CHAPTERX
OFSELF-LOVEANDBENEVOLENCE
Thesubjectofthemechanismofthehumanmind，istheobviouscounterpartofthatwhichwearenowtoexamine。Undertheformerofthesetopicswehaveentered，withconsiderableminuteness，intothenatureofourinvoluntaryactions；thedecisionofthelatterwill，inagreatdegree，dependuponanaccurateconceptionofsuchasarevoluntary。Thequestionofself-loveandbenevolence，isaquestionrelativetothefeelingsandideasbywhichweoughttobegoverned，inourintercoursewithourfellowmen，or，inotherwords，inourmoralconduct。Butitisuniversallyadmitted，thattherecanbenomoralconduct，thatwecanbeneithervirtuousnorvicious，exceptininstanceswhereouractionsflowfromintention，andaredirectedbyforesight，orwheretheymighthavebeensodirected；andthisisthedefinitionofvoluntaryactions。1*Thequestionthereforeofself-loveandbenevolence，isaquestionofvoluntaryaction。
Theenquiryhereproposed，isthesameineffect，asthequestion，whetherwearecapableofbeinginfluencedbydisinterestedconsiderations。Onceadmitthatweare，anditwillnotbedisputedthatitisbysuchconsiderationsweoughttobeinfluenced，incaseswhereourneighbourorthepublicistobeeminentlybenefited。
Thisquestionhasbeenlongandeagerlycontested，andthemajorityofpersonswhoareaccustomedtogivesomeattentiontospeculationsofthissort，haverangedthemselvesonthesideofself-love。AmongtheFrench，notasinglewriteruponthatnatureofthehumanmind，istobefound，whodoesnot，withmoreorlessexplicitness，declareforthishypothesis。
Amongourselves，severalauthorsofeminence，haveundertakentosupportthepracticabilityofdisinterestedaction。2*
Oneofthewriterswhofirstcontributedtorenderthisenquiryasubjectofgeneralattention，wasthedukedelaRouchefoucault。Heassertedthesystemofself-loveinitsgrossestform；andhisexpositionofitamountstolittleless，than“that，ineveryactionofourlives，wearedirectedbyacalculationofpersonalinterest。”Thisnotionhasbeengraduallysofteneddownbyhissuccessors；andthehypothesisofself-loveisnowfrequentlyexplainedtomeanonly，“that，aseverystateofapercipientbeinghasinitamixtureofpleasureorpain，theimmediatesensationineitherofthesekindsistoberegardedasthesole，proper，andnecessarycauseofthesubsequentaction。”Thisfluctuationamongtheadherentsofself-love，hashadtheeffect，ofmakingsomeoftheargumentswithwhichtheirprinciplehasbeenattacked，apparentlyinapplicabletotheneweststateofthequestion。Letusseewhetherthepointmaynotbeputuponasimplerissuethanhasusuallybeenattempted。
Anunanswerableargumentforthesystemofdisinterestedness，iscontainedinapropositionsoobvious，asforitsveryplainnesstobeexposedtotherisqueofcontempt，viz。thatthemotiveofeveryvoluntaryaction，consistsintheviewpresenttothemindoftheagentatthetimeofhisdetermination。Thisisaninferencewhichimmediatelyresultsfromthenatureofvolition。Volitionisanaffairofforesight。3*“Nomotionisvoluntary，anyfurtherthanitisaccompaniedwithintentionanddesign，andhasforitsproperantecedenttheapprehensionofanendtobeaccomplished。
Sofarasitflowsinanydegreefromanothersource，itisinvoluntary。”4*
Butifthisbeajustdescriptionofvoluntaryaction，thentheconverseofthisassertionmustalsobetrue；thatwhateverisproposedbythemindasanendtobeaccomplished，whetheritbelifeordeath，pleasureorpain，andrelatetomyselformyneighbour，hasinitthetrueessenceofamotive——Toillustratethisinrelationtothesubjectinhand。
Voluntaryactioncannotexistbutastheresultofexperience。Neitherdesirenoraversioncanhaveplace，tillwehavehadaconsciousnessofagreeableanddisagreeablesensations。Voluntaryactionimpliesdesire，andtheideaofcertainmeanstobeemployedfortheattainmentofthethingdesired。
Thethingsfirstdesiredbyeverythinkingbeing，willbeagreeablesensation，andthemeansofagreeablesensation。Ifheforseeanythingthatisnotapprehendedtobepleasureorpain，orthemeansofpleasureorpain，thiswillexcitenodesire，andleadtonovoluntaryaction。
Adispositiontopromotethebenefitofanother，mychild，myfriend，myrelation，ormyfellowbeing，isoneofthepassions；understandingbythetermpassion，apermanentandhabitualtendencytowardsacertaincourseofaction。Itisofthesamegeneralnature，asavarice，ortheloveoffame。Thegoodofmyneighbourcouldnot，inthefirstinstance，havebeenchosen，butasthemeansofagreeablesensation。Hiscries，orthespectacleofhisdistressimportuneme，andIamirresistiblyimpelledtoadoptmeanstoremovethisimportunity。Thechildperceives，inhisowncase，thatmenacesorsoothingtendtostophiscries，andheisinducedtoemploy，inasimilarinstance，thatmodeofthetwowhichseemsmostwithinhisreach。Hethinkslittleofthesufferingsendured，andisonlyuneasyattheimpressionmadeuponhisorgans。Tothismotive，hespeedilyaddstheideaofesteemandgratitude，whicharetobepurchasedbythisbeneficence。Thusthegoodofourneigbour，likethepossessionofmoney，isoriginallypursuedforthesakeofitsadvantagetoourselves。
Butitisthenatureofthepassions，speedilytoconvertwhatatfirstweremeans，intoends。Theavariciousmanforgetstheutilityofmoneywhichfirstincitedhimtopursueit，fixeshispassionuponthemoneyitself，andcountshisgold，withouthavinginhismindanyideabutthatofseeingandhandlingit。Somethingofthissorthappensveryearlyinthehistoryofeverypassion。Themomentwebecomeattachedtoaparticularsourceofpleasure，beyondanyideawehaveoftherankitholdsinthecatalogueofsources，itmustbeadmittedthatitislovedforitsownsake。Themanwhopursueswealthorfamewithanydegreeofardour，sooncomestoconcentrehisattentioninthewealthorthefame，withoutcarryinghismindbeyond，orthinkingofanythingthatistoresultfromthem。
Thisismerelyonecaseofthephenomenaofhabit。5*Allindulgenceofthesenses，isoriginallychosen，forthesakeofthepleasurethataccrues。Butthequantityofaccruingpleasureorpain，iscontinuallychanging。Thishoweverisseldomadvertedto；andwhenitis，thepowerofhabitisfrequentlytoostrongtobethussubdued。Thepropensitytodoagainwhatwehavebeenaccustomedtodo，recurs，whenthemotivethatshouldrestrainushasescapedfromourthoughts。Thusthedrunkardandtheletchercontinuetopursuethesamecourseofaction，longafterthepainshaveoutweighedthepleasures，andevenaftertheyconfessandknowthistobetherealstateofthecase。Itisinthismannerthatmenwilloften，forthesakeofthatwhichhasbecometheobjectofafavouritepassion，consenttosacrificewhattheygenerallyknowtocontaininitagreatersumofagreeablesensations。Itisatriteandincontrovertibleaxiom，“thattheywillratherdie，thanpartwithit。”
Ifthisbethecaseinthepassionofavariceortheloveoffame，itmustalsobetrueintheinstanceofbeneficence，that，afterhavinghabituatedourselvestopromotethehappinessofourchild，ourfamily，ourcountryorourspecies，weareatlengthbroughttoapproveanddesiretheirhappinesswithoutretrospecttoourselves。Ithappensinthisinstance，asintheformer，thatweareoccasionallyactuatedbythemostperfectdisinterestedness，andwillinglysubmittotorturesanddeath，ratherthanseeinjurycommittedupontheobjectofouraffections。
