasherdemandshaveincreased，morehandshavebeenemployedtosupplythem；fornoarticleofexpencecanbeincreased，withoutincreasingtheworkofthosewhosupplyit。IfthesamenumberofinhabitantsinthecityofParisconsumefourtimesasmuchofanynecessaryarticleasformerly，Ihopeitwillbeallowed，thattheproductionofsuchnecessariesmustbefourtimesasabundant，andconsequently，thatmanymorepeoplemustbeemployedinprovidingthem。
Whatisitthatencouragesagriculture，butagreatdemandforitsproductions？Whatencouragesmultiplication，butagreatdemandforpeople；thatis，fortheirwork？WouldanyonecomplainoftheextravagantpeopleinParis，if，insteadofconsumingthosevastsuperfluities，theyweretosendthemovertoDover，forareturninEnglishgold？Whereisthedifferencebetweentheprodigalconsumptionandthesale？Theonebringsinmoney，theotherbringsinnone:butastofoodandnecessaries，forprovidingthepoorandfrugal，theircontingent，ineithercase，standsexactlythesame。
But，saysone，wereitnotforthisextraordinaryconsumption，everythingwouldbecheaper。ThisIreadilyallow；
butwillanybodysay，thatreducingthepriceoftheearth’sproductionsisamethodtoencourageagriculture；especiallyinacountrywheregroundsarenotimproved，andwheretheycannotbeimproved；chiefly，becausetheexpencesurpassesalltheprofitswhichpossiblycanbedrawnfromthereturns？Highpricestherefore，theeffectofgreatconsumption，arecertainlyadvantageoustotheextensionofagriculture。IfIthrowmyrichcornfieldsintogravel-walksandgardens，theywillnomore，I
suppose，comeintocompetitionwiththoseofmyneighbour，thelaborioushusbandman。Whowillthenlosebymyextravagance？Notthehusbandman。Itwillperhapsbesaid，thenationingeneralwilllose；becauseyoudeprivethemoftheirfood。Thismightbetrue，werethelayingwastethecornfieldsasuddenrevolution，andextensiveenoughtoaffectthewholesocietyandwerethesea-portsandbarriersofthekingdomshut:butthatnotbeingthecase，thenation，uponthesmallestdeficiency，goestomarketwithhermoney，andlosesnoneofherinhabitants。
Obj。Butiflivingismadedear，manufacturersmuststarve，forwantofemployment。
Answ。Notthosewhosupplyhomeconsumption，butthoseonlywhosupplyforeignerslivingmorecheaply；andofsuchIknowbutfew。Theinterestofthisclassshallbefullyexaminedinanotherplace。AtpresentIshallonlyobserve，thatthelayingwastecorn-fieldsinanindustriouscountry，whererefinementhassetonfootaplanofusefulhusbandry，willhavenoothereffect，thanthatofrenderinggrainforawhileproportionallydearer:consequently，agriculturewillbetherebyencouraged；andinafewyearsthelosswillberepaired，byafartherextensionofimprovement。Thiswillmakefoodplentifulandcheap:thennumberswillincrease，untilitbecomescarceagain。Itisbysuchalternativevicissitudes，thatimprovementandpopulationarecarriedtotheirheight。Whiletheimprovementoflandsgoesforward，Imustconclude，thatdemandforsubsistenceisincreasing；andifthisbenotaproofofpopulation，Iammuchmistaken。
Icanveryeasilysuppose，thatademandforworkmayincreaseconsiderably，inconsequenceofanaugmentationofrichesonlybecausetherearenoboundstotheconsumptionofwork；butasforarticlesofnourishment，thecaseisquitedifferent。ThemostdelicateliverinPariswillnotputmoreoftheearth’sproductionsintohisbelly，thananother:hemaypickandchoose，buthewillalwaysfind，thatwhatheleaveswillgotofeedanother:victualsarenotthrownawayinanycountryI
haveeverbeenin。Itisnotinthemostexpensivekitchenswherethereisfoundthemostprodigaldissipationoftheabundantfruitsoftheearth；anditiswithsuchthatapeopleisfed，notwithortolans，truffles，andoysters，sentfromMarenne。