Thusfarthereisaparallelnatureinavariceandbenevolence。Butultimatelythereisawidedifferencebetweenthem。Whenoncewehaveenteredintosoauspiciousapathasthatofdisinterestedness，reflectionconfirmsourchoice，inasenseinwhichitnevercanconfirmanyofthefactitiouspassionswehavenamed。Wefindbyobservation，thatwearesurroundedbybeingsofthesamenaturewithourselves。Theyhavethesamesenses，aresusceptibleofthesamepleasuresandpains，capableofbeingraisedtothesameexcellence，andemployedinthesameusefulness。6*Weareableinimaginationtogooutofourselves，andbecomeimpartialspectatorsofthesystemofwhichweareapart。Wecanthenmakeanestimateofourintrinsicandabsolutevalue；anddetecttheimpositionofthatself-regard，whichwouldrepresentourowninterestasofasmuchvalueasthatofalltheworldbeside。Thedelusionbeingthussapped，wecan，fromtimetotimeatleast，fallbackinideaintoourproperpost，andcultivatethoseviewsandaffectionswhichmustbemostfamiliartothemostperfectintelligence。
Itisadmittedonallhandsthatitispossibleforamantosacrificehisownexistencetothatoftwentyothers。Herethenisanactionpossessingvariousrecommendations：theadvantagetoarisetotwentymen；theirtranquillityandhappinessthroughalongperiodofremainingexistence；thebenefitstheywillnotfailtoconferonthousandsoftheircontemporaries，andthroughthemonmillionsofposterity；andlastlyhisownescapefromuneasiness，andmomentaryexultationinanactofvirtue。Theadvocatesofthesystemofself-lovearecompelledtoassertthatthelastconsiderationonlyisofanyvaluewithhim；andthatheperceivestherealstateofthecasewithoutfeelinghimselfinthesmallestdegreedirectlyandproperlyaffectedbyit。Heengagesinanactofgenerositywithoutoneatomoftruesympathy，andwhollyandexclusivelyinfluencedbyconsiderationsofthemostselfishdescription。
Itisnoteasilytoconceiveanhypothesismoresingularthanthis。
Itisindirectoppositiontoexperience，andwhateverymanseemstoknowofhimself。Itundertakestomaintainthatweareunderadelusionofthemostextraordinarysort；andwhichwouldappeartoapersonnottrainedinaphilosophicalsystemofallothersthemostimprobable。Itaffirmsthatwearewhollyincapableofbeinginfluencedbymotiveswhichseemtohaveanabsolutepower；thatthephilanthropisthasnoloveformankind，northepatriotforhiscountry；inawordthat，whenweimaginewearemostgenerouslyconcernedforanother，wehavenoconcernforhim，butareanxiousonlyforourselves。Undoubtedlyathesisofthissortisinneedofverycogentargumentstosupportit。
Itmustbeadmittedindeedascharacteristicofeverydeterminationofthemindthat，whenmade，wefeeluneasinessintheapprehensionofanyobstacle，andpleasureinindulgingthedesire，andseeingeventsturnoutconformablytothedesire。Butitwouldbeabsurdtosay：’thatthemotiveofourproceeding，inthiscase，isimpatienceanduneasiness，andthatweareimpelledtothesacrificeswhicharefrequentlymade，bythemerewishtofreeourselvesfromintolerablepain’。Impatienceanduneasinessareonlygeneratedbyobstaclestotheattainmentofourdesires；andweoftenfulfilourpurposeswithaswiftnessandimpetuositythatleavenoleisurefortherecurrenceofpain。Theuneasinessofunfulfilleddesireimpliesthedesireitselfastheantecedentandparentoftheuneasiness。
ItisbecauseIwishmyneighbour’sadvantagethatIamuneasyathismisfortune。
Ishouldnomorebeuneasyaboutthisthanaboutthenumberofsyllablescontainedinthepresentparagraph，ifIhadnotpreviouslyloveditforitsownsake。
Thispleasureandpainhowever，thoughnottheauthorsofmydetermination，undoubtedlytendtoperpetuateandstrengthenit。Suchisconspicuouslythecaseinthepresentinstance。Themanwhovigilantlyconformshisaffectionstothestandardofjustice，wholosestheviewofpersonalregardsinthegreaterobjectsthatengrosshisattention，who，frommotivesofbenevolence，sitsloosetolifeandallitspleasures，andisreadywithoutasigh，tosacrificethemtothepublicgood，hasanuncommonlyexquisitesourceofhappiness。Whenhelooksback，heapplaudsthestateofhisownaffections；
and，whenhelooksoutofhimself，hissensationsarerefined，inproportiontothecomprehensivenessofhissentiments。Heisfilledwithharmonywithin；
andthestateofhisthoughtsisuncommonlyfavourabletowhatwemayventuretostylethesublimeemotionsoftranquillity。Itisnottobesupposedthatanexperienceofthepleasuresofbenevolenceshouldnottendtoconfirminusabenevolentpropensity。
Thehypothesisofdisinterestednesswouldneverhavehadsomanyadversariesifthecomplexityofhumanmotiveshadbeensufficientlyconsidered。Toillustratethis，letitberecollectedthateveryvoluntaryactionhasinitamixtureofinvoluntary。7*Inthesenseinwhichwehaveusedthewordmotiveinanearlypartofthiswork，8*itisequallydescriptiveofthecauseofactioninbothcases。Motivemaythereforebedistinguished，accordingtoitsdifferentrelations，intodirectandindirect；understandingbythedirect，thatwhichispresenttothemindoftheagentatthetimeofhisdetermination，andwhichbelongstoeveryvoluntaryaction，andtosomuchofeveryactionasisvoluntary；andbytheindirect，thatwhichoperateswithoutbeingadvertedtobythemind，whetherinthecaseofactionsoriginallyinvoluntary，orthathavebecomeso，inwhole，orinpart，bytheforceofhabit。Thusexplained，itisincontrovertiblyevidentthatthedirectmotivetomanyofouractionsispurelydisinterested。
Wearecapableofself-oblivion，aswellasofsacrifice。Allthatisstrictlyvoluntary，inthebeneficenceofamanhabituallygenerousandkind，commencesfromthispoint：ifotherconsiderationsinterveneinthesequel，theyareindebtedfortheirinterventiontothedisinterestedmotive。But，atthesametimethatthistruthisclearlyestablished，itisnotlesstrue，first，thattheindirectandoriginalmotive，thatwhichlaidthefoundationofallourhabits，istheloveofagreeablesensation。Secondly，itisalsotobeadmittedthatthereisprobablysomethingpersonaldirectlyandperceptiblymixingitselfwithsuchofourbeneficentactionsasareofasensibleduration。Wearesoaccustomedtofixourattentionuponagreeablesensationthatwecanscarcelyfailtorecollect，ateveryintervalthegratitudeweshallexcite，ortheapprobationweshallsecure，thepleasurethatwillresulttoourselvesfromourneighbour’swell-being，thejoysofself-applause，ortheuneasinessthatattendsuponungratifieddesire。Yet，aftereverydeductionthatcanbemade，thedisinterestedanddirectmotive，theprofitandadvantageofourneighbour，seemstooccupytheprincipalplace。Thisisatleastthefirst，oftentheonly，thingintheviewofthemind，atthetimetheactionischosen。Itisthisfromwhich，bywayofeminence，itderivesthecharacterofvoluntaryaction。
Thereisanobservationarisinginthisplacewhichitseemsofsomeimportancetomention。Puremalevolenceisthecounterpartofdisinterestedvirtue；andalmostalltheconsiderationsthatprovetheexistenceoftheoneareofequalavailtoprovetheexistenceoftheother。Itisnotenoughtosay，IchoosethepleasureorpainofmyneighbourforthesakeofthegratificationIhaveincontemplatingit。Thisonlyremovesthedifficultyasinglestep，andwillnotaccountforthephenomenonofhabitineithercase。Boththeoneandtheotherareoriginallychosenwithaviewtoagreeablesensation；butinbothcasestheoriginalviewissoonforgotten。Itisascertainthattherearehumanbeingswhotakepleasureinshrieksandagony，withoutaprospecttoanythingfurtherordifferent；asthatthemisercomesatlasttoregardhisguineaswithdelight，independentlyofarecollectionofthebenefitstheymaypurchase。
Thereisonefurtherremarkwhich，thoughbynomeanssoconclusiveasmanythathavebeenadduced，oughtnottobeomitted。Ifself-lovebetheonlyprincipleofaction，therecanbenosuchthingasvirtue。Benevolentintentionisessentialtovirtue。9*Virtue，whereitexistsinanyeminence，isaspeciesofconductmodelleduponatrueestimateofthedifferentreasonsinvitingustopreference。Hethatmakesafalseestimate，andprefersatrivialandpartialgoodtoanimportantandcomprehensiveone，isvicious。Virtuerequiresacertaindispositionandviewofthemind，anddoesnotbelongtothegoodwhichmayaccidentallyandunintentionallyresultfromourproceeding。Thecreditorthat，frompurehardnessofdisposition，shouldcastamanintoprisonwho，unknowntohim，wasuponthepointofcommittingsomeatrociousandsanguinaryaction，wouldbenotvirtuousbutvicious。Themischieftoresultfromtheprojectofhisdebtorwasnopartofhismotive；hethoughtonlyofgratifyinghisinordinatepassion。