Fromwhathasbeensaid，Imustconclude，thatwhiletheconsumptionoftheearth’sproduce，andoftheworkofmantendstoexciteindustry，inprovidingforextraordinarydemands；whentheinterestofforeigntradedoesnotenterintothequestion；
andwhiletherearelandsenoughremainingunimproved，tofurnishthefirstmatter，namely，subsistence，flax，wool，silk，timber，etc。therecanbenopoliticalabusefromthemisapplicationorunnecessarydestructionofeitherfruitsorlabour。Themisapplier，ordissipator，ispunishedbythelossofhismoney；
theindustriousmanisrewardedbytheacquisitionofit。Wehavesaid，thatviceisnotmoreessentiallyconnectedwithsuperfluity，thanvirtuewithindustryandfrugality。Butsuchquestionsareforeigntomysubject。Iwouldhoweverrecommendittomoralists，tostudycircumstanceswell，beforetheycarryapretendedreformationsofar，astointerruptanestablishedsysteminthepoliticaloeconomyoftheircountry。
NOTES:
1。Althoughincommonlanguagewecallmimstersofstate，andevensuchasareeminentfortheirknowledgeinstateaffairs，bythenameofstatesmen，thereaderishereadvertisedtoattendcarefullytothedefinitionofthiswordinthetext，becausethetermstatesmanisuniformlytakeninthesameacceptationthroughthiswholework。
2。ByRoderigo，thelastkingoftheGothicline。
3。GivenbyanAustrianofficertoaGenoese，whichoccasionedtherevoltin1747bywhichtheGermanswereexpelledthecity。
4。Asmysubjectisdifferentfromthedoctrineofmorals，Ihavenooccasiontoconsiderthetermluxuryinanyotherthanapoliticalsense，towit，asaprinciplewhichproducesemployment，andgivesbreadtothosewhosupplythedemandsoftherich。ForthisreasonIhavechosentheabovedefinitionofit，whichconveysnoidea，eitherofabuse，sensuality，orexcess；nordoI，atpresent，evenconsiderthehurtfulconsequencesofitastoforeigntrade。Principlesherearetreatedofwithregardtomankindingeneral，andtheeffectsofluxuryareonlyconsideredrelativelytomultiplicationandagriculture。Ourreasoningwilltakeadifferentturn，whenwecometoexaminetheseparateinterestofnations，andtheprinciplesoftrade。
5。Ibeg，therefore，thatatpresentmyreasoningmaybecarriednofartherfrominductionsandsuppositionsthanmyintentionisthatitshouldbe。Iamnopatron，eitherofvice，profusion，orthedissipationofprivatefortunes；althoghImaynowandthenreasonverycoollyuponthepoliticalconsequencesofsuchdiseasesinastate，whenIconsideronlytheinfluencetheyhaveastofeedingandmultiplyingapeople。Mysubjectistooextensiveofitselftoadmitofbeingconfoudedwiththedoctrineeitherofmorals，orofgovernment，howevercloselythesemayappearconnectedwithit；anddidInotbeginbysimplifyingideasasnucaspossible，andbybanishingcombinationsofthem，Ishouldquicklylosemyway，andinvolvemyselfinperplexitiesinextricable。
6。Everytransitionofmoneyfromhandtohand，foravaluableconsideration，impliessomeservicedone，somethingwroughtbyman，orperformedbyhisingenity，orsomeconsumptionofsomethingproducedbyhislabour。Thequickerthereforethecirculationofmoneyisinanycountry，thenorestronglyitmaybeinferred，thattheinhabitatsarelaborious；andviceversa:
butofthismorehereafter。
7。Hencewemayconclude，thatinthosecountrieswherethepeopleliveuponthespontaneousfruits，thewholesocietyconsideredinapoliticallightisfoundcomposedoffreehands。Naturetheresuppliestheplaceofthewholeclassoffarmers。