Justso，inthecasestatedalittlebefore，thepublicbenefactor，uponthesystemofself-love，prefersasingleindividualtotwenty，ortotwentymillions。Sofarasrelatestotherealmeritsofthecase，hisownadvantageorpleasureisaveryinsignificantconsideration，andthebenefittobeproduced，supposetoaworld，isinestimable。Yethefalselyandunjustlyprefersthefirst，andregardsthelatter，separatelytaken，asnothing。
Iftherebesuchathingasjustice，ifIhavearealandabsolutevalueuponwhichtruthcandecide，andwhichcanbecomparedwithwhatisgreaterorless，then，accordingtothissystem，thebestactionthateverwasperformedmay，foranythingweknow，havebeentheaction，inthewholeworld，ofthemostexquisiteanddeliberateinjustice。Nay，itcouldnothavebeenotherwise，sinceitproducedthegreatestgood，andthereforewastheindividualinstanceinwhichthegreatestgoodwasmostdirectlypostponedtopersonalgratification。Suchisthespiritofthedoctrinewehaveendeavouredtorefute。
Ontheotherhand，thejustresultoftheargumentsaboveadducedisthatmenarecapableofunderstandingthebeautyofvirtue，andtheclaimsofothermenupontheirbenevolence；and，understandingthem，thattheseviews，aswellaseveryotherperceptionwhichhasrelationtosensitiveexistence，areofthenatureofmotives，sometimesoverpoweredbyotherconsiderations，andsometimesoverpoweringthem，butalwaysintheirownnaturecapableofexcitingtoaction，whennotcounteractedbypleasofadifferentsort。Menarecapable，nodoubt，ofpreferringaninferiorinterestoftheirowntoasuperiorinterestofothers；butthispreferencearisesfromacombinationofcircumstancesandisnotthenecessaryandinvariablelawofournature。10*
Thereisnodoctrineinwhichthegenerousandelevatedmindrestswithmoresatisfactionthaninthatofwhichwearetreating。Ifitbefalse，itisnodoubtincumbentuponustomakethebestofthesmallremnantofgoodthatremains。Butitisadiscouragingprospectforthemoralist，who，whenhehasdoneall，hasnohopetopersuademankindtooneatomofrealaffectiontowardsanyoneindividualoftheirspecies。Wemaybemadeindeedtheinstrumentsofgood，butinawaylesshonourablethanthatinwhichaframeofwood，orasheetofpaper，maybemadetheinstrumentofgood。Thewood，orthepaper，isatleastneutral。Butwearedrawnintotheservicewithaffectionsofadiametricallyoppositedirection。
Whenweperformthemostbenevolentaction，itiswithaviewonlytoourownadvantage，andwiththemostsovereignandunreservedneglectofthatofothers。Weareinstrumentsofgood，inthesamemannerasbadmenaresaidtobetheinstrumentsofprovidence，evenwhentheirinclinationsaremostrefractorytoitsdecrees。Inthissense，wemayadmirethesystemoftheuniverse，wherepublicutilityresultsfromeachman’scontemptofthatutility，andwherethemostbeneficialactions，ofthosewhomwehavebeenaccustomedtotermthebestmen，areonlyinstancesinwhichjusticeandtherealmeritsofthecasearemostflagrantlyviolated。Butwecanthinkwithlittlecomplacenceoftheindividualsofwhomthisuniverseiscomposed。Itisnowonderthatphilosopherswhosesystemhastaughtthemtolookupontheirfellowmenasthusperverseandunjusthavebeenfrequentlycoldintheirtemper，ornarrowintheirdesigns。ItisnowonderthatRousseau，themostbenevolentofthem，andwhomostescapedthegeneralcontagion，hasbeendriventoplacetheperfectionofvirtueindoingnoinjury。11*Neitherphilosophy，normorality，norpoliticswillevershowlikeitselftillmanshallbeacknowledgedforwhathereallyis，abeingcapableofrectitude，virtueandbenevolence，andwhoneedsnotalwaysbeledtoactionsofgeneralutility，byforeignandfrivolousconsiderations。
Thesystemofdisinterestedbenevolenceprovestousthatitispossibletobevirtuous，andnotmerelytotalkofvirtue；thatallwhichhasbeensaidbyphilosophersandmoralistsrespectingimpartialjusticeisnotanunmeaningrant；andthat，whenwecalluponmankindtodivestthemselvesofselfishandpersonalconsiderations，wecalluponthemforsomethingtheyareabletopractise。Anidealikethisreconcilesustoourspecies；
teachesustoregard，withenlightenedadmiration，themenwhohaveappearedtolosethefeelingoftheirpersonalexistence，inthepursuitofgeneraladvantage；andgivesusreasontoexpectthat，asmencollectivelyadvanceinscienceandusefulinstitution，theywillproceedmoreandmoretoconsolidatetheirprivatejudgement，andtheirindividualwill，withabstractjustice，andtheunmixedapprobationofgeneralhappiness。
Whataretheinferencesthatoughttobemadefromthisdoctrinewithrespecttopoliticalinstitution？Certainlynotthattheinterestoftheindividualoughttobemadeincompatiblewiththepartheisexpectedtotakeintheinterestofthewhole。Thisisneitherdesirable，norevenpossible。Butthatsocialinstitutionneedsnotdespairofseeingmeninfluencedbyotherandbettermotives。Thetruepoliticianisboundtorecollectthattheperfectionofmindconsistsindisinterestedness。Heshouldregarditastheultimateobjectofhisexertionstoinducementoestimatethemselvesattheirjustvalue，andneithertogranttothemselves，norclaimfromothers，ahigherconsiderationthantheydeserve。Aboveall，heshouldbecarefulnottoaddvigourtotheselfishpassions。Heshouldgraduallyweanmenfromcontemplatingtheirownbenefitinallthattheydo，andinducethemtoviewwithcomplacencetheadvantagethatistoresulttoothers。Greatmischief，inthisrespect，hasprobablybeendonebythosemoralistswhothinkonlyofstimulatingmentogooddeedsbyconsiderationsoffrigidprudenceandmercenaryself-interest，andneverapplythemselvestoexciteonegenerousandmagnanimoussentimentofournatures。Thishasbeentoomuchthecasewiththeteachersofreligion，eventhoseofthemwhoaremosteagerintheirhostilitytoreligiousenthusiasm。
Thelastperfectionofthesentimentherevindicatedconsistsinthatstateofmindwhichbidsusrejoiceasfullyinthegoodthatisdonebyothers，asifitweredonebyourselves。Themanwhoshallhaveattainedtothisimprovementwillbeactuatedneitherbyinterestnorambition，theloveofhonor，northeloveoffame。Hehasadutyindeedobliginghimtoseekthegoodofthewhole；butthatgoodishisonlyobject。Ifthatgoodbeeffectedbyanotherhand，hefeelsnodisappointment。Allmenarehisfellowlaborers，butheistherivalofnoman。LikePedaretusinancientstory，heisreadytoexclaim：’Ialsohaveendeavoredtodeserve；
buttherearethreehundredcitizensinSpartabetterthanmyself，andIrejoice。’
NOTES：
1。BookI，Chap。V。
2。ParticularlyShaftesbury，Butler，HutchesonandHume。Theactiveandardentspiritofthefoundersofreligion，hasperhapsalwayscarriedthemintotheliberalsystem。SeeMATT。ch。xxii。ver。37-41
3。BookI，Chap。V。
4。BookIV，Chap。VII。
5。BookI，Chap。V。
6。BookII，Chap。III。
7。BookI，Chap。V。
8。BookI，Chap。V。
9。BookII，Chap。IV。
10。Somepersons，friendlytothedoctrineofthischapter，haveobjectedtotheremarkthat’uponthesystemofself-love，therecanbenosuchthingasvirtue’，astoobroad，ortooincautiouslyexpressed。Undoubtedlyitwasnotintendedinthisplacetoassertthatthedifferenttendenciesofactionswouldnotremainuponbothsystems，orthathabitsconducivetothegeneralwelfarewouldnotdeservetobesedulouslycultivated，inourselvesandothers，howevermeanandignoblemightbethemotivesfromwhichtheysprung。