Wehavesaidthatindustryandmanufacturesaretheoccupationofthefreehandsofastate；consequently，wheretheproportionofthemisthelargest，industryshouldflourishtothegreatestadvantage；thatistosay，incountrieswheretheinhabitantsliveuponthespontaneousfruits:butthisisnotthecase。Why？Becausethereisanothercircumstanceofequalweightwhichpreventsit。Thesepeopleareunacquaintedwithwant，andwantisthespurtoindustry。Letthissuffice，ingeneral，astothedistributionofinhabitantsincountriesunacquaintedwithlabour。
8。Thisquestionisnowwiththegreatestprecisionresolvedbythepublisherofapamphletintitled，ThreeTractsontheCornTradeandCornLaws，withaSupplement；Lond。1766。SecondEdit。
C。Smith。
Wehavethere，authenticaccountsofallthegrainexportedfromEngland，orimportedintoitfromabroad，from1697to1765，fromwhichitappearsp。III。thatthegreatestquantityofallsortsofgraineverexported，viz。ofwheat，barley，oats，oatmeal，andrye，wasintheyear1750，andamountedto1，606，688
Englishquarters；andp。144。wehaveaningeniouscomputationofthegrowth，consumption，export，andimportofthesegrains，uponaveragestakenfromthe68yearsabovementioned；wheretheordinaryormeanconsumptionofEnglandisratedat13，555，850
quarters。Sothegreatestexportationeverknowninoneyearverylittleexceeds1/8oftheordinaryconsumption，andisequivalenttoabout46days’provisiononly。
Ontheotherhand，thegreatestimportationeverknown，wasintheyear1757，whenthetotalquantityinmported，was151，743
quartersofallsortsofgrainasabove，whichdoesnotamountto1/89oftheordinaryconsumptionofthepeopleofEngland，andisequivalenttotheirsubsistencefor4days2hoursand24minutesp。124。
ThesefactswereunknowntomewhenIwrotethischapter。I
hadatthattimebeenlongabroad，andhadverylittlecommunicationwithmyowncountry:andthoughIverystronglyfelttheconsequencesofmyownreasoning，Iwassofaroverawedbytheforceofthepopularopinion，thatIdurstnotventuretorateeitherthesurplusorthedeficiencyotherwisethanitisfoundinthetext。
9。Thetruthofthis，also，ismadeevidentfromthetractscitedinthelastnote:buttoafargreaterextent，thanIcouldtakeuponmetoaffirmfromtheoryalone。
Itistheresaidp。144。thatthemeanexportinEngland，isbarely1/331/32partofthegrowthexclusiveoftheseed；
andthatthemeanimportisequalto1/571partoftheconsumption，and1/18partoftheexport。
Itwouldbeamazingindeed，wereapeople，socircumstancedwithrespecttosubsistence，everfoundinarealwantofforeignsupply。Butitisnowiseamazing，thatthosewhohavenointerestinagriculture，shouldcomplain，andcryoutforimportation，whenabadpolicyinthecorntrade，andthewantofasmallgranary，equaltothenationalconsumptionduringfivedaysonly，makepricesoccasionallyrise，andwhenthesmallestquantityimportedfromabroadisfoundtomakethemimmediatelyfall，thoughataconsiderablelossbothtotheagricultureandthetradeofthenation。
Ifitbeasked，howsosmalladeficiencyas1/571partoftheordinaryconsumption，shouldmakesosensibleadifferencetoanation，astoraisepricestoanexorbitantheight？Andhowanoverplussosmallas1/33shouldbeconsideredasgreatplenty，andmakepricesfalluniversally？Ianswer，thatifinagoodyear，aftereverynman，andeveryanimalhasbeenfullyfed，thereshallstillremainonhandaquantityequalto1/33ofwhathasbeenconsumed，thisoverplus，consideredbyitself，isaverygreatquantity，thoughsmallifconsideredrelativelytothetotalconsumptionofthekingdom；andwereitnotexported，itwouldsinkpricestoomuchandruinthefarmer。Thatinabadyear，again，thedeficiencyof1/571partoftheordinaryconsumption，thoughveryinconsiderablerelativelytothewhole，isstillverygreatwhenweconsider，thatbeforepricescanrisesohighastonmakegovernmentthinkofopeningtheportstoimportation，thelowestclassesoftheindustriousinhabitants，whosegainsaresmall，musthavebeenalreadyreducedtotheminimumoftheirconsumption；andwhenpeoplearebroughttotheminimum，averysmalldiminutionupontheirfoodmaybringonthegreatestdistress。
Ingoodyears，wearethereforetoconsiderthequantityexported，asthatpartofthecropwhichisoverandabovethefullnourishmentformenandcattle:Andinbadyears，wearetoconsiderwhatisimported，tobewhatiswantingofthescrimplynecessary，forsubsistingthelowestclassesofourpeople，atthepricetheycanaffordtopayforit。
ButamongalltheingeniousinquirieswhichtheEnglishhavemadeintothissubject，IhaveneverseentilloflateinanewpublicationintitledtheFarmer’sLettersanyattemptmade，tocomparethepricesofsubsistencewiththerateofthelowestgainsoftheindustriouswhomustgotomarket。Fromtheexpositionofthismatterbythisingeniousauthor，itappearsveryplaintome，thatpriceshaveneverrisensohighinEngland，astomakeimportationnecessary。Theverylowestmanufacturerandday-labourerthere，maylivebetteratthehighestpriceofsubsistenceinanyyearsincethebeginningofthiscentury，thanthegeneralityofsuchoftheirorderactuallydo，inanycountryinEuropewhichIhaveseen。FromwhichI
concludethataslongasmattersstandinthissituation，allimportationofsubsistencefromforeignnations，notunderthedominionofGreatBritainshouldbeintirelysuspended。
AnInquiryintothePrinciplesofPoliticalOeconomybyJamesSteuartBookII
OfTradeandIndustryIntroductionBeforeIenteruponthissecondbook，Imustpremiseawordofconnexion，inordertoconducttheideasofmyreaderbythesamewaythroughwhichthechainofmyownthoughts，andthedistributionofmyplanhavenaturallyledme。
Myprincipalviewhithertohasbeentopreparethewayforanexaminationoftheprinciplesofmodernpolitics，byinquiringintothosewhichhave，lessormore，operatedregulareffectsinalltheagesoftheworld。
Indoingthis，Iconfess，ithasbeenimpossibleformenottoanticipatemanythingswhich，accordingtotheplanIhavelaiddown，willinsomemeasureinvolvemeinrepetitions。
Iproposetoinvestigateprincipleswhichareallrelativeanddependingupononeanother。Itisimpossibletotreatofthesewithdistinctness，withoutapplyingthemtotheobjectsonwhichtheyhaveaninfluence；andasthesameprinciplesextendtheirinfluencetoseveralbranchesofmysubject，thoseofmyreaderswhokeepthemchieflyintheireye，willnotfindgreatvarietyinthedifferentapplicationsofthem。
Inallcompositionsofthiskind，twothingsareprincipallyrequisite。Thefirstis，torepresentsuchideasasareabstract，clearly，simply，anduncompounded。Thispartresemblestheforgingoutthelinksofachain。Thesecondis，todisposethoseideasinaproperorder；thatis，accordingtotheirmostimmediaterelations。Whensuchacompositionislaidbeforeagoodunderstanding，memoryfinishesthework，bycementingthelinkstogether；andprovidedanyoneofthemcanberetained，therestwillfollowofcourse。
NowtherelationsbetweenthedifferentprinciplesofwhichI
treat，areindeedstrikingtosuchasareaccustomedtoabstractreasoning，butnotnearsomuchaswhentheapplicationofthemismadetodifferentexamples。
Theprincipleofself-interestwillserveasageneralkeytothisinquiry；anditmay，inonesense，beconsideredastherulingprincipleofmysubject，andmaythereforebetracedthroughoutthewhole。Thisisthemainspring，andonlymotivewhichastatesmanshouldmakeuseof，toengageafreepeopletoconcurintheplanswhichhelaysdownfortheirgovernment。
IbegImaynotherebeunderstoodtomean，thatself-interestshouldconductthestatesman:bynomeans。