11。’Laplussublimevertuestné；gative；ellenowsinstruitdenejamaisfairedumalà；personne。’Emile，Liv。II。
CHAPTERXI
OFGOODANDEVIL
Thereisnodisquisitionmoreessentialeitherinmoralityorpoliticsthanthatwhichshalltendtogiveusclearanddistinctideasofgoodandevil，whatitisweshoulddesire，andwhatweshoulddeprecate。Wewillthereforeclosethepresentvolumewithafewconsiderationsuponthishead。
Thenatureofgoodandevil，whichisoneoftheplainestsubjectsuponwhichthehumanmindcanbeengaged，hasbeenobscuredbytwosetsofmen：
thosewho，fromaneagernesstorefineandexaltbeyondmeasurethenatureofvirtue，haveelevateditintosomethingimpossibleandunmeaning：andthosewho，spurningthenarrowlimitsscienceandhumanunderstanding，haveturnedsystem-builders，andfabricatedauniverseaftertheirownpeculiarfancy。Weshallsee，asweproceed，whathasbeentheoperationofthesetwoerrors。Inthemeantimeitmaybemostsafe，toexaminethesubjectinitsgenuinesimplicity，uninfluencedbythepreconceptionsofparty。
Goodisageneralname，includingpleasure，andthemeansbywhichpleasureisprocured。Evilisageneralname，includingpain，andthemeansbywhichpainisproduced。Ofthetwothingsincludedinthesegeneralnames，thefirstiscardinalandsubstantive，thesecondhasnointrinsicrecommendationsbutdependsforitsvalueontheother。Pleasurethereforeistobetermedanabsolutegood；themeansofpleasureareonlyrelativelygood。Thesameobservationmaybestatedofpain。1*
Weinhabitaworldwheresensationsdonotcomedetached，butwhereeverythingislinkedandconnectedtogether。Ofconsequence，amongthingsabsolutelygoodtheremaybetwoclasses。Therearesomethingsthataregoodandonlygood，pleasuresthatdonotdrawafterthemmischief，anguishandremorse。Theremaybeotherpleasuresthatareattendedinthesequelwithanoverbalanceofpain，andwhich，thoughabsolutelygood，arerelativelyevil。Theremayalsobepainswhich，takentogetherwiththeirconsequences，aresalutary。Butthisdoesnotaltertheoriginalproposition：wherethereisamixtureofevil，allisnotgood；justas，wherethereisamixtureofpain，allisnotpleasure。
Letusseehowthisstatementaffectsthetheoryandpracticeofvirtue。
First，weareherebyenabledtodetecttheirmistake，whodeniedthat“pleasurewasthesupremegood。”TheerroroftheEpicureanphilosophersseemstohavebeen，notinaffirmingthat“pleasurewasthesupremegood。”
forthiscannotberefuted；butinconfiningthatpleasurewhichistheproperscopeofhumanactions，tothepleasureoftheindividualwhoacts，andnotadmittingthatthepleasuresofotherswasanobjectwhich，ofitsownsake，could，andoughttobepursued。2*
That“pleasureisthesupremegood。”cannotbedeniedbyhimwhoissufficientlyattentivetothemeaningofwords。Thatwhichwillgivepleasureneithertoourselvesnorothers，andfromwhichthefruitsofjoycanbereaped，innostage，andatnoperiod，isnecessarilygoodfornothing。
TheopposersoftheEpicureanmaxim，wereterrifiedbyaconsequencewhichtheyhastilyconcludedmightbebuiltuponit。Ifpleasureweretheonlythingthatisworthytobedesired，theythoughtthateverymanmightreasonablybejustifiedin“walkinginthefightofhisowneyes。”andtherewouldbenolongeranyruleofhumanconduct。Eachmanmightsay，“Pleasureistheproperobjectofmypursuit；Ibestknowwhatpleasesme；andtherefore，howeveroppositeistheplanofmyconducttoyourconceptions，itisunreasonableandunjustforyoutointerferewithme。”
Aninferencetheoppositeofthis，might，withmorepropriety，havebeendrawnfromthemaximuponwhichwearedescanting。Is“pleasuretheonlygood？“Thenhavewethemostcogentreasonforstudyingpleasure，andreducingittoascience，andnotforleavingeverymantopursuehisownparticulartaste，whichisnothingmorethantheresultofhiseducation，andofthecircumstancesinwhichhehappenstohavebeenplaced，andwhichbyotherlessonsandcircumstancesmaybecorrected。
Nomanisentitledtocomplainofmysoberanddispassionateexpostulationsrespectingthespeciesofpleasurehethinkspropertopursue，becausenomanstandsalone，andcanpursuehisprivateconceptionsofpleasure，withoutaffecting，beneficiallyorinjuriously，thepersonsimmediatelyconnectedwithhim，and，throughthem，therestoftheworld。Evenifhehavepersuadedhimselfthatitishisbusinesstopursuehisownpleasure，andthatheisnotboundtoattendultimatelytothepleasureofothers，yetitmayeasilybeshownthatitis，generallyspeaking，theinterestofeachindividual，thatallshouldformtheirplanofpersonalpleasurewithaspiritofdeferenceandaccommodationtothepleasureofeachother。
Butputtingthecircumstanceoftheactionandre-actionofmeninsocietyoutofthequestion，stilltherewillbeascienceofpleasure，anditwillbeidleanderroneoustoconsidereachmanseparately，andleaveeachtofindhissourceofpleasuresuitabletohisparticularhumour。Wehaveacommonnature，andthatcommonnatureouttobeconsulted。Thereisonething，orseriesofthings，thatconstitutesthetrueperfectionofman。3*
Inthediscussionsthattookplaceafewyearsago，intheEnglishparliamentandnation，respectingtheslave-trade，thesentimentweareherecombating，wasusedasatopicofargument，bysomeofthosepersonswho，fromcertaindeplorableprejudices，wereabletoprevailuponthemselvestoappearasadvocatesforthistrade。“TheslavesintheWestIndies。”theysaid，“arecontentedwiththeirsituation，theyarenotconsciousoftheevilsagainstwhichyouexclaim；whythenshouldyouendeavourtoaltertheircondition？“
Thetrueanswertothisquestion，evengrantingthemtheirfact，wouldbe：“Itisnotverymaterialtoamanofaliberalandenlargedmind，whethertheyarecontentedorno。Aretheycontented？Iamnotcontentedforthem。
Iseeinthembeingsofcertaincapacities，equaltocertainpursuitsandenjoyments。Itisofnoconsequenceinthequestion，thattheydonotseethis，thattheydonotknowtheirowninterestsandhappiness。Theydonotrepine？Neitherdoesastonerepine。Thatwhichyoumentionasanalleviation，finishesinmyconceptiontheportraitoftheircalamity。Abridgedastheyareofindependenceandenjoyment，theyhaveneithertheapprehensionnorspiritofmen。Icannotbeartoseehumannaturethusdegraded。Itismyduty，ifIcan，tomakethemathousandtimeshappier，thantheyare，orhaveanyconceptionofbeing。”
Itisnotdifficulttoformascaleofhappiness。Supposeittobesomethinglikethefollowing。
Thefirstclassshallbesuchaswemayperhapssometimesfind，amongthelabouringinhabitantsofthecivilizedstatesofEurope。Wewillconceiveaman，workingwithhishandseverydaytoobtainhissubsistence。Herisesearlytohislabour，andleavesoffeverynightwearyandexhausted。Hetakesatranquiloraboisterousrefreshment，andspendsthehoursofdarknessinuninterruptedslumber。Hedoesnotquarrelwithhiswifeoftenerthanpersonsofhisclassregularlydo；andhiscaresarefew，ashehasscarcelyknownthepressureofabsolutewant。Heneverrepinesbutwhenhewitnessesluxurieshecannotpartake，andthatsensationistransient；andheknowsnodiseasesbutthosewhichrisefromperpetuallabour。Therangeofhisideasisscanty；andthegeneraltrainofhissensations，comesasnear，asthenatureofhumanexistencewilladmit，totheregionofindifference。
Thismanisinacertainsensehappy。Heishappierthanastone。
Ournextinstanceshallbetakenfromamongthemenofrank，fortuneanddissipation。Wewillsupposetheindividualinquestiontohaveanadvantageouspersonandasoundconstitution。Heenjoysalltheluxuriesofthepalate，thechoicestviands，andthebest-flavouredwines。Hetakeshispleasuresdiscreetly，soasnot，inthepursuitofpleasure，tolosethepoweroffeelingit。Heshoots，hehunts。Hefrequentsallpublicplaces。
Hesitsuplateinscenesofgayresort。Heriseslate。Hehasjusttimetorideanddressbeforehegoesintocompanyagain。Withahappyflowofspiritsandaperpetualvarietyofamusements，heisalmostastrangertoennui。Butheisamodelofignorance。Heneverreads，andknowsnothingbeyondthetopicoftheday。Hecanscarcelyconceivethemeaningofthesublimeorpathetic；andherarelythinksofanythingbeyondhimself。
Thismanishappierthanthepeasant。Heishappier，byallthepleasuresofthepalate，andallthegratifications，ofneatness，eleganceandsplendour，inhimself，andtheobjectsaroundhim。Everydayheisalive，inventingsomenewamusement，orenjoyingit。Hetastesthepleasuresofliberty；
heisfamiliarwiththegratificationsofpride：whilethepeasantslidesthroughlife，withsomethingofthecontemptibleinsensibilityofanoyster。
Themanoftasteandliberalaccomplishments，ismoreadvantageouslycircumstancedthanhewhomwehavelastdescribed。Wewillsupposehimtopossessasmanyofthegratificationsofexpenceashedesires。But，inadditiontothese，likethemeremanoffortuneincomparisonwiththepeasant，heacquiresnewsenses，andanewrangeofenjoyment。Thebeautiesofnatureareallhisown。Headmirestheoverhangingcliff，thewide-extendedprospect，thevastexpanseoftheocean，thefoliageofthewoods，theslopinglawnandthewavinggrass。Heknowsthepleasuresofsolitude，whenmanholdscommercealonewiththetranquilsolemnityofnature。Hehastracedthestructureoftheuniverse；thesubstanceswhichcomposetheglobeweinhabit，andarethematerialsofhumanindustry；andthelawswhichholdtheplanetsintheircourseamidstthetracklessfieldsofspace。Hestudies；andhasexperiencedthepleasureswhichresultfromconsciousperspicacityanddiscoveredtruth。Heenters，withatruerelish，intothesublimeandpathetic。Hepartakesinallthegrandeurandenthusiasmofpoetry。Heisperhapshimselfapoet。Heisconsciousthathehasnotlivedinvain，andthatheshallberecollectedwithpleasure，andextolledwithardour，bygenerationsyetunborn。Inthisperson，comparedwiththetwoprecedingclasses，weacknowledgesomethingofthefeaturesofman。
Theywereonlyabettersortofbrutes；buthehassensationsandtransportsofwhichtheyhavenoconception。
Butthereisarankofmanmorefittedtoexciteouremulationthanthis，themanofbenevolence。Studyiscold，ifitbenotenlivenedwiththeideaofthehappinesstoarisetomankindfromthecultivationandimprovementofsciences。4*Thesublimeandpatheticarebarren，unlessitbethesublimeoftruevirtue，andthepathosoftruesympathy。Thepleasuresofthemeremanoftasteandrefinement，“playroundthehead，butcomenottotheheart。”Thereisnotruejoybutinthespectacleandcontemplationofhappiness。Thereisnodelightfulmelancholybutinpityingdistress。Themanwhohasonceperformedanactofexaltedgenerosity，knowsthatthereisnosensationofcorporealorintellectualtastetobecomparedwiththis。Themanwhohassoughttobenefitnations，risesabovethemechanicalideasofbarterandexchange。Heasksnogratitude。
Toseethattheyarebenefited，ortobelievethattheywillbeso，isitsownreward。Heascendstothehighestofhumanpleasures，thepleasuresofdisinterestedness。Heenjoysallthegoodthatmankindpossess，andallthegoodthatheperceivestobeinreserveforthem。Nomansotrulypromoteshisowninterestashethatforgetsit。Nomanreapssocopiousaharvestofpleasureashewhothinksonlyofthepleasuresofothermen。
Theinferencefromthissurveyofhumanlife，is，thathewhoisfullypersuadedthatpleasureistheonlygood，oughtbynomeanstoleaveeverymantoenjoyhispeculiarpleasureaccordingtohisownpeculiarhumour。
Seeingthegreatdisparitythereisbetweendifferentconditionsofhumanlife，heoughtconstantlytoendeavourtoraiseeachclass，andeveryindividualofeachclass，toaclassaboveit。Thisisthetrueequalizationofmankind。
Nottopulldownthosewhoareexalted，andreducealltoanakedandsavageequality。Buttoraisethosewhoareabased；tocommunicatetoeverymanallgenuinepleasures，toelevateeverymantoalltruewisdomandtomakeallmenparticipatorsofaliberalandcomprehensivebenevolence。Thisisthepathinwhichthereformersofmankindoughttotravel。Thisistheprizetheyshouldpursue。Doyoutellme，“thathumansocietycanneverarriveatthisimprovement？“Idonotstaytodisputethatpointwithyou。
Wecancomeneareritthanweare。Wecancomenearerandneareryet。Thiswillnotbethefirsttimethatpersons，engagedintheindefatigablepursuitofsomeaccomplishment，havearrivedatanexcellencethatsurpassedtheirmostsanguineexpectations。
Theresultofthispartofthesubjectis，thatthosepersonshavebeengrosslymistakenwhotaughtthatvirtuewastobepursuedforitsownsake，andrepresentedpleasureandpainastrivialmattersandunworthyconsideration。
Virtueisuponnootheraccountvaluable，thanasitistheinstrumentofthemostexquisitepleasure——Beitobserved，thatitisonethingtosaythatpainisnotanevil，whichisabsurd，andanotherthingtosaythattemporarypainsandpleasuresaretobedespised，whentheenduringoftheoneisnecessary，andthedecliningtheotherunavoidableinthepursuitofexcellentandpermanentpleasure，whichisamostfundamentalpreceptofwisdomandmorality。
Letusproceedtoasecondpointannouncedbyusintheoutset，theconsiderationofhowthesubjectofgoodandevilhasbeendarkenedbycertainfabulistsandsystem-builders。Thesystemalludedtounderthishead，isthatoftheoptimists，whoteach“thateverythingintheuniverse，isforthebest；andthat，ifanythinghadhappenedotherwisethanithashappened，theresultwouldhavebeen，adiminutionofthedegreeofhappinessandgood。”Thatwemayescapetheerrorintowhichthesepersonshavebeenled，bythedaringnessoftheirgenius，andtheirmodeofestimatingthingsinthegross，andnotindetail，wemustbecontentedtofollowexperience，andnottooutrunit。
Ithasalreadyappearedthatthereisintheuniverseabsoluteevil：
and，ifpainbeevilandithasbeenprovedtobetheonlyabsoluteevil，itcannotbedeniedthat，inthepartoftheuniversewithwhichweareacquainted，itexistsinconsiderableprofusion。Ithasalsoappeared，thatthereisaportionofabsoluteevil，whichisrelativelygood，andwhichtherefore，theprecedingcircumstancesbeingassumed，wasdesirable。
Such，forexample，istheamputationofagangrenedlimb。
Whetherornothoseprecedingcircumstanceswere，universally，andinacomprehensivesense，good，whichrenderedtheintroductionoftheabsoluteevilinquestionnecessary，is，tosaytheleast，averydoubtfulpoint。
But，iftherebesomepresumptioninthenegativeeveninthesmallestinstance，thispresumptionagainstuniversalgoodisincalculablyincreased，whenwerecollectallthevice，disorderandmisery，thatexistintheworld。
Letusconsiderwhatportionthereisoftruth，thathasbeenmixedwiththedoctrineofoptimism。Thisisthesamethingastoenquirebymeansofwhatplausibilitiesitgainedfootingintheworld。Theanswertothesequestionsliesintwocircumstances。
First，thereisadegreeofimprovementrealandvisibleintheworld。
Thisisparticularlymanifest，inthehistoryofthecivilisedpartofmankind，duringthethreelastcenturies。ThetakingofConstantinoplebytheTurks1453dispersedamongEuropeannations，thesmallfragmentoflearning，whichwas，atthattime，shutupwithinthewallsofthismetropolis。Thediscoveryofprintingwasnearlycontemporarywiththatevent。Thesetwocircumstancesgreatlyfavouredthereformationofreligion，whichgaveanirrecoverableshocktotheempireofsuperstitionandimplicitobedience。Fromthattime，themostsuperficialobservationcantracetheimprovementsofartandscience，whichmay，withoutglaringimpropriety，bestyledincessant。Nottomentionessentialimprovementswhichwerewhollyunknowntotheancients，themostimportantcharacteristicsofmodernliterature，aretheextentofsurfaceoverwhichitisdiffused，andthenumberofpersonsthatparticipateinit。Ithasstruckitsrootsdeep，andthereisnoprobabilitythatitwilleverbesubverted。Itwasoncethepracticeofmoralists，toextolpasttimes，anddeclaimwithoutboundonthedegeneracyofmankind。Butthisfashionisnearlyexploded。Thetruestateofthefactistoogrosstobemistaken。And，asimprovementshavelongcontinuedtobeincessant，sothereisnochancebuttheywillgoon。Themostpenetratingphilosophycannotprescribelimitstothem，northemostardentimaginationadequatelyfilluptheprospect。
Secondly，thedoctrineofnecessityteachesusthatallthingsintheuniverseareconnectedtogether。Nothingcouldhavehappenedotherwisethanithashappened。Dowecongratulateourselvesupontherisinggeniusoffreedom？Doweviewwithpridetheimprovementsofmankind，andcontrast，withwonder，maninthestateinwhichheoncewas，naked，ignorantandbrutal，withmanaswenowsometimesbeholdhim，enrichedwithboundlessstoresofscience，andpenetratedwithsentimentsofthepurestphilanthropy？
Thesethingscouldnothaveexistedintheirpresentform，withouthavingbeenpreparedbyalltheprecedingevents。Everythingthemostseeminglyinsignificant，themostloathsome，orthemostretrograde，wasindissolublyboundtoallthatwemostadmireintheprospectbeforeus。Wemayperhapsgoastepfurtherthanthis。Thehumanmindisaprincipleofthesimplestnature，amerefacultyofsensationorperception。Itmusthavebegunfromabsoluteignorance；itmustobtainitsimprovementbyslowdegrees；itmustpassthroughvariousstagesoffollyandmistake。Suchis，andcouldnotbutbe，thehistoryofmankind。
Therearethreeconsiderationswhichlimitthatideaofoptimism，whichsomemenhavebeeninclinedtodeducefromtheabovecircumstances。
First，itappliesonlytothatpartoftheuniversewithwhichweareacquainted。Thatdeduction，whateveritis，whichisauthorisedbytheabovecircumstances，dependsupontheirjunction。Thegeneraltendencytoimprovement，wouldbeaninsufficientapologyforuntowardevents，ifeverythingwerenotconnected；andtheconnectionofallevents，wouldhavenojusttendencytoreconcileustothescene，wereitnotforthevisibleimprovement。Buthasimprovementbeentheconstantcharacteristicoftheuniverse？Thehumanspeciesseemstobebut，asitwere，ofyesterday。
Willitcontinueforever？Theglobeweinhabitbearsstrongmarksofconvulsion，suchastheteachersofreligion，andtheprofessorsofnaturalphilosophy，agreetopredict，willonedaydestroytheinhabitantsoftheearth。Vicissitudetherefore，ratherthanunboundedprogress，appearstobethecharacteristicofnature。
Secondly，thequantityofgooddeduciblefromthesecircumstances，insteadofmeritingthenameofoptimism，is，ononerespect，directlycontrastedwithit。Nothingispositivelybest。Sofarfromit，thattheconsiderationsherealleged，arecalculatedtoprove，thateverythingisvaluable，forthisreasonamongothers，thatitleadstosomethingbetterthanitself。
Lastly，thepointshereaffirmed，arebynomeanscalculatedtobearouttheconclusion，that，ifsomethingelsehadhappened，intheplaceofwhatdidactuallyhappeninanygiveninstance，itmightnothavebeenafortunateevent。Wearetaught，bythedoctrineofnecessity，thatnothingelsecouldpossiblyhappenunderthecircumstances；notthat，ifsomethingelsehadbeenpossible，itwouldnothavebeenattendedwithmoredesireableconsequences。Caesarenslavedhiscountry；theeventwasunavoidable；andthegeneralprogressofhumanimprovementuponthewholewenton，notwithstandingthisdisastrousoccurrence。But，ifithadbeenpossiblethatCaesarshouldhavebeendivertedfromthisdetestableenterprise，iftherepubliccouldhavebeenrestoredbythebattleofMutina，ormadevictoriousintheplainsofPhilippi，itmighthavebeenamostfortunateeventforthewholeraceofmankind。Thereisadifficultyinconceivingthatthingsshouldhavebeen，inanyrespect，otherwisethantheyare。Itmaybeconjectured，withmuchplausibility，thatthisisinallcasesimpossible。Buttheconsiderationofthis，affordsnogroundofrejoicinginuntowardevents。Moreauspiciousharbingers，wouldhaveledtomoreextendedimprovements。Astowhatwasstatedofthesimplicityofthehumanmind，itmaybeobservedthatthehistoryofthespeciesexhibitstheunitedeffects，ofthisinternalprinciple，andthestructureofthehumanbody，aswellasofthematerialuniverse。
Brutesappeartohavethesameinternalprincipleofperceptionthatwehave，buttheyhavenevermadeourprogress。Theremaybeotherconsciousbeingsinexistencewhopossessthemostessentialadvantagesoverus。
Itmaybeworthyofremark，thatthesupportthesystemofoptimismderivesfromthedoctrineofnecessity，isofaveryequivocalnature。
Thedoctrineofnecessityteaches，thateacheventistheonlything，underthecircumstances，thatcouldhappen；itwould，ofconsequence，beasproper，uponthissystem，tosaythateverythingthathappens，istheworst，asthatisisthebest，thatcouldpossiblyhappen。Itwasobservedinthecommencementofthisdiscussionuponthesubjectofoptimism，that，thoughthereissomepain，orabsoluteevil，which，relativelytaken，mustbeadmittedtobeattendedwithanoverbalanceofgood，yetitisamatterofgreatdelicacyanddifficulty，inmostinstances，todecideinfavourofpain，which，whateverbeitsrelativevalue，iscertainlyanegativequantitytobedeductedinthesumtotalofhappiness。Thereisperhapssomeimproprietyinthephrase，thusapplied，ofrelativegood。Pain，underthemostfavourablecircumstances，mustbeadmittedtobeabsolutely，thoughnotrelatively，anevil，Ineveryinstanceofthiskindwearereducedtoachoiceofevils：consequently，whicheverwaywedetermineourelection，itisstillevilthatwechoose。
Takingtheseconsiderationsalongwithus，therashnessoftheoptimistwillappearparticularlyglaring，whilewerecollectthevastportionofthepainandcalamitythatistobefoundintheworld。Letusnotamuseourselveswithapompousanddelusivesurveyofthewhole，butletusexaminepartsseverallyandindividually。Allnatureswarmswithlife。Thismay，inoneview，affordanideaofanextensivetheatreofpleasure。Butunfortunatelyeveryanimalpreysuponhisfellow。Everyanimal，howeverminute，hasacuriousandsubtlestructure，renderinghimsusceptible，asitshouldseem，ofpiercinganguish。Wecannotmoveourfoot，withoutbecomingthemeansofdestruction。Thewoundsinflictedareofahundredkinds。Thesepettyanimalsarecapableofpalpitatingfordaysintheagoniesofdeath。Itmaybesaid，withlittlelicenceofphraseology，thatallnaturesuffers。
Thereisnodaynorhour，inwhich，insomeregionsofthemany-peopledglobe，thousandsofmen，andmillionsofanimals，arenottortured，totheutmostextentthatorganisedlifewillafford。Letusturnourattentiontoourownspecies。Letussurveythepoor；oppressed，hungry，naked，deniedallthegratificationsoflife，andallthatnourishesthemind。Theyareeithertormentedwiththeinjustice，orchilledintolethargy。Letusviewman，writingunderthepangsofdisease，orthefiercertorturesthatarestoredupforhimbyhisbrethren。Whoistherethatwilllookonandsay，“Allthisiswell；thereisnoevilintheworld？“Letusrecollectthepainsofthemind；thelossoffriends，theranklingtoothofingratitude，theunrelentingrageoftyranny，theslowprogressofjustice，thebraveandhonestconsignedtothefateofguilt。Letusplungeintothedepthofdungeons。Letusobserveyouthlanguishinginhopelessdespair，andtalentsandvirtueshroudedineternaloblivion。Theevildoesnotconsistmerelyinthepainendured。Itistheinjusticethatinflictsit，thatgivesititssharpeststing。Malignity，anunfeelingdisposition，vengeanceandcruelty，areinmatesofeveryclimate。Asthesearefeltbythesuffererwithpeculiaracuteness，sotheypropagatethemselves。Severitybegetsseverity，andhatredengendershate。5*Thewholehistoryofthehumanspecies，takeninonepointofview，appearsavastabortion。Manseemsadaptedforwisdomandfortitudeandbenevolence。Buthehasalways，throughavastmajorityofcountries，beenthevictimofignoranceandsuperstition。
Contemplatethephysiognomyofthespecies。Observethetracesofstupidity，oflowcunning，ofrootedinsolence，ofwitheredhope，andnarrowselfishness，wherethecharactersofwisdom，independenceanddisinterestedness，mighthavebeeninscribed。Recollectthehorrorsofwar，thatlastinventionofdeliberateprofligacyforthemiseryofman。Thinkofthevarietyofwounds，themultiplicationofanguish，thedesolationofcountries，townsdestroyed，harvestsflaming，inhabitantsperishingbythousandsofhungerandcold。
Asoundphilosophywillteachustocontemplatethisscenewithoutmadness。
Instructedinitslessons，weshallrememberthat，thoughthereismuchofevil，thereisalsomuchofgoodintheworld，muchpleasure，aswellasmuchpain。Weshallnotevenpronoucethatsomesmallportionofthisevilisnotrelativelynotanevil。Aboveall，weshallbecheeredwiththethoughtofbrighterprospectsandhappiertimes。Buttheoptimistmustbeparticularlyrash，whotakesuponhimtoaffirmofallthismassofevilwithoutexception，thatitisrelativelynotevil，andthatnothingcouldhavehappenedotherwisethanithashappened，withoutthetotalbeingworsethanitis。
Thereisreasontothinkthatthecreedofoptimism，oranopinionbearingsomerelationtothatcreed，hasdonemuchharmintheworld。
Itiscalculatedtooverturnalldistinctionbetweenvirtueandvice。
Theessentialpartoftheseideas，ashasbeenalreadyobserved，consistsinthetendencyoftheactionssodenominatedwithrespecttothegeneralgood。6*But，accordingtothedoctrineofoptimism，ifIdoavirtuousaction，Icontributetothegeneralgood；and，ifIdoaviciousaction，itisstillthesame。Everyman，accordingtothissystem，isprivileged，astheelectareprivilegedaccordingtothesystemofcertainreligionists：
“hemayliveashelist，forhecannotcommitsin。”WhetherImurdermybenefactor，orpreservehimfrombeingmurderedbyanother，Istilldotheverybestthingthatcouldhavebeendoneorthoughtof。
Itwillbeadmittedonallhandsthattheconductofamanmaybesuchastoproduceevilandpaintohimself，toinvolvehiminperpetualobloquyandremorse。Itmaybesuchastoinflictintolerablepain，andthemosthorriblemischief，uponanother，oruponmanyothers。Amantherefore，uponthisscheme，mayreasonablystudyhisowninterest；hemaystudythebenefitandadvantageofhisfriendsorhisneighbours。But，ifheaffecttostudythegoodofthewhole，heisonlydeceivinghimself。Itisimpossibleforhimtohavetheslightestnotionwhatactsofanindividual，underanygivencircumstances，willorwillnotcontributetothegeneralgood。
Nero，whenhepronouncedsentenceuponLucanorSeneca，whenhecastratedSporus，setfiretothecityofRome，or，enclosingtheChristiansinclothofpitch，burnedthembynightafterthemanneroftorches，adoptedtheconduct，thoughperhapshewasnotawareofit，mostaptlyconducingtothehappinessofthewhole。Itisnotindeed，absolutelyspeaking，indifferentwhatIshalldo；but，practicallyspeaking，itis，sinceIamwhollyunabletoconjecturewhatwillbebeneficialorwhatinjurious。Wesaw，uponthesystemofself-love，publicutilityresultingfromeachman’sdeterminingtopostponethatutilitytohisprivateadvantage：7*butitismuchmoreabsurdandrepulsivetosupposeuniversalhappinesstobeessentiallypromotedbytheprofligacy，malevolenceandmiseryofinnumerablemultitudes。
But，thoughoptimism，pursuedintoitsconsequences，isdestructiveofthedistinctionbetweenvirtueandvice，orratherteachesthatthereneitherisnorcanbesuchathingasvice，yetitisthefateofthis，likemanyothererrors，thatthetruthswhichlieundevelopedinthemind，andcannotbederacinated，servetocheckitsinfluenceandcounteractitseviltendency。
Itmayhoweverbesuspectedthat，whileitsperniciouseffectsarethuscounteracted，theyarenotdestroyed。Itisunavoidablethatmenshould，insomerespects，imitatewhattheypersuadethemselvesisright。Thusinreligion，thosepersonswhobelievethatalargeportionofmankindareobjectsofGod’swrath，andreservedforeternalperdition，canneverbeprevailedontoregard，withatrueandgenuinesympathy，thosewhomGodhascursed。Inthesamemanneritwillprobablyhappeninthepresentcase：thosewhobelievethatalltheunfortunateeventsandsufferingsthatexistintheworldwillbefound，insomemysteriousway，tohavebeenthefittestinstrumentsofuniversalgood，areindangerofbeinglessscrupulousthantheyoughttobe，inthemeanstheyshallthemselvesselectfortheaccomplishmentoftheirpurposes。Ifpain，horrorsanddevastationbefrequentlyfoundmeansofkindnessinthesystemoftheuniverse，itisimpossibletoassignagoodreasonwhytheyshouldnotbesuchunderthedirectionofman。
Thereisanothercrudenotiondiffusedintheworld，whichtheprincipleofoptimismiscalculatedtoencourage，andwhichtheviewshereexplainedhaveatendencytocorrect。Itisnotuncommontocongratulateourselvesupontheperversenessandmisconductofthosewhoseviewsweoppose，undertheimaginationthatsuchmisconductconducestothemorespeedysubversionoferrorandestablishmentofjustice。Butthemaximissaferandbetterfoundedthanthis，whichshouldinstructusthatwe“rejoicenotinevil，butrejoiceinthetruth。”Ithasalreadyappearedthatitisamatterofgreatdelicacyanddifficulty，todecideinfavourofpainandcalamity，astheprobablemeansofapreponderanceofgood。Itwassufficientlyseen，whenwetreatedofresistanceandrevolutions，thattheangrypassionsarenotthemostpromisinginstrumentsofhumanhappiness。Aperverseconducttendstotheproductionofconfusionandviolence。Agovernmentthatemployedeveryspeciesofpersecutionagainstthosewhoshoulddesireitsreform，andthatinvolvedthecountryoverwhichitpresidedinwar，forthepurposeofcheckingorexterminatingsentimentsofreasonandequality，woulddoharm，andnotgood。Itmightindeeddefeatitsownpurposes；butitwouldproduceresentmentandcontention。Itmightexcitearevulsioninthepublicmindagainstitsdesigns；butthisrevulsionwouldbetheoffspringofirritation，andnotoftheunderstanding。Diminishtheirritation，andtheprogressofrealknowledgewouldbemoresubstantialandsalutary。
Realknowledgeisbenevolent，notcruelandretaliating。Thechangethatgrowsupamonganypeoplefromacalmconvictionoftheabsurdityoftheirformererrors，isofthemostadmirablesort；butthechangethatgrowsfromdistress，distemperandcrisis，isanexplosionpregnantwithfatetothousands。Fromalltheseconsiderationsitappears，thateverydeparturefromenormousvice，shouldbeaccountedassomuchgainedtothecauseofgeneralhappiness。
Letanypersonwhoentertainsthecontraryopinionaskhimselfwhether，ifhehadapartinthegovernmentwehavesupposed，hewouldthinkhimselfobligedtoact，inthemannerinwhichheprofessestodesirethegovernmentshouldact？If，asheimagines，thatactionbemostconducivetothepublicgood，mostundoubtedly，wereithisowncase，heoughttoadoptit。Again，wouldheadviseorincitethegovernment，inanyway，tothisperverseconduct？Therecannotbeaclearerprincipleinmorals，than“thattheactionitwouldbeviceinustoadopt，itisviceinustodesiretoseeadoptedbyanother。”
Afurtherconsequencethatflowsfromthesespeculations，isrelativetothepersecutionandsufferingstobeenduredbytheadvocatesofjustice。
Thesamereasoningthathaspersuadedmentorejoiceinbeholdingactsofoppressionhasledthemtocourtoppressionandmartyrdom。Asoundphilosophy，itshouldseem，wouldneverinstigateustoprovokethepassionsofothers，ortoregardinjusticeasthesuitablemeansofpublichappiness。Itisreason，andnotanger，thatwillbenefitmankind。Dispassionateenquiry，notbitternessandresentment，istheparentofreform。Thewisemanwillavoidpersecution，becauseaprotractedlife，andanunfetteredliberty，arelikelytoenablehimtoproduceagreatersumofgood。Hewillavoidpersecution，becausehewillbeunwillingtoaddfueltotheflamesofcontention。Hewillregretitwhenitarrives，becausehebelievesittobebothwickedandmischievous。Buthewillnotavoiditbythesacrificeofavirtuous，buttempered，activity。Hewillnotregretitwithameanandpusillanimousspirit，butwillmeetit，whenitcannolongerbeprevented，withthatdignityofsoulandtranquillityoftemperthatarecharacteristicoftruewisdom。Hewillnotimaginethatthecauseoftruthwillperish，thoughheshouldbedestroyed。Hewillmakethebestofthesituationtowhichheisreduced，andendeavourthathisdeath，likehislife，maybeofusetomankind。
NOTES：
1。BookIII，Chap。III。
2。BookIV，Chap。X
3。BookII，Chap。III；BookIII，Chap。VII。
4。BookIV，Chap。V。
5。BookIV，Chap。II。
6。BookII，Chap。IV。
7。BookIV，Chap。X。PJ5BOOKV
OFLEGISLATIVEANDEXECUTIVEPOWER
CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTION
Intheprecedingdivisionsofthisworkthegroundhasbeensufficientlyclearedtoenableustoproceed，withconsiderableexplicitnessandsatisfaction，tothepracticaldetail：inotherwords，toattemptthetracingoutthatapplicationofthelawsofgeneraljusticewhichmaybestconducetothegradualimprovementofmankind。
Ithasappearedthatanenquiryconcerningtheprinciplesandconductofsocialintercourseisthemostimportanttopicuponwhichthemindofmancanbeexercised；1*that，upontheseprinciples，wellorillconceived，andthemannerinwhichtheyareadministered，thevicesandvirtuesofindividualsdepend；2*thatpoliticalinstitution，tobegood，musthaveconstantrelationtotherulesofimmutablejustice；3*andthatthoserules，uniformintheirnature，areequallyapplicabletothewholehumanrace。4*
Thedifferenttopicsofpoliticalinstitutioncannotperhapsbemoreperspicuouslydistributedthanunderthefourfollowingheads：provisionsforgeneraladministration；provisionsfortheintellectualandmoralimprovementofindividuals；provisionsfortheadministrationofcriminaljustice；
andprovisionsfortheregulationofproperty。Undereachoftheseheadsitwillbeourbusiness，inproportionasweadheretothegreatandcomprehensiveprinciplesalreadyestablished，rathertoclearawayabusesthantorecommendfurtherandmorepreciseregulations，rathertosimplifythantocomplicate。
Aboveallweshouldnotforgetthatgovernmentis，abstractedlytaken，anevil，anusurpationupontheprivatejudgementandindividualconscienceofmankind；andthat，howeverwemaybeobligedtoadmititasanecessaryevilforthepresent，itbehovesus，asthefriendsofreasonandthehumanspecies，toadmitaslittleofitaspossible，andcarefullytoobserve，whether，inconsequenceofthegradualilluminationofthehumanmind，thatlittlemaynothereafterbediminished。
Andfirstwearetoconsiderthedifferentprovisionsthatmaybemadeforgeneraladministration；including，underthephrasegeneraladministration，allthatshallbefoundnecessary，ofwhathasusuallybeendenominated，legislativeandexecutivepower。Legislationhasalreadyappearedtobeatermnotapplicabletohumansociety。5*Mencannotdomorethandeclareandinterpretlaw；norcantherebeanauthoritysoparamountastohavetheprerogativeofmakingthattobelawwhichabstractandimmutablejusticehadnotmadetobelawpreviouslytothatinterposition。Butitmight，notwithstandingthis，befoundnecessarythatthereshouldbeanauthorityempoweredtodeclarethosegeneralprinciples，bywhichtheequityofthecommunitywillberegulated，inparticularcasesuponwhichitmaybecompelledtodecide。Thequestionconcerningtherealityandextentofthisnecessity，itispropertoreserveforafterconsiderations。6*Executivepowerconsistsoftwoverydistinctparts：generaldeliberationsrelativetoparticularemergencies，which，sofaraspracticabilityisconcerned，maybeexercisedeitherbyoneindividualorabodyofindividuals，suchaspeaceandwar，taxation，7*andtheselectionofproperperiodsforconvokingdeliberativeassemblies：andparticularfunctions，suchasthoseoffinancialdetail，orminutesuperintendence，whichcannotbeexercisedunlessbyoneorasmallnumberofpersons。
Inreviewingtheseseveralbranchesofauthority，andconsideringthepersonstowhomtheymaybemostproperlyconfided，wecannotperhapsdobetterthanadopttheordinarydistributionofformsofgovernmentintomonarchy，aristocracyanddemocracy。Undereachoftheseheadswemayenquireintothemeritsoftheirrespectiveprinciples，firstabsolutely，anduponthehypothesisoftheirstandingsinglyforthewholeadministration；andsecondly，inalimitedview，uponthesuppositionoftheirconstitutingonebranchonlyofthesystemofgovernment。Itisusuallyalikeincidenttothemall，toconfidetheminuterbranchesofexecutivedetailtoinferioragents。
Onethingmoreitisnecessarytopremise。ThemeritsofeachofthethreeheadsIhaveenumeratedaretobeconsiderednegatively。Thecorporatedutiesofmankindaretheresultoftheirirregularitiesandfolliesintheirindividualcapacity。Iftheyhadnoimperfection，orifmenweresoconstituted，astobesufficiently，andsufficientlyearly，correctedbypersuasionalone，societywouldceasefromitsfunctions。Ofconsequence，ofthethreeformsofgovernment，andtheircompositions，thatisthebestwhichshallleastimpedetheactivityandapplicationofourintellectualpowers。ItwasintherecollectionofthistruththatIhavepreferredthetermpoliticalinstitutiontothatofgovernment，theformerappearingtobesufficientlyexpressiveofthatrelativeform，whateveritbe，intowhichindividualswouldfall，whentherewasnoneedofforcetodirectthemintotheirproperchannel，andwerenorefractorymemberstocorrect。
NOTES：
1。BookI。
2。BookII，Chap。II。
3。BookI。，Chap。VI，VII。
4。BookIII，Chap。VII。BookII。
5。BookIII，Chap。V。
6。BookVII，Chap。VIII。
7。Istatethearticleoftaxationasabranchofexecutivegovernment，sinceitisnot，likelaworthedeclarationoflaw，apromulgatingofsomegeneralprinciple，butisatemporaryregulationforsomeparticularemergence。CHAPTERII
OFEDUCATION，THEEDUCATIONOFAPRINCE
Firstthenofmonarchy；andwewillfirstsupposethesuccessiontothemonarchytobehereditary。Inthiscasewehavetheadditionaladvantageofconsideringthisdistinguishedmortalwhoisthussetovertheheadsoftherestofhisspeciesfromtheperiodofhisbirth。
Theabstractideaofakingisofanextremelymomentousandextraordinarynature；and，thoughtheideahas，bytheaccidentofeducation，beenrenderedfamiliartousfromourinfancy，yetperhapsthemajorityofreaderscanrecollecttheperiodwhenitstruckthemwithastonishment，andconfoundedtheirpowersofapprehension。Itbeingsufficientlyevidentthatsomespeciesofgovernmentwasnecessary，andthatindividualsmustconcedeapartofthatsacredandimportantprivilegebywhicheachmanisconstitutedjudgeofhisownwordsandactions，forthesakeofgeneralgood，itwasnextrequisitetoconsiderwhatexpedientsmightbesubstitutedintheroomofthisoriginalclaim。Oneoftheseexpedientshasbeenmonarchy。Itwastheinterestofeachindividualthathisindividualityshouldbeinvadedasrarelyaspossible；thatnoinvasionshouldbepermittedtoflowfromwantoncaprice，fromsinisteranddisingenuousviews，orfromtheinstigationofanger，partialityandpassion；andthatthisbank，severelylevieduponthepeculiumofeachmemberofthesociety，shouldbeadministeredwithfrugalityanddiscretion。Itwastherefore，withoutdoubt，averyboldadventuretocommitthispreciousdeposittothecustodyofasingleman。