Self-interest，whenconsideredwithregardtohim，ispublicspirit；anditcanonlybecalledself-interest，whenitisappliedtothosewhoaretobegovernedbyit。
Fromthisprinciple，menareengagedtoactinathousanddifferentways，andeveryactiondrawsafteritcertainnecessaryconsequences。Thequestionthereforeconstantlyunderconsiderationcomestobe，whatwillmankindfindittheirinteresttodo，undersuchandsuchcircumstances？
Inordertoexhaustthesubjectofpoliticaloeconomy，Ihaveproposedtotreattheprinciplesofitinrelationtocircumstances；andastheseareinfinite，Ihavetakenthembythemoregeneralcombinations，whichmodernpolicyhasformed。
These，forthesakeoforder，Ihaverepresentedasallhanginginachainofconsequences，anddependingononeanother。SeeBookI。Chap。ii。
Ifoundthisthebestmethodfordistributingmyplan，fromwhichitisnaturaltoinfer，thatitwillalsoprovethebestforenablingmyreaderstoretainit。
IshalldowhatIcantodiversify，byvariouscircumstances，therepetitionswhichthisdispositionmustleadmeinto。Thereisnoseeingawholekingdom，withoutpassingnowandthenthroughatownwhichonehasseenbefore。Ishallthereforeimitatethetraveller，who，uponsuchoccasions，makeshisstayveryshort，unlesssomenewcuriosityshouldhappentoengagehisattention。
Ihavesaid，thatself-interestistherulingprincipleofmysubject，andIhavesoexplainedmyself，astopreventanyonefromsupposing，thatIconsideritastheuniversalspringofhumanactions。HereisthelightinwhichIwanttorepresentthismatter。
Thebestwaytogovernasociety，andtoengageeveryonetoconducthimselfaccordingtoaplan，isforthestatesmantoformasystemofadministration，themostconsistentpossiblewiththeinterestofeveryindividual，andnevertoflatterhimselfthathispeoplewillbebroughttoactingeneral，andinmatterswhichpurelyregardthepublic，fromanyotherprinciplethanprivateinterest。ThisistheutmostlengthtowhichIpretendtocarrymyposition。Astowhatregardsthemeritanddemeritofactionsingeneral，Ithinkitfullyasabsurdtosay，thatnoactionistrulyvirtuous，astoaffirm，thatnoneisreallyvicious。
Itmightperhapsbeexpected，that，intreatingofpolitics，Ishouldhavebroughtinpublicspiritalso，asaprincipleofaction；whereasallIrequirewithrespecttothisprincipleismerelyarestraintfromit；andeventhisis，perhaps，toomuchtobetakenforgranted。Werepublicspirit，insteadofprivateutility，tobecomethespringofactionintheindividualsofawell-governedstate，Iapprehend，itwouldspoilall。Letmeexplainmyself。
Publicspirit，inmywayoftreatingthissubject，isassuperfluousinthegoverned，asitoughttobeall-powerfulinthestatesman；atleast，ifitisnotaltogethersuperfluous，itisfullyasmuchso，asmiraclesareinareligiononcefullyestablished。Bothareadmirableatsettingout，butwouldshakeeverythingloose，weretheytocontinuetobecommonandfamiliar。Weremiracleswroughteveryday，thelawsofnaturewouldnolongerbelaws:andwereeveryonetoactforthepublic，andneglecthimself，thestatesmanwouldbebewildered，andthesuppositionisridiculous。
Iexpect，therefore，thateverymanistoactforhisowninterestinwhatregardsthepublic；and，politicallyspeaking，everyoneoughttodoso。Itisthecombinationofeveryprivateinterestwhichformsthepublicgood，andofthisthepublic，thatis，thestatesmanonly，canjudge。Youmustloveyourcountry。Why？Becauseitisyours。Butyoumustnotpreferyourowninteresttothatofyourcountry。This，Iagree，isperfectlyjustandright:butthismeansnomore，thanthatyouaretoabstainfromactingtoitsprejudice，eventhoughyourownprivateinterestshoulddemandit；thatis，youshouldabstainfromunlawfulgain。CountJulian，forexample，who，fromprivateresentment，itissaid，broughttheMoorsintoSpain，andruinedhiscountry，transgressedthismaxim。Aspyinanarmy，orinacabinet，whobetraysthesecretsofhiscountry，andhewhosellshistrust，areinthesamecase:defraudingthestateis，amongmanyothers，anotoriousexampleofthis。Tosupposemen，ingeneral，honestinsuchmatters，wouldbeabsurd。Thelegislaturethereforeoughttomakegoodlaws，andthosewhotransgressthemoughttobespeedily，severely，andmostcertainlypunished。Thisbelongstothecoercivepartofgovernment，and，fallingbeyondthelimitsofmysubject，isevertakenforgranted。
Weretheprincipleofpublicspiritcarriedfarther；wereapeopletobecomequitedisinterested；therewouldbenopossibilityofgoverningthem。Everyonemightconsidertheinterestofhiscountryinadifferentlight，andmanymightjoinintheruinofit，byendeavouringtopromoteitsadvantages。
Werearichmerchanttobeginandsellhisgoodswithoutprofit，whatwouldbecomeoftrade？Wereanothertodefraytheextraordinaryexpenceofsomeworkmeninahardyear，inordertoenablethemtocarryontheirindustry，withoutraisingtheirprice，whatwouldbecomeofothers，whohadnotthelikeadvantages？Wereamanofalargelandedestatetosellhisgrainatalowpriceinayearofscarcity，whatwouldbecomeofthepoorfarmers？Werepeopletofeedallwhowouldaskcharity，whatwouldbecomeofindustry？Theseoperationsofpublicspiritoughttobelefttothepublic，andallthatisrequiredofindividualsis，nottoendeavourtodefeatthem。
Thisistheregulardistributionofthings，anditisthisonlywhichcomesundermyconsideration。
Inill-administeredgovernments，Iadmireasmuchasanyoneeveryactofpublicspirit，everysentimentofdisinterestediness，andnobodycanhaveahigheresteemforeverypersonremarkableforthem。
Thelessattentiveanygovernmentistodotheirduty，themoreessentialitisthateveryindividualbeanimatedbythatspirit，whichthenlanguishesintheverypartwhereitoughttoflourishwiththegreateststrengthandvigour；andontheotherhand，themorepublicspiritisshewnintheadministrationofpublicaffairs，thelessoccasionhasthestateforassistancefromindividuals。
NowasIsupposemystatesmantodohisdutyinthemostminuteparticulars，soIalloweveryoneofhissubjectstofollowthedictatesofhisprivateinterest。AllIrequireisanexactobediencetothelaws。Thisalsoistheinterestofeveryone；forhewhotransgressesoughtmostundoubtedlytobepunished:andthisisallthepublicspiritwhichanyperfectgovernmenthasoccasionfor。
Chap。I
OfthereciprocalConnectionsbetweenTradeandIndustryIamnowgoingtotreatoftradeandindustry，twodifferentsubjects，butwhichareasthoroughlyblendedtogether，asthosewehavediscussedinthefirstbook。Similartotheseintheirmutualoperations，theyarereciprocallyaidingandassistingtoeachother，anditisbytheconstantvibrationofthebalancebetweenthem，thatbotharecarriedtotheirheightofperfectionandrefinement。
TRADEisanoperation，bywhichthewealth，orwork，eitherofindividuals，orofsocieties，may，byasetofmencalledmerchants，beexchanged，foranequivalent，properforsupplyingeverywant，withoutanyinterruptiontoindustry，oranycheckuponconsumption。
INDUSTRYistheapplicationtoingeniouslabourinafreeman，inordertoprocure，bythemeansoftrade，anequivalent，fitforthesupplyingeverywant。
Imustobserve，thatthesedefinitionsareonlyjust，relativelytomysubject，andtooneanother:fortrademayexistwithoutindustry，becausethingsproducedpartlybynaturemaybeexchangedbetweenmen；industrymaybeexercisedwithouttrade，becauseamanmaybeveryingeniousinworkingtosupplyhisownconsumption，andwherethereisnoexchange，therecanbenotrade。Industrylikewiseimpliessomethingmorethanlabour。
Industry，asIunderstandtheterm，mustbevoluntary；labourmaybeforced:theoneandtheothermayproducethesameeffect，butthepoliticalconsequencesarevastlydifferent。
Industry，therefore，isapplicabletofreemenonly；labourmaybeperformedbyslaves。
Letmeexaminethislastdistinctionalittlemoreclosely，thebettertotrywhetheritbejust，andtopointouttheconsequenceswhichresultfromit。
Ihavesaid，thatwithouttheassistanceofoneofthethreeprinciplesofmultiplication，towit，slavery，industry，orcharity，therewasnopossibilityofmakingmankindsubsist，soastobeserviceabletooneanother，ingreaternumbersthanthoseproportionedtothespontaneousfruitsoftheearth。
Slaveryandindustryarequitecompatiblewiththeselfishnatureofman，andmaythereforebegenerallyestablishedinanysociety:charity，again，isarefinementuponhumanity，andtherefore，Iapprehend，itmusteverbeprecarious。
NowItakeslaveryandindustrytobeequallycompatiblewithgreatmultiplication，butincompatiblewithoneanother，withoutgreatrestrictionslaiduponthefirst。Itisaveryhardmattertointroduceindustryintoacountrywhereslaveryisestablished；becauseoftheunequalcompetitionbetweentheworkofslavesandthatoffreemen，supposingbothequallyadmittedtomarket。Hereisthereason:
Theslaveshavealltheirparticularmasters，whocantakebettercareofthem，thananystatesmancantakeoftheindustriousfreemen；becausetheirlibertyisanobstacletohiscare。Theslaveshavealltheirwantssuppliedbythemaster，whomaykeepthemwithinthelimitsofsobriety。Hemayeitherrecruittheirnumbersfromabroad，ortakecareofthechildren，justashefindsithisadvantage。Ifbreedingfromtheslavesshouldproveunprofitable，eithertheirchildrenwilldieforwantofcare，orbypromiscuouslivingfewwillbeborn，orbykeepingthesexesasunder，theywillbepreventedfrombreedingatall。Atroopofmanufacturingslaves，consideredinapoliticallight，willbefoundallemployed，allprovidedfor，andtheirwork，whenbroughttomarketbythemaster，mayheaffordedmuchcheaper，thanthelikeperformedbyfreemen，whomusteveryoneprovideforhimself，andwhomayperhapshaveaseparatehouse，awife，andchildren，tomaintain，andallthisfromanindustrywhichproducesnomore，naynotsomuch，asthatofasingleslave，whohasnoavocationfromlabour。Whydolargeundertakingsinthemanufacturingwayruinprivateindustry，butbycomingnearertothesimplicityofslaves？Couldthesugar-islandsbecultivatedtoanyadvantagebyhiredlabour？
Werenottheexpencesofrearingchildrensupposedtobegreat，wouldslaveseverbeimported？Certainlynot:andyetitisstilladoubtwithme，whetherornotaproperregulationforbringingupthechildrenofslavesmightnotturnthisexpedienttoabetteraccount，thantheconstantimportationofthem。Butthisisforeigntothepresentpurpose。AllIintendheretoobserveistheconsequencesofacompetitionbetweentheworkofslavesandthatoffreemen；fromwhichcompetitionIinfer，that，withoutjudiciousregulations，itmustbeimpossibleforindustryevertogetthebetterofthedisadvantagestowhichitwillnecessarilybeexposedatfirst，inastatewhereslaveryisalreadyintroduced。
Theseregulationsoughttobemadewithaviewtopreventthecompetitionbetweentheindustriousfreemenandthemastersofslaves，byappropriatingtheoccupationofeachtodifferentobjects:toconfineslavery，forexample，tothecountry，thatis，tosettheslavesapartforagriculture，andtoexcludethemfromeveryotherserviceofwork。Withsucharegulationperhapsindustrymightsucceed。Thiswasnotthecaseofold；industrydidnotsucceedasatpresent:andtothisIattributethesimplicityofthosetimes